Topic 3. Methods of scientific research.

The concept of method, methodology and methodology of scientific research. Classification of research methods. General, general scientific and special methods research. Theoretical and empirical research methods.

Scientific research method - this is a way of knowing objective reality, which represents a certainsequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Methodology - this is a set of research methods and techniques, the order of their application and the interpretation of the results obtained with their help. It depends on the nature of the object of study, methodology, purpose of the study, methods developed, and the general level of qualifications of the researcher.

Any scientific research is carried out using appropriate techniques and methods, and according to certain rules.

Methodology called the doctrine of methods (method) of cognition, i.e., a system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive problems. Each science has its own methodology.

There are different levels of methodology:

1) universal methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and its content includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition;

2) private methodology of scientific research for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by general, general scientific and private methods of cognition;

3) methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes general, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods are distinguished.natural sciences and methods of social and humanitarian research.

Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Dependingfrom the level of knowledge allocatemethods of empirical and theoretical levels.

To methodsempirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling.

To methodstheoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy).

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge.

General and general scientific methods

scientific research

Among the universal methods of scientific research, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical.

Dialectics (Greek - “conversing, reasoning”).The concept of “dialectics” arose in Ancient Greece and originally meant the ability to conduct an argument in the form of questions and answers.

Dialectics – the doctrine of the most general laws of development of being and knowledge, as well as the method of creative cognitive thinking based on this doctrine.

Dialectics appears in the unity of two sides - subjective and objective.

Subjective dialectics – unfolds in the consciousness of the subject as a reflection of the connections and development of objective existence existing independently of man and humanity –objective dialectics . Subjective dialectics is a theory of the development of thinking, knowledge, the struggle of ideas in science, philosophy, unfolding in the human mind.

Objective dialectics – a theory of the development of objective being that exists independently of man.

Dialectics allows us to reflect extremely complex, contradictory processes of the material and spiritual world.

In the doctrine of contradictions, she reveals driving force and the source of all development.

Dialectics is not a simple statement of what is happening in reality, but an instrument of scientific knowledge and transformation of the world. (This is where the unity of dialectics manifests itself as a theory (dialectical materialism) and a method (materialist dialectics).

Dialectical the concept sees the source of development in the unity and struggle of opposites, considers development as the unity of quantitative and qualitative changes, as the unity of gradualism and leaps, as development in a spiral.

Principles of dialectics:

1. The principle of universal mutual connection.

2. The principle of development through contradictions.

Basic laws of dialectics:

1. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

3. The law of negation of negation.

Metaphysics – a method of cognition opposite to dialectics,

considering phenomena usually outside of their mutual connections, contradictions and

development.

Characteristics – one-sidedness, abstractness, absolutization of one or another moment as part of the whole. Objects are considered without their complex connection with other processes, phenomena and bodies. This is natural for human thinking, because... a person is incapable of knowing without dividing the whole into its component parts. Metaphysics is characterized by static thinking.

Metaphysical concept development :

– Considers development as only a decrease or increase (i.e. as only quantitative changes) or as only qualitative changes without any quantitative changes, i.e.separates opposites from each other .

– Source of development seesonly in external influence on the thing.

– Development is being considered or howmoving in a circle , or just howmovement on ascending or descendingstraight and so on.

General scientific methods

It is advisable to divide all general scientific methods for analysis into three groups:general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis - this is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical research method. Types of analysis are classification and periodization. The analysis method is used both in real and in mental activity.

Synthesis - this is the connection of individual sides, parts of the object of study into a single whole. However, this is not just their connection, but also the knowledge of something new - the interaction of parts as a whole. The result of the synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only an external combination of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal relationship and interdependence.

Induction - this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to the general situation. Inductive inferences “suggest” an idea, a general idea. With the inductive research method, in order to obtain general knowledge about any class of objects, it is necessary to examine individual objects, find in them common essential features that will serve as the basis for knowledge about general feature, inherent in this class of objects.

Deduction - this is the derivation of an individual, particular from some general position; the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “derived” from other thoughts.

Analogy - this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena on the basis of the fact that they have similarities with others, reasoning in which, from the similarity of the objects being studied in some characteristics, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other characteristics. The degree of probability (reliability) of inferences by analogy depends on the number of similar features in the compared phenomena. The analogy is most often used in

similarity theory.

To methodstheoretical level are consideredaxiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

Axiomatic method - a method of research that

consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. an assumption about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of a certain phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method ishypothetico-deductive a method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetico-deductive method includes:

1) making conjectures (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the phenomena and objects being studied;

2) selection from a set of guesses the most probable, plausible;

3) deducing a consequence (conclusion) from a selected assumption (premise) using deduction;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

The hypothetical method is used in constructing rules of law. For example, when establishing a tax rate of 13 percent on personal income instead of a progressive tax scale, it was assumed that this measure would make it possible to bring taxable objects out of the shadows and increase budget revenues. Reportedly tax authorities, this hypothesis was completely confirmed.

Formalization - displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of artificial formalized language in scientific research allows us to eliminate such shortcomings of natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.

When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of research, they operate with signs (formulas). By operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas and prove the truth of any proposition.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

Abstraction - mental distraction from some properties and relationships of the subject being studied and highlighting the properties and relationships that interest the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and connections of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and connections.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e., highlighting the common properties and relationships of the objects being studied, establishing what is identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class, isolation, i.e., highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered independent subjects of research.

The theory also distinguishes other types of abstraction: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization - establishment of general properties and relationships of objects and phenomena, definition general concept, in which

the essential, basic characteristics of objects or phenomena of this class are reflected. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in highlighting non-essential, but any signs of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of the general, the particular and the individual.

Historical method is to identify historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves studying the emergence and development of research objects in chronological order.

Examples of using this method are: studying the development of consumer cooperation over a long period of time in order to detect its trends; consideration of the history of the development of consumer cooperation in the pre-revolutionary period and during the NEP (1921–1927).

Ascent from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the subject (phenomenon) being studied, then traces how it changes under different conditions, opens new connections and in this way reflects the the fullness of his essence. The use of this method, for example, to study economic phenomena presupposes that the researcher has theoretical knowledge about their general properties and reveals the characteristic features and patterns of development inherent in them.

System method consists in the study of a system (i.e., a certain set of material or ideal objects), connections, its components and their connections with the external environment.

At the same time, it turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent in its constituent objects.

When analyzing phenomena and processes in complex systems, a large number of factors (signs) are considered, among which it is important to be able to highlight the main ones and exclude the secondary ones.

Empirical level methods include observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment and modeling.

Observation - this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena using the senses.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and participant observation are distinguished. The first is observation from the outside, when the researcher is an outsider in relation to the object who is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher openly or incognito is included in the group and its activities as a participant.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the environmental conditions and the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways.

Description - this is the recording of signs of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:

1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the characteristics of the object;

2) indirect, when the researcher notes the characteristics of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).

Check - this is the determination of quantitative relationships between objects of study or parameters characterizing their properties. The method is widely used in statistics to determine the degree and type of variability of a phenomenon, process, the reliability of the obtained average values ​​and theoretical conclusions.

Measurement is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. The value of this procedure is that it provides accurate, quantitative information about the surrounding reality.

Comparison - this is a comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding something common in them, carried out both by the senses and with the help of special devices.

Experiment - this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.

Experiments are classified on various grounds:

- by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

- by the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object -ordinary (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) andmodel (the model replaces the object of study). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

Modeling - a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to replace the subject or phenomenon being studied with a special similar model (object) containing the essential features of the original. Thus, instead of the original (the object of interest to us), the experiment is carried out on a model (another object), and the results of the study are extended to the original.

Models can be physical or mathematical. In accordance with this, a distinction is made between physical and mathematical modeling. If the model and the original are of the same physical nature, then physical modeling is used.

Mathematical model is a mathematical abstraction that characterizes a physical, biological, economic or some other process. Mathematical models with different physical natures are based on the identity of the mathematical description of the processes occurring in them and in the original.

Math modeling - a method for studying complex processes based on a broad physical analogy, when the model and its original are described by identical equations. Thus, due to the similarity of the mathematical equations of electric and magnetic fields, it is possible to study electrical phenomena using magnetic ones, and vice versa. Feature and dignity this method- the ability to apply it to individual sections of a complex system, as well as to quantitatively study phenomena that are difficult to study using physical models.

Special and private research methods

Private methods are special methods that operate either only within a particular industry or outside the industry where they originated. Thus, the methods of physics led to the creation of astrophysics, crystal physics, geophysics, chemical physics and physical chemistry, biophysics. The spread of chemical methods led to the creation of crystal chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry and biogeochemistry. Often a set of interrelated partial methods is used to study one subject, for example, molecular biology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, cybernetics in their interrelation.

Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge, or their use is limited to several narrow fields of knowledge.

In the social sciences and humanities, special methods are used:

document analysis - qualitative and quantitative (content analysis);

surveys, interviews, testing;

biographical and autobiographical methods;

sociometry method - application of mathematical means to the study of social phenomena. Most often used in the study of “small groups” and interpersonal relationships in them;

gaming methods - used in developing management decisions - simulation (business) games and open-ended games (especially when analyzing non-standard situations);

expert assessment method consists of studying the opinions of specialists with deep knowledge and practical experience in a certain field.

Test questions and assignments

1. Define the terms “method” and “methodology”.

2. What is the methodology of scientific research.

3. Expand the dialectical and metaphysical concepts of development.

4. List the general scientific methods of scientific research.

5. What methods are considered methods theoretical level?

6. What methods are considered empirical methods?

7. What methods are called private?

8. What methods are called special?

Methodology and methodology of scientific research

Methods of empirical research level

Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research

Special (private scientific) research methods in the field of library, information and documentation activities

Literature

1. The concept of method, methodology and methodology of scientific research

Organizing and conducting scientific research is impossible without relying on scientific methodology and without using appropriate methods. When building a methodological basis for scientific research, it is necessary to clarify the basic concepts (method, technique, methodology, etc.).

) Method is understood as a specific way of researching, constructing and justifying a system of knowledge about a subject, which includes various research techniques.

Another definition can be given: a research method is a method of study based on a certain conceptual apparatus and rules that correspond to the characteristics of the subject of research, the purpose and nature of the problems being solved.

Already studied phenomena, processes, and patterns serve as samples and models for the subsequent study of other phenomena and processes. Therefore, in scientific research, not only the result is important, but also the path to it, the method of cognition, the chain of inferences leading to the conclusion.

) Methodology - a fixed set of methods of practical activity leading to a predetermined result; specifying the method, bringing it to instructions, an algorithm, a clear description of the way of existence.

) Methodology is a system of basic principles, methods, techniques, methods and means of scientific research. The methodology of scientific research presupposes the ability to correctly organize scientific activity using effective working methods, rules and logical conclusions.

) Methodological approach is a group of methods that have a common basis.

) Methodological principle is the fundamental rule, position, normative coordinate of the methodological paradigm.

) A methodological paradigm is a set of fundamental scientific guidelines, principles and basic methodological approaches adopted in the scientific community within the framework of an established scientific tradition in a certain period of time. Ensures the continuity of the development of science and scientific creativity.

There are many types of methods of scientific knowledge. What methods to use for research are determined by the scientist, relying on his own experience and the experience of his predecessors and colleagues. But the decisive criterion for determining the necessary methods is the subject of research.

Types of methods are distinguished by:

· degrees of generality (general scientific and special or particular scientific);

· level of abstraction (empirical and theoretical);

· the nature of the functions performed (quantitative and qualitative).

Let us characterize the main groups of scientific research methods.

General scientific research methods

General scientific research methods are based on the following: general principles scientific thinking, such as induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, concretization, analogy, comparison, identification, generalization, extrapolation, etc.

Induction is a mental operation based on the logic of generalization of particular facts; conclusion, reasoning from “particular to general”; inference from facts to some general hypothesis.

Deduction is a mental operation that involves the development of reasoning from general patterns to particular facts (“from the general to the particular”).

Analysis is a theoretical research method that involves a mental operation in which the process or phenomenon under study is divided into components for their special and in-depth analysis. self-study.

Synthesis is a mental operation during which a complete picture is reconstructed from the identified elements and facts.

Abstraction is a mental distraction from a number of unimportant features (properties, connections) of an object while simultaneously highlighting other features that are of interest to the researcher when solving a specific problem.

Idealization is one of the types of abstraction. The concepts formed as a result of idealization do not exist in reality in a concrete form, but are only thought of, having approximate analogues (images).

Concretization is a process opposite to abstraction, which involves finding a holistic, interconnected, multilateral object.

Analogy - similarity, resemblance various items, phenomena or concepts in any properties, characteristics or relationships.

Comparison is a method that involves comparing objects in order to identify their similarities and differences, general and special.

Identification is the identification of the object under study with some sample, model, archetype.

Generalization is one of the important mental operations, as a result of which relatively stable properties of objects and their relationships are identified and recorded.

Extrapolation is the spread of trends and patterns discovered in one area to another area.

3. Methods of empirical research level

Methods of the empirical level of research include: observation, description, survey, questionnaire, interviewing, conversation, experiment, monitoring, method of expert assessments, etc.

Observation is the most informative research method, allowing you to see from the outside the processes and phenomena being studied that are accessible to perception. Its essence is that the object being studied must be in ordinary, natural conditions and should not be influenced by an observer.

Description is a method based on recording information obtained as a result of observation.

A survey is a research method used to collect primary verbal information containing mass judgments of the individuals being studied, their subjective assessments, opinions, and motives for activity. This is the main way to identify public opinion. There are two main types of surveys - questionnaires and interviews.

A questionnaire is a correspondence survey in which all respondents are offered a system of questions with possible answer options (or without them) in an identical printed form.

Interviewing is a face-to-face oral survey based on a developed list of questions.

Conversation is an empirical method that involves personal contact with the respondent.

An experiment is a general empirical research method that is based on strict control over the objects being studied under controlled conditions. An experiment involves interfering with the natural conditions of existence of objects and phenomena or reproducing certain aspects of them in specially created conditions.

Monitoring is constant supervision, regular tracking of research results.

The method of expert assessments is a method of obtaining information about an object with the help of specialists - experts in a certain field. The opinion of a specialist (or a team of specialists) must be based on professional, scientific and practical experience. There are individual and collective expert assessments.

Methods of theoretical level of research

The group of methods at the theoretical level of research includes: modeling, systematization, classification, formalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, axiomatic, historical, dialectical, activity-based, systemic, structural-functional and other methods.

Modeling is a theoretical research method that involves constructing a model (substitute) of real objects. A model is a mental or materially realized system that replaces another system with which it is in a state of similarity. The modeling method allows one to obtain information about the various properties of the phenomena under study based on experiments with models.

Systematization is a mental activity during which the objects being studied are organized into a specific system based on a chosen principle. The most important species systematization - classification.

Classification is a theoretical method based on the ordering of the studied objects, facts, phenomena and their distribution into groups based on establishing the similarities and differences between them (for example, the classification of animals, plants, chemical elements).

Formalization is a description of the meaningful characteristics of an object and the processes occurring in it based on the creation of a generalized sign model (for example, using mathematical or logical symbols).

The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is a universal form of the movement of scientific knowledge, the law of reflecting reality in thinking. A method according to which the process of cognition is divided into two relatively independent stages. At the first stage, there is a transition from sensory-concrete cognition of an object to its abstract definitions. A single object is dismembered, described with the help of many concepts and judgments, turning into a set of abstractions fixed by thinking. The second stage of the process of cognition is the ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Its essence lies in the movement of thought from abstract definitions of an object to the concrete in cognition. At this stage, the original integrity of the object is restored, it is reproduced in thinking in all its concreteness and versatility.

Axiomatic method - method of construction scientific theory, in which some statements (axioms) are accepted without proof and then used to obtain other knowledge according to certain logical rules.

In studies related to the study of the history of the development of the object under study, historical methods are widely used: historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-typological.

The historical-genetic method is a method that allows one to reveal the sequence of historical development of the object being studied (from its origins to its current state), to show cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of its historical movement.

The historical-comparative (or comparative-historical) method is a method in which a comparative analysis of historical phenomena is carried out, their similarities and differences, general and special, are revealed. (See the "Comparison" method).

The historical-typological method is a method aimed at dividing (ordering) a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively defined types (classes) based on their common essential features.

The dialectical method (dialectical methodology) is a method (methodology) of cognition of reality, the main principles of which are the recognition of development in all its infinite diversity and the universal connection of everything with everything. Basic dialectical laws: the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa; unity and struggle of opposites; denials denials.

The activity method (activity methodology) is a widely used method (methodology) in which an object is comprehensively studied as a specific area of ​​social (human) activity. At the same time, this type of activity is differentiated into parts, components (subject, object, processes, means, result, etc.) and into types, varieties, distinguished according to various characteristics.

Systemic method (system methodology) is a method (methodology) that allows one to study an object not as a set of disparate and isolated objects and phenomena, but as a systemic, holistic formation, that is, a complex of interconnected and interacting elements. The entry of these elements into the system gives them new, integrative qualities that are not inherent in them in their original, separate existence.

The structural-functional method consists in dividing the object under study into its component structural parts and identifying the internal connection, conditionality, relationship between them, as well as determining their functions.

5. Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research

Quantitative methods are ways of analyzing phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators. The most frequently used quantitative methods are statistical, bibliometric, content analysis, and scientometric.

Statistical - a set of interrelated methods aimed at collecting, measuring and analyzing mass quantitative data. By using statistical methods Mass objects and phenomena are studied in order to obtain quantitative characteristics and identify general patterns by eliminating random features of individual single observations.

Bibliometric - a group of quantitative methods with the help of which the structure, dynamics and relationships are studied various phenomena in the field of library, information and documentation activities. Bibliometric methods include the method of counting the number of publications, the method of analyzing literature citations (“citation index”), thesaurus, content analysis, etc. Using bibliometric methods, the dynamics of the development of documentary flows is studied (by their types, types, topics, authors). etc.); dynamics of indicators of use and circulation of documents; processes of citation of publications are studied; productive types of publications and the most developed thematic areas are identified; the degree of provision of certain areas of scientific research with fundamental works; a core of specialized publications is determined, which will be used to further compile library collections.

Content analysis is one of the bibliometric methods, which also has independent significance. It is used to study large amounts of documents: printed works, regulatory and official documents, reporting and other documentation. The essence of the method is that in the texts of documents certain semantic units (“units of observation”) are identified, which can be the authors and titles of works, type of publication, date of issue, etc. A careful calculation of the identified units and the frequency of their use, with mandatory consideration of the assessments given to them in the texts, makes it possible to identify trends in the development of various phenomena: the information interest of various user groups in certain types, types, genres of documents, the level of information culture, the effectiveness of methods of working with consumers of documentary information, etc.

Scientometric methods are closely related to bibliometric ones and are used for the same purposes. However, the specificity of scientometrics lies in quantitative studies of the structure and dynamics of arrays and flows of not all types of documentary information, but only scientific information.

Qualitative research methods are methods aimed at obtaining such “qualitative data” that make it possible to reveal the meaning of certain social phenomena through an analysis of the structure and dynamics of public opinion. Qualitative methods, in particular, allow us to explore the underlying mechanisms of the process of influence of mass communication on individual consciousness and see the patterns of perception of social information. Qualitative methods are most often used in sociological and marketing research.

The main methods of qualitative research include: in-depth interviews, expert interviews, focus group discussions (interviews), observation, experiment. Let's look at the main ones.

The most well-known and frequently used qualitative method is in-depth interviews. In its process, questions are used, the answer to which is not expected to be a clear “yes” or “no,” but rather a detailed answer. An in-depth interview is an informal, free conversation conducted by an interviewer according to a predetermined plan and based on the use of techniques that encourage respondents to engage in lengthy and detailed discussions on a range of issues of interest to the researcher. During the interview, the respondent's personal opinions, beliefs, motivations and values ​​are explored.

An expert interview is one of the types of in-depth interviews; its main feature is the status and competence of the respondent, who is an experienced participant in the problem being studied. Experts are specialists who know the specific aspects of the phenomenon being studied. In expert interviews, it is not so much the respondent himself who is important, but his expert knowledge in a particular area. In most cases, expert interviews are conducted with representatives of the executive and legislative authorities, scientists, employees of universities and research organizations, employees of non-governmental, private expert or consulting structures, members of expert councils, company executives, etc.

Focus group discussions (interviews) are one of the methods of qualitative research. A focus group is a group of respondents (no more than 10-15 people) united for the purpose of studying a wide range of reactions, opinions and assessments regarding the phenomenon being studied. The essence of the method is that the attention of the participants is focused on the topic or object under study (government programs, socio-political problems, socio-economic situations, communication processes, goods, services, advertising). A focus group discussion or interview is aimed at determining the participants’ attitude to a certain problem, obtaining information about their personal experience, priorities, perception of the object of study, drawing up a “portrait” of a specific problem. social group. Focus group interviews are conducted in free form according to a pre-developed script. The participants are not familiar with the content of the scenario; it is known only to the moderator (leader), under whose leadership the discussion is taking place. Organizing a discussion in a relaxed atmosphere helps to activate associative connections in the minds of the participants. During focus group discussions, respondents communicate not only with the moderator, but also with each other, which is a source of information that often cannot be obtained in an individual interview.

The main difference between qualitative and quantitative methods is that in the first case, data is collected from a relatively small group of respondents and is not analyzed using statistics, while when using quantitative methods, a large group of people is studied, and the data is further analyzed using statistical methods . However, quantitative and qualitative methods are not competitors, but rather two tools that complement each other. Qualitative methods allow us to understand the essence of the problem, formulate tasks and conceptual apparatus for subsequent quantitative research.

6. Special (private scientific) methods of scientific research in the field of library, information and documentation activities

In addition to the listed groups of methods, there are also special methods of individual sciences (special scientific ones) - mathematical, political science, economics, sociological, psychological, pedagogical, cultural, linguistic, semiotic, etc.

The following special (private scientific) library methods are widely used in library research: analysis of reader forms, bibliographic request logs, reader surveys, sociological and quantitative methods for studying collections and readers, methods of library statistics, and others. Common research methods are also the source study method (a method of studying historical documentary sources on library topics: archival materials, unpublished manuscripts, library reports for different periods of time, memoirs and diaries of librarians) and the bibliographic method (a method of bibliographic “convolution” of information: bibliographic analysis, descriptions, classification of documents, etc.).

In scientific research on documentary topics, special (private scientific) methods are also widely used: source study, archaeographic, analytical-synthetic processing of documents, etc. These methods are actively used by students when performing diploma research.

An indispensable research method is the source study method - a method of studying historical documentary sources: archival and unpublished materials, institutional reports, official regulatory and normative-directive documentation, etc. Using this method, the following are carried out: determining the authenticity of a source (external or textual criticism), determining the reliability the information contained in it (internal criticism), establishing the time and place of creation of the source, analyzing its content, formal and qualitative characteristics, etc.

The archaeographic method is very close to the source method. It is used in research that requires in-depth work with handwritten and written sources: identifying and collecting historical documentary monuments, developing methods for their publication, developing rules for the scientific-critical publication of sources, etc.

Methods of analytical-synthetic processing of documents - a group of methods with the help of which information analysis, description, abstracting, systematization, classification, codification of documents, etc. are carried out.

Ultimately, the choice of method is dictated by many factors, the most important of which are: compliance of the method’s capabilities with solving research problems, heuristics (quality that provides the most optimal result), simplicity and accessibility for the researcher. In order to comprehensively study a subject in scientific (including diploma) research, as a rule, a complex of various methods is used.

library empirical private scientific documentation

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Method- a set of rules, techniques, operations for the practical or theoretical development of reality. It serves to obtain and justify objectively true knowledge.

The nature of the method is determined by many factors:

The subject of the study

The degree of generality of the tasks set,

The accumulated experience,

The level of development of scientific knowledge, etc.

Methods that are suitable for one area of ​​scientific research are not suitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, many outstanding achievements in science are a consequence of the transfer and use of methods that have proven themselves in other areas of research. Thus, based on the methods used, opposite processes of differentiation and integration of sciences occur.

The method of scientific research is a way of understanding objective reality. A method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations.

Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods are distinguished:

1. Empirical

2. Theoretical

3. Metatheoretical levels.

Empirical level methods include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.

Methods at the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists include the method of system analysis at this level, while others include it among general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge.

The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration. Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

For example, the methodology of economic research is understood as a system of methods, techniques, means of collecting, processing, analyzing and evaluating information about economic phenomena, their causes and conditions.

Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology.

However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of scientific method knowledge.

Teaching about methods - methodology . It seeks to streamline, systematize methods, establish the suitability of their use in different areas, answer the question of what kind of conditions, means and actions are necessary and sufficient to achieve certain scientific goals.

The variety of types of human activity determines the use of various methods, which can be classified on a variety of grounds. In scientific knowledge, methods are used: general and specific, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, etc.

It has now become obvious that a system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond its limits and certainly include it in its orbit and scope of practice. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.

As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for dividing them into groups. Thus, depending on the role of place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can distinguish formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation, etc.

There are also qualitative and quantitative methods, uniquely deterministic and probabilistic, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative, etc.

The characteristic features of a scientific method (whatever type it belongs to) most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristics, necessity, specificity, etc.

The methodology of science develops a multi-level concept of methodological knowledge, distributing all methods of scientific knowledge according to the degree of generality and scope.

With this approach, 5 main groups of methods can be distinguished:

1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function and is a unique way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two mentioned. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.

2. General scientific approaches and research methods, which have been widely developed and used in science. They act as a kind of “intermediate” methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.

General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as “information”, “model”, “structure”, “function”, “system”, “element”, “optimality”, “probability”, etc.

The characteristic features of general scientific concepts are, firstly, the “fusion” in their content of individual properties, features, concepts of a number of special sciences and philosophical categories. Secondly, the possibility (unlike the latter) of their formalization and clarification by means of mathematical theory and symbolic logic.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.

General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.

3. Private scientific methods are a set of methods, principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in one or another science corresponding to a given basic form of movement of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences.

4. Disciplinary methods are a system of techniques used in a particular scientific discipline that is part of some branch of science or that arose at the intersections of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.

5. Interdisciplinary research methods- a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods (arising as a result of a combination of elements of various levels of methodology), aimed mainly at the interfaces of scientific disciplines. These methods have found wide application in the implementation of complex scientific programs.

Thus, methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, focus, heuristic capabilities, contents, structures, etc.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Concept of method and methodology

Scientific activity, like any other, is carried out using certain means, as well as special techniques and methods, i.e. methods, from correct use which largely determines the success of the research task.

Method it is a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality. Main function of the method internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of a particular object.

At the level of everyday practical activity, the method is formed spontaneously and only later is it realized by people. In the field of science, the method is formed consciously and purposefully.The scientific method only corresponds to its status when it provides an adequate reflection of the properties and patterns of objects in the external world.

Scientific method this is a system of rules and techniques with the help of which objective knowledge of reality is achieved.

The scientific method has the following characteristics:

1) clarity or accessibility;

2) lack of spontaneity in application;

4) fruitfulness or the ability to achieve not only the intended, but also no less significant side results;

5) reliability or the ability to provide the desired result with a high degree of reliability;

6) efficiency or the ability to produce results with the least amount of money and time.

The nature of the method is significantly determined by:

Subject of research;

The degree of generality of the tasks assigned;

Accumulated experience and other factors.

Methods that are suitable for one area of ​​scientific research are not suitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, we are witnessing many outstanding achievements as a consequence of the transfer of methods that have proven themselves in some sciences to other sciences to solve their specific problems. Thus, opposing trends in the differentiation and integration of sciences based on the methods used are observed.

Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which, thus, acts as its prerequisite. The effectiveness and strength of a particular method is determined by the content and depth of the theory on the basis of which it is formed. In turn, the method is used to deepen and expand theoretical knowledge as a system. Thus, theory and method are closely interrelated: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed into a method through the development of rules, techniques, and operations arising from it; methods contribute to the formation, development, clarification of the theory, and its practical verification.

The scientific method contains a number of aspects:

1) objective-substantive (expresses the conditionality of the method by the subject of knowledge through theory);

2) operational (fixes the dependence of the content of the method not so much on the object, but on the subject of cognition, his competence and ability to translate the corresponding theory into a system of rules and techniques that together constitute the method);

3) praxeological (properties of reliability, efficiency, clarity).

Main functions of the method:

Integrative;

Epistemological;

Systematizing.

Rules occupy a central place in the structure of the method. Rule this is a prescription that establishes the procedure for achieving a certain goal. A rule is a provision that reflects a pattern in some subject area. This pattern forms basic knowledge rules. In addition, the rule includes some system of operational norms that ensure the connection of means and conditions with human activities. In addition, the structure of the method includes some techniques , carried out on the basis of operational norms.

Concept of methodology.

In the most general sense, methodology is understood as a system of methods used in a certain field of activity. But in the context of philosophical research, methodology is, first of all, the doctrine of methods scientific activity, a general theory of the scientific method. Its objectives are to study the possibilities and prospects for the development of appropriate methods in the course of scientific knowledge. The methodology of science seeks to streamline, systematize methods, and establish the suitability of their application in various fields.

Methodology of scienceis a theory of scientific knowledge that studies the cognitive processes occurring in science, the forms and methods of scientific knowledge. In this sense, it acts as metascientific knowledge of a philosophical nature.

Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods that arose in philosophy and science. Historically, the problems of the methodology of science were initially developed within the framework of philosophy (the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of Bacon, the dialectical method of Hegel, the phenomenological method of Husserl, etc.). Therefore, the methodology of science is very closely connected with philosophy, especially with such a discipline as the theory of knowledge.

In addition, the methodology of science is closely related to such a discipline as the logic of science, which developed in the second half of the 19th century. Logic of Science a discipline that applies the concepts and technical apparatus of modern logic to the analysis of systems of scientific knowledge.

The main problems of the logic of science:

1) study of the logical structures of scientific theories;

2) study of the construction of artificial languages ​​of science;

3) study of various types of deductive and inductive inferences used in the natural, social and technical sciences;

4) analysis of the formal structures of fundamental and derivative scientific concepts and definitions;

5) consideration and improvement of the logical structure of research procedures and operations and the development of logical criteria for their heuristic effectiveness.

Since the 17th-18th centuries. methodological ideas are developed within the framework of special sciences. Each science has its own methodological arsenal.

In the system of methodological knowledge, main groups can be distinguished, taking into account the degree of generality and breadth of application of the individual methods included in them. These include:

1) philosophical methods (set the most general regulations of research - dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, hermeneutic, etc.);

2) general scientific methods (typical for a number of branches of scientific knowledge; they depend little on the specifics of the object of research and the type of problems, but at the same time depend on the level and depth of the research);

3) private scientific methods (used within the framework of certain special scientific disciplines; a distinctive feature of these methods is their dependence on the nature of the object of study and the specifics of the problems being solved).

In this regard, within the framework of the methodology of science, philosophical and methodological analysis of science, general scientific and specific scientific methodology are distinguished.

Specificity of philosophical method logical analysis Sciences

Essentially, every philosophical system has a methodological function. Examples: dialectical, metaphysical, phenomenological, analytical, hermeneutic, etc.

The specificity of philosophical methods is that it is not a set of strictly fixed regulations, but a system of rules, operations, and techniques that are general and universal in nature. Philosophical methods are not described in strict terms of logic and experiment, and do not lend themselves to formalization and mathematization. They set only the most general regulations of research, its general strategy, but do not replace special methods and do not directly and directly determine the final result of knowledge. Figuratively speaking, philosophy is a compass that helps determine the right path, but not a map on which the path to the final goal is outlined in advance.

Philosophical methods play a big role in scientific knowledge, setting a predetermined view of the essence of an object. All other methodological guidelines originate here, and critical situations in the development of a particular fundamental discipline are comprehended.

The set of philosophical regulations acts effective means, if it is mediated by other, more specific methods. It is absurd to assert that, knowing only the principles of dialectics, one can create new types of machines. The philosophical method is not a “universal master key”; from it it is impossible to directly obtain answers to certain problems of particular sciences through a simple logical development of general truths. It cannot be a “discovery algorithm”, but gives the scientist only the most general orientation for research. As an example, the application of the dialectical method in science scientists are not interested in the categories of “development”, “causality”, etc., but in the regulatory principles formulated on their basis and how they can help in real scientific research.

The influence of philosophical methods on the process of scientific knowledge is always carried out not directly and directly, but in a complex, indirect way. Philosophical regulations are translated into scientific research through general scientific and specific scientific regulations. Philosophical methods do not always make themselves felt explicitly during the research process. They can be taken into account and applied either spontaneously or consciously. But in any science there are elements of universal significance (laws, principles, concepts, categories), where philosophy is manifested.

General scientific and specific scientific methodology.

General scientific methodologyrepresents the body of knowledge about the principles and methods used in any scientific discipline. It acts as a kind of “intermediate methodology” between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. General scientific concepts include such concepts as “system”, “structure”, “element”, “function”, etc. Based on general scientific concepts and categories, appropriate methods of cognition are formulated, which ensure optimal interaction of philosophy with specific scientific knowledge and its methods.

General scientific methods are divided into:

1) general logical, applied in any act of cognition and at any level. These are analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, generalization, analogy, abstraction;

2) methods empirical research, applied at the empirical level of research (observation, experiment, description, measurement, comparison);

3) methods of theoretical research used at the theoretical level of research (idealization, formalization, axiomatic, hypothetico-deductive, etc.);

4) methods of systematization of scientific knowledge (typologization, classification).

Characteristic features of general scientific concepts and methods:

The combination in their content of elements of philosophical categories and concepts of a number of special sciences;

Possibility of formalization and clarification by mathematical means.

At the level of general scientific methodology, a general scientific picture of the world is formed.

Private scientific methodologyis a body of knowledge about the principles and methods used in a particular scientific discipline. Within its framework, special scientific pictures of the world are formed. Each science has its own specific set of methodological tools. At the same time, the methods of some sciences can be translated into other sciences. Interdisciplinary scientific methods are emerging.

Scientific Research Methodology.

The main attention within the methodology of science is directed to scientific research as a type of activity in which the application of various scientific methods is embodied.Scientific researchactivities aimed at obtaining true knowledge about objective reality.

Knowledge applied at the objective-sensory level of some scientific research forms the basis of its techniques . In empirical research, the methodology ensures the collection and primary processing of experimental data, regulates the practice of research work and experimental production activities. Theoretical work also requires its own methodology. Here its prescriptions relate to activities with objects expressed in symbolic form. For example, there are methods for various types of calculations, decoding texts, conducting thought experiments, etc.At the present stage of development of science, both in its empirical andand on a theoretical level, computer technology plays an extremely important role. Without it, modern experimentation, situation modeling, and various computational procedures are unthinkable.

Any technique is created on the basis of more high levels knowledge, but is a set of highly specialized installations, which includes quite strict restrictions instructions, projects, standards, technical specifications etc. At the level of methodology, installations that exist ideally, in a person’s thoughts, seem to merge with practical operations, completing the formation of the method. Without them, the method is something speculative and has no way out. external world. In turn, the practice of research is impossible without control from ideal settings. Good command of the methodology is an indicator of the high professionalism of the scientist.

Structure of scientific research

Scientific research contains a number of elements in its structure.

Object of studya fragment of reality to which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed, and which exists outside and independently of the consciousness of the knowing subject. Objects of research can be both material and intangible in nature. Their independence from consciousness lies in the fact that they exist regardless of whether people know or don’t know anything about them.

Subject of researchis a part of the object directly involved in the study; these are the main, most significant features of an object from the point of view of a particular study. The specificity of the subject of scientific research is that at first it is defined in general, vague terms, anticipated and predicted to an insignificant extent. It finally “emerges” at the end of the study. When approaching it, the scientist cannot imagine it indrawings and calculations. What needs to be “torn out” from an object and synthesized in a research product? The researcher has superficial, one-sided, incomplete knowledge about this. Therefore, the form of fixing the subject of research is a question, a problem.

Gradually transforming into a product of research, the subject is enriched and developed due to initially unknown signs and conditions of its existence. Outwardly, this is expressed in a change in questions that additionally confront the researcher, are consistently resolved by him and are subordinate to the general goal of the study.

It can be said that separate scientific disciplines are busy studying individual “slices” of the objects under study. The variety of possible “slices” of studying objects gives rise to a multi-subject nature of scientific knowledge. Each of the subjects creates its own conceptual apparatus, its own specific research methods, and its own language.

Purpose of the study ideal, mental anticipation of the result for the sake of which scientific and cognitive actions are taken.

The characteristics of the subject of research directly affect its purpose. The latter, concludingthe image of the subject of research is distinguished by the inherent uncertainty of the subject at the beginning of the research process. It becomes more specific as we get closer to the final result.

Research objectivesformulate questions that must be answered to achieve the goals of the study.

The goals and objectives of the study form interconnected chains in which each link serves as a means of holding other links. The final goal of the study can be called its general task, and particular tasks that act as means of solving the main one can be called intermediate goals, or second-order goals.

The main and additional objectives of the study are also identified: The main objectives correspond to its target setting, additional ones are set to prepare future studies, test side (possibly very relevant) hypotheses not related to this problem, to solve some methodological issues, etc. .

Ways to achieve the goal:

If the main goal is formulated as theoretical, then when developing the program, the main attention is paid to the study of scientific literature on this issue, a clear interpretation of the initial concepts, the construction of a hypothetical general concept of the subject of research, the identification of a scientific problem and the logical analysis of working hypotheses.

A different logic governs the actions of the researcher if he sets himself a directly practical goal. He begins work based on the specifics of the given object and an understanding of the practical problems to be solved. Only after this does he turn to the literature in search of an answer to the question: is there a “standard” solution to the problems that have arisen, that is, a special theory related to the subject? If there is no “standard” solution, further work is carried out according to the scheme of theoretical research. If such a solution exists, the hypotheses applied research are constructed as different options for “reading” standard solutions in relation to specific conditions.

It is very important to keep in mind that any research focused on solving theoretical problems can be continued as applied research. At the first stage, we obtain some standard solution to the problem, and then translate it into specific conditions.

Also an element of the structure of scientific research aremeans of scientific cognitive activity . These include:

Material resources;

Theoretical objects (ideal constructs);

Research methods and other ideal regulations of research: norms, samples, ideals of scientific activity.

The means of scientific research are in constant change and development. The fact that some of them are successfully used at one stage of the development of science is not a sufficient guarantee of their agreement with new spheres of reality and therefore require improvement or replacement.

Systematic approach as a general scientific methodological program and its essence.

Working with complex research problems involves using not only different methods, but also different research strategies. The most important of them, playing the role of a general scientific methodological program of scientific knowledge, is the systems approach.Systems approachis a set of general scientific methodological principles based on the consideration of objects as systems. System a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming something whole.

The philosophical aspects of the systems approach are expressed in the principle of systematicity, the content of which is revealed in the concepts of integrity, structure, interdependence of the system and environment, hierarchy, and multiplicity of descriptions of each system.

The concept of integrity reflects the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements and the irreducibility of the properties of the whole from the properties of the parts and, at the same time, the dependence of each element, property and relationship of the system on its place and functions within the whole.

The concept of structure captures the fact that the behavior of a system is determined not so much by the behavior of its individual elements, how many properties of its structure and that it is possible to describe the system through the establishment of its structure.

The interdependence of the system and the environment means that the system forms and manifests its properties in constant interaction with the environment, while remaining the leading active component of the interaction.

The concept of hierarchy focuses on the fact that each element of the system can be considered as a system, and the system being studied in this case is one of the elements of a broader system.

The possibility of multiple descriptions of a system exists due to the fundamental complexity of each system, as a result of which its adequate knowledge requires the construction of many different models, each of which describes only a certain aspect of the system.

The specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the research on revealing the integrity of the developing object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical system. The widespread use of the systems approach in modern research practice is due to a number of circumstances and, above all, the intensive development in modern scientific knowledge of complex objects, the composition, configuration and principles of operation of which are far from obvious and require special analysis.

One of the most striking embodiments of systems methodology issystem analysis, which is a special branch of applied knowledge applicable to systems of any nature.

Recently, a nonlinear methodology of knowledge has been emerging, associated with the development of interdisciplinary scientific concepts of the dynamics of nonequilibrium states and synergetics. Within the framework of these concepts, new guidelines for cognitive activity are emerging, which set the consideration of the object under study as a complex self-organizing and, thereby, historically self-developing system.

The systems approach as a general scientific methodological program is also closely related tostructural-functional approach, which is a variation of it. It is built on the basis of identifying in integral systems their structure a set of stable relationships and interconnections between its elements and their roles (functions) relative to each other.

Structure is understood as something unchanged under certain transformations, and function as the purpose of each of the elements of a given system.

Basic requirements of the structural-functional approach:

Study of the structure, structure of the object being studied;

Study of its elements and their functional characteristics;

Consideration of the history of the functioning and development of the object as a whole.

The guidelines for cognitive activity, concentrated in the content of general scientific methods, are detailed, systematically organized complexes characterized by a complex structure. In addition, the methods themselves are in a complex relationship with each other. In the actual practice of scientific research, cognitive methods are used in combination, setting a strategy for solving assigned problems. At the same time, the specificity of any of the methods allows for a meaningful consideration of each of them separately, taking into account their belonging to a certain level of scientific research.

General scientific methods of scientific research.

Analysis division of an integral object into its component parts (signs, properties, relationships) for the purpose of their comprehensive study.

Synthesis combination of previously identified parts (sides, characteristics, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole.

Abstractionmental abstraction from a number of signs, properties and relationships of the object being studied while simultaneously highlighting for consideration those of them that interest the researcher. As a result, “abstract objects” appear, which are both individual concepts and categories, and their systems.

Generalization establishing general properties and characteristics of objects. General philosophical category that reflects similar, repeating characteristics, features that belong to individual phenomena or all objects of a given class. There are two types of general:

Abstract general (simple sameness, external similarity, similarity of a number of individual objects);

Specific-general (internal, deep, repeating basis essence in a group of similar phenomena).

In accordance with this, two types of generalizations are distinguished:

Identification of any features and properties of objects;

Identification of essential features and properties of objects.

On another basis, generalizations are divided into:

Inductive (from individual facts and events to their expression in thoughts);

Logical (from one thought to another, more general).

Method opposite to generalization limitation (transition from a more general concept to a less general one).

Induction a research method in which the general conclusion is based on particular premises.

Deduction a research method through which a particular conclusion follows from general premises.

Analogy a method of cognition in which, based on the similarity of objects in some characteristics, they conclude that they are similar in other characteristics.

Modeling study of an object by creating and studying its copy (model), replacing the original from certain aspects of interest to knowledge.

Methods of empirical research

At the empirical level, methods such asobservation, description, comparison, measurement, experiment.

Observation this is a systematic and purposeful perception of phenomena, during which we gain knowledge about the external aspects, properties and relationships of the objects being studied. Observation is always not contemplative, but active, active in nature. It is subordinated to the solution of a specific scientific problem and therefore is distinguished by its purposefulness, selectivity and systematicity.

Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design, the presence of strictly defined means (in technical sciences - instruments), objectivity of the results. Objectivity is ensured by the possibility of control through either repeated observation or the use of other research methods, in particular experiment. Observation is usually included as part of the experimental procedure. An important point observation is the interpretation of its results deciphering instrument readings, etc.

Scientific observation is always mediated by theoretical knowledge, since it is the latter that determines the object and subject of observation, the purpose of observation and the method of its implementation. During observation, the researcher is always guided by a specific idea, concept or hypothesis. He does not simply register any facts, but deliberately selects those that either confirm or refute his ideas. In this case, it is very important to select the most representative group of facts in their interrelation. The interpretation of observation is also always carried out with the help of certain theoretical principles.

The implementation of developed forms of observation involves the use of special means and, first of all, instruments, the development and implementation of which also requires the use of theoretical concepts of science. In the social sciences, the form of observation is the survey; to create survey tools (questioning, interviewing) also requires special theoretical knowledge.

Description recording by means of natural or artificial language the results of an experiment (observation or experiment data) using certain notation systems accepted in science (schemes, graphs, drawings, tables, diagrams, etc.).

During the description, phenomena are compared and measured.

Comparison a method that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. But this method makes sense only in a collection of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in a class is carried out according to characteristics that are essential for this consideration. At the same time, characteristics that are compared on one basis may not be comparable on another.

Measurement a research method in which the relationship of one quantity to another, which serves as a standard, is established. Measurement is most widely used in the natural and technical sciences, but since the 20s and 30s of the 20th century. it also comes into use in social research. Measurement presupposes the presence of: an object on which some operation is performed; properties of this object, which can be perceived, and the value of which is established using this operation; the instrument by which this operation is performed. The general goal of any measurements is to obtain numerical data that allows us to judge not so much the quality as the quantity of certain states. In this case, the value of the resulting value should be so close to the true one that for this purpose it can be used instead of the true one. Errors in measurement results (systematic and random) are possible.

There are direct and indirect measurement procedures. The latter include measurements of objects that are distant from us or are not directly perceived. The value of the measured quantity is established indirectly. Indirect measurements are feasible when the general relationship between quantities is known, which allows one to derive the desired result from already known quantities.

Experiment a research method through which active and purposeful perception of a specific object occurs under controlled and controlled conditions.

Main features of the experiment:

1) an active attitude towards the object up to its change and transformation;

2) repeated reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher;

3) the possibility of detecting properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;

4) the possibility of considering the phenomenon “in its pure form” by isolating it from external influences, or by changing the experimental conditions;

5) the ability to control the “behavior” of an object and check the results.

We can say that an experiment is an idealized experience. It makes it possible to monitor the progress of changes in a phenomenon, actively influence it, and recreate it, if necessary, before comparing the results obtained. Therefore, experiment is a stronger and more effective method than observation or measurement, where the phenomenon under study remains unchanged. This is the highest form of empirical research.

An experiment is used either to create a situation that allows one to study an object in its pure form, or to test existing hypotheses and theories, or to formulate new hypotheses and theoretical concepts. Every experiment is always guided by some theoretical idea, concept, hypothesis. Experimental data, as well as observations, are always theoretically loaded, from its setup to the interpretation of the results.

Stages of the experiment:

1) planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, etc.);

2) control;

3) interpretation of the results.

Experiment structure:

1) object of study;

2) creation of necessary conditions (material factors influencing the object of study, elimination of undesirable effects interference);

3) experimental methodology;

4) a hypothesis or theory that needs to be tested.

As a rule, experimentation involves the use of simpler practical methods of observation, comparison and measurement. Since an experiment is not carried out, as a rule, without observations and measurements, it must meet their methodological requirements. In particular, as with observations and measurements, an experiment can be considered demonstrative if it can be reproduced by any other person in another place in space and at another time and gives the same result.

Types of experiment:

Depending on the objectives of the experiment, there are research experiments (the task is the formation of new scientific theories), verification experiments (testing existing hypotheses and theories), decisive experiments (confirmation of one and refutation of another of the competing theories).

Depending on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, social and other experiments are distinguished.

There are also qualitative experiments aimed at establishing the presence or absence of an expected phenomenon, and measurement experiments that reveal the quantitative certainty of a certain property.

Methods of theoretical research.

At the theoretical stage, they are usedthought experiment, idealization, formalization,axiomatic, hypothetico-deductive methods, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, as well as methods of historical and logical analysis.

Idealization a research method consisting in the mental construction of an idea of ​​an object by excluding the conditions necessary for its real existence. In essence, idealization is a type of abstraction procedure, specified taking into account the needs of theoretical research. The results of such construction are idealized objects.

The formation of idealizations can go in different ways:

Consistently carried out multi-stage abstraction (so, mathematical objects are obtained - a plane, a straight line, a point, etc.);

Isolation and fixation of a certain property of the object being studied in isolation from all others (ideal objects of natural sciences).

Idealized objects are much simpler than real objects, which makes it possible to apply mathematical methods of description to them. Thanks to idealization, processes are considered in their purest form, without accidental additions from the outside, which opens the way to identifying the laws according to which these processes occur. An idealized object, unlike a real one, is characterized not by an infinite, but by a very specific number of properties, and therefore the researcher gets the opportunity to have complete intellectual control over it. Idealized objects model the most essential relationships in real objects.

Since the provisions of the theory speak about the properties of ideal, and not real objects, there is a problem of testing and accepting these provisions based on correlation with the real world. Therefore, to take into account the introduced circumstances that influence the deviation of indicators inherent in the empirical data from the characteristics of an ideal object, rules of concretization are formulated: checking the law taking into account the specific conditions of its operation.

Modeling (a method closely related to idealization) is a method for studying theoretical models, i.e. analogues (schemes, structures, sign systems) of certain fragments of reality, which are called originals. The researcher, transforming these analogues and managing them, expands and deepens knowledge about the originals. Modeling is a method of indirectly operating an object, during which it is not the object itself that interests us that is directly studied, but some intermediate system (natural or artificial), which:

Is in some objective correspondence with the cognizable object (a model is, first of all, what is compared with - it is necessary that there be similarity between the model and the original in some physical characteristics, or in structure, or in functions);

In the course of cognition, at certain stages, it is capable of replacing in certain cases the object being studied (in the process of research, temporarily replacing the original with a model and working with it allows in many cases not only to discover, but also to predict its new properties);

In the process of its research, ultimately provide information about the object of interest to us.

The logical basis of the modeling method is conclusions by analogy.

Exist different kinds modeling. Basic:

Subject (direct) modeling, during which research is carried out on a model that reproduces certain physical, geometric, and other characteristics of the original. Subject modeling is used as a practical method of cognition.

Sign modeling (models are diagrams, drawings, formulas, sentences of natural or artificial language, etc.). Since actions with signs are simultaneously actions with some thoughts, any sign modeling is inherently a mental modeling.

In historical research, reflective-measuring models (“as it was”) and simulation-prognostic models (“how it could have been”) are distinguished.

Thought experimenta research method based on a combination of images, the material implementation of which is impossible. This method is formed on the basis of idealization and modeling. In this case, the model turns out to be an imaginary object, transformed in accordance with the rules suitable for a given situation. States that are inaccessible to practical experiment are revealed with the help of its continuation - a thought experiment.

As an illustration, we can take the model built by K. Marx, which allowed him to thoroughly explore the capitalist mode of production of the mid-nineteenth century. The construction of this model was associated with a number of idealizing assumptions. In particular, it was assumed that there is no monopoly in the economy; all regulations that prevent the movement of labor from one place or from one sphere of production to another have been abolished; labor in all spheres of production is reduced to simple labor; the rate of surplus value is the same in all spheres of production; the average organic composition of capital in all branches of production is the same; the demand for each product is equal to its supply; the length of the working day and the monetary price of labor power are constant; Agriculture carries out production in the same way as any other branch of production; there is no trading and banking capital; exports and imports are balanced; there are only two classes - capitalists and wage workers; the capitalist constantly strives for maximum profit, while always acting rationally. The result was a model of a certain “ideal” capitalism. Mental experimentation with it made it possible to formulate the laws of capitalist society, in particular, the most important of them - the law of value, according to which the production and exchange of goods are carried out on the basis of the costs of socially necessary labor.

A thought experiment allows us to introduce new concepts into the context of a scientific theory and formulate the fundamental principles of a scientific concept.

Recently, to carry out modeling and conduct thought experiments, it has increasingly been used.computational experiment. The main advantage of a computer is that with its help, when studying very complex systems, it is possible to deeply analyze not only their current states, but also possible, including future states. The essence of a computational experiment is that an experiment is carried out on a certain mathematical model of an object using a computer. Based on some parameters of the model, its other characteristics are calculated and on this basis conclusions are drawn about the properties of the phenomena represented by the mathematical model. Main stages of the computational experiment:

1) construction mathematical model the object being studied under certain conditions (as a rule, it is represented by a system of high-order equations);

2) determination of a computational algorithm for solving the basic system of equations;

3) construction of a program for implementing the assigned task for a computer.

A computational experiment based on the accumulated experience of mathematical modeling, a bank of computational algorithms and software allows you to quickly and effectively solve problems in almost any area of ​​mathematical scientific knowledge. Turning to a computational experiment in a number of cases allows one to sharply reduce the cost of scientific developments and intensify the process of scientific research, which is ensured by the versatility of the calculations performed and the ease of modifications to simulate certain experimental conditions.

Formalization a research method based on the display of content knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages. The use of special symbols allows us to eliminate ambiguity, inaccuracy, and figurativeness of words in natural language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous. Formalization serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby the computerization of knowledge.

The main thing in the formalization process is that operations can be performed on the formulas of artificial languages, and new formulas and relationships can be obtained from them. Thus, operations with thoughts are replaced by actions with signs and symbols (the boundaries of the method).

The formalization method opens up the possibility of using more complex methods of theoretical research, for examplemathematical hypothesis method, where the hypothesis is some equations representing a modification of previously known and tested states. By changing the latter, they create a new equation expressing a hypothesis that relates to new phenomena.Often the original mathematical formula is borrowed from a related or even unrelated field of knowledge, values ​​of a different nature are substituted into it, and then the coincidence of the calculated and real behavior of the object is checked. Of course, the applicability of this method is limited to those disciplines that have already accumulated a fairly rich mathematical arsenal.

Axiomatic methoda method of constructing a scientific theory, in which certain provisions that do not require special proof (axioms or postulates) are taken as its basis, from which all other provisions are derived using formal logical proofs. The set of axioms and propositions derived on their basis forms an axiomatically constructed theory, which includes abstract sign models. Such a theory can be used to model not one, but several classes of phenomena, to characterize not one, but several subject areas. To derive provisions from the axioms, they formulate special rules output position of mathematical logic. Finding the rules for correlating the axioms of a formally constructed knowledge system with a specific subject area is called interpretation. In modern natural science, examples of formal axiomatic theories are fundamental physical theories, which entails a number of specific problems of their interpretation and justification (especially for theoretical constructions of non-classical and post-non-classical science).

Due to the specificity of axiomatically constructed systems of theoretical knowledge, intra-theoretical criteria of truth become of particular importance for their substantiation: the requirement of consistency and completeness of the theory and the requirement of sufficient grounds for proving or refuting any position formulated within the framework of such a theory.

This method is widely used in mathematics, as well as in those natural sciences where the formalization method is used. (Limitations of the method).

Hypothetico-deductive methoda method of constructing a scientific theory, which is based on the creation of a system of interrelated hypotheses, from which a system of particular hypotheses, subject to experimental verification, is then derived through deductive development. Thus, this method is based on deduction (derivation) of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the true meaning of which is unknown. This means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably be probabilistic in nature.

Structure of the hypothetico-deductive method:

1) putting forward a hypothesis about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;

2) assessment of the validity of hypotheses and selection of the most probable one from among them;

3) deriving consequences from the hypothesis deductively with clarification of its content;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, confirmation of individual consequences does not guarantee its truth or falsity as a whole. The best hypothesis based on the test results becomes a theory.

Method of ascent from abstract to concretea method that consists in initially finding the original abstraction (the main connection (relation) of the object being studied), and then, step by step, through successive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge, tracing how it changes in different conditions, new connections are discovered, their interactions are established and, thus, the essence of the studied object is displayed in its entirety.

Method of historical and logical analysis. The historical method requires a description of the actual history of an object in all the diversity of its existence. Logical method is a mental reconstruction of the history of an object, cleared of everything random, unimportant and focused on identifying the essence. Unity of logical and historical analysis.

Logical procedures for substantiating scientific knowledge

All specific methods, both empirical and theoretical, are accompanied by logical procedures. The effectiveness of empirical and theoretical methods is directly dependent on how correctly the corresponding scientific reasoning is constructed from a logical point of view.

Rationale a logical procedure associated with the assessment of a certain product of knowledge as a component of a system of scientific knowledge from the point of view of its compliance with the functions, goals and objectives of this system.

Main types of justification:

Proof a logical procedure in which an expression with an as yet unknown meaning is derived from statements whose truth has already been established. This allows you to eliminate any doubts and recognize the truth of this expression.

Proof structure:

Thesis (expression, truth, which is established);

Arguments, arguments (statements with the help of which the truth of the thesis is established);

Additional assumptions (expressions of an auxiliary nature, introduced into the structure of the proof and eliminated when moving to the final result);

Demonstration (logical form of this procedure).

A typical example of a proof is any mathematical reasoning, the results of which lead to the adoption of a new theorem. In it, this theorem acts as a thesis, previously proven theorems and axioms as arguments, and the demonstration is a form of deduction.

Types of evidence:

Direct (the thesis directly follows from the arguments);

Indirect (the thesis is proven indirectly):

Apagogical (proof by contradiction establishing the falsity of the antithesis: it is assumed that the antithesis is true, and consequences are derived from it; if at least one of the resulting consequences contradicts existing true judgments, then the consequence is recognized as false, and after it the antithesis itself the truth of the thesis is recognized);

Dividing (the truth of a thesis is established by excluding all alternatives opposing it).

Closely related to proof is the logical procedure of refutation.

Refutation a logical procedure that establishes the falsity of the thesis of a logical statement.

Types of rebuttal:

Proof of antithesis (a statement that contradicts the thesis being refuted is independently proven);

Establishing the falsity of the consequences arising from the thesis (an assumption is made about the truth of the thesis being refuted and consequences are derived from it; if at least one consequence does not correspond to reality, i.e. is false, then the assumption the thesis being refuted will also be false).

Thus, with the help of refutation, a negative result is achieved. But it also has a positive effect: the circle of search for the true position is narrowed.

Confirmation partial justification for the truth of a certain statement. It plays a special role in the presence of hypotheses and the absence of sufficient arguments for their acceptance. If during proof a complete justification for the truth of a certain statement is achieved, then during confirmation it is partial.

Statement B confirms hypothesis A if and only if statement B is a true consequence of A. This criterion is true in cases where what is confirmed and what confirms refers to the same level of knowledge. Therefore, it is reliable in mathematics or in testing elementary generalizations that can be reduced to observational results. However, there are significant reservations if the confirmed and the confirming are at different cognitive levels confirmation of theoretical positions by empirical data. The latter are formed under the influence of a variety of factors, including random ones. Only taking them into account and reducing them to zero can bring confirmation.

If a hypothesis is confirmed by facts, this does not mean that it should be immediately and unconditionally accepted. According to the rules of logic, the truth of consequence B does not mean the truth of reason A. Each new consequence makes a hypothesis more and more probable, but in order to become an element of the corresponding system of theoretical knowledge, it must go through a long path of testing for applicability in a given system and the ability to fulfill its defined requirements. the nature of the function.

Thus, when confirming the thesis:

Its consequences act as arguments;

The demonstration is not of a necessary (deductive) nature.

Objection a logical procedure opposite to confirmation. It is aimed at weakening a certain thesis (hypothesis).

Types of objections:

Direct (direct examination of the shortcomings of the thesis; as a rule, by citing a true antithesis, or by using an antithesis that is not sufficiently substantiated and has a certain degree of probability);

Indirect (directed not against the thesis itself, but against the arguments given to support it or the logical form of its connection with the arguments (demonstration).

Explanation a logical procedure that reveals the essential characteristics, causal connections or functional relationships of some object.

Types of explanation:

1) Object (depending on the nature of the object):

Essential (aimed at revealing the essential characteristics of some object). Scientific theories and laws serve as arguments;

Causal (the arguments are statements about the causes of certain phenomena;

Functional (the role performed by some element in the system is considered)

2) Subjective (depends on the orientation of the subject, the historical context; one and the same fact can receive a different explanation depending on the specific conditions and orientation of the subject). Used in non-classical and post-non-classical science the requirement to clearly record the features of observation means, etc. Not only the presentation, but also the selection of facts bears traces of subjective activity.

Objectivism and subjectivism.

The difference between explanation and evidence: evidence establishes the truth of the thesis; when explaining, some thesis has already been proven (depending on the direction, the same syllogism can be both a proof and an explanation).

Interpretation a logical procedure that assigns some meaningful meaning or meaning to the symbols or formulas of a formal system. As a result, the formal system turns into a language that describes a particular subject area. This subject area itself, like the meanings assigned to formulas and signs, is also called interpretation. A formal theory is not justified until it has an interpretation. A previously developed substantive theory may also be endowed with new meaning and interpreted in a new way.

A classic example of interpretation is the discovery of a fragment of reality, the properties of which were described by Lobachevsky’s geometry (surfaces of negative curvature). Interpretation is used primarily in the most abstract sciences (logic, mathematics).

Methods for systematizing scientific knowledge

Classification a method of dividing a set of studied objects into subsets based on strictly recorded similarities and differences. Classification a way of organizing an empirical body of information. The purpose of classification is to determine the place in the system of any object, and thereby establish the presence of certain connections between objects. A subject who masters the classification criterion gets the opportunity to navigate the variety of concepts and/or objects. Classification always reflects the level of knowledge available at a given time and summarizes it. On the other hand, classification makes it possible to detect gaps in existing knowledge and serve as the basis for diagnostic and prognostic procedures. In the so-called descriptive science, it was the result (goal) of knowledge (systematics in biology, attempts to classify sciences on various grounds, etc.), and further development was presented as its improvement or the proposal of a new classification.

There are natural and artificial classifications depending on the significance of the attribute that is used as its basis. Natural classifications involve finding a meaningful discrimination criterion; artificial ones can, in principle, be built on the basis of any characteristic. Variant of art c The main classifications are various auxiliary classifications such as alphabetical indexes, etc. In addition, a distinction is made between theoretical (in particular, genetic) and empirical classifications (within the latter, establishing a classification criterion is largely problematic).

Typology a method of dividing a certain set of objects under study into ordered and systematized groups with certain properties using an idealized model or type (ideal or constructive). Typology is based on the concept of fuzzy sets, i.e. sets that do not have clear boundaries, when the transition from elements belonging to the set to not belonging to the set occurs gradually, not abruptly, i.e. elements of a certain subject area relate to it only with a certain degree of belonging.

Typology is carried out according to a selected and conceptually justified criterion(s), or according to an empirically discovered and theoretically interpreted basis(s), which makes it possible to distinguish between theoretical and empirical typologizations, respectively. It is assumed that the differences between the units forming the type in the relation of interest to the researcher are random in nature (due to factors that cannot be taken into account) and are insignificant in comparison with similar differences between objects classified as different types.

The result of typologization is a typology that is justified within it. The latter can be considered in a number of sciences as a form of knowledge representation, or as a precursor to the construction of a theory of any subject area, or as a final one when it is impossible (or the scientific community is not ready) to formulate a theory adequate to the field of study.

Connection and difference between classification and typologization:

Classification involves finding a clear place for each element (object) in a group (class) or row (sequence), with clear boundaries between classes or rows (one individual element cannot simultaneously belong to different classes(rows), or not to enter any of them at all). In addition, it is believed that the classification criterion can be random, and the typologization criterion is always essential. The typology identifies homogeneous sets, each of which is a modification of the same quality (an essential, “root” feature, or rather the “idea” of this set). Naturally, in contrast to the sign of classification, the “idea” of typologization is far from being visual, externally manifested and detectable. Classification is less closely related to content than typology

At the same time, some classifications, especially empirical ones, can be interpreted as preliminary (primary) typologizations, or as a transitional procedure for ordering elements (objects) on the way to typologization.

The language of science. Specifics of scientific terminology

In both empirical and theoretical research, the language of science plays a special role, revealing a number of features in comparison with the language of everyday knowledge. There are several reasons why ordinary language is insufficient to describe the objects of scientific research:

His vocabulary does not allow him to record information about objects that go beyond the sphere of direct practical activity of a person and his everyday knowledge;

The concepts of everyday language are vague and ambiguous;

The grammatical structures of everyday language develop spontaneously, contain historical layers, are often cumbersome in nature and do not allow one to clearly express the structure of thought and the logic of mental activity.

Due to these features, scientific knowledge involves the development and use of specialized, artificial languages. Their number is constantly increasing as science develops. The first example of creating special linguistic means serves as Aristotle's introduction of symbolic notation into logic.

The need for an accurate and adequate language led, in the course of the development of science, to the creation of special terminology. Along with this, the need to improve linguistic means in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages ​​of science.

Features of the language of science:

Clarity and unambiguity of concepts;

The presence of clear rules defining the meaning of the original terms;

Lack of cultural and historical layers.

In the language of science, a distinction is made between object language and metalanguage.

Object (subject) languagea language whose expressions relate to a certain area of ​​objects, their properties and relationships. For example, the language of mechanics describes the properties of the mechanical motion of material bodies and the interaction between them; the language of arithmetic speaks about numbers, their properties, operations on numbers; language of chemistry about chemicals and reactions, etc. In general, any language is usually used, first of all, to talk about some extra-linguistic objects, and in this sense, every language is objective.

Metalanguage is a language used to express judgments about another language, an object language. With the help of mathematics, they study the structure of expressions of an object language, its expressive properties, its relationship to other languages, etc. Example: in a textbook in English For Russians, Russian is a metalanguage, and English is an object language.Along with this, the need to improve linguistic means in scientific knowledge led to the emergence of formalized languages ​​of science.

Of course, in a natural language, the object language and metalanguage are combined: we speak in this language both about objects and about the language expressions themselves. Such a language is called semantically closed. Linguistic intuition usually helps us avoid the paradoxes that the semantic closure of natural language leads to. But when constructing formalized languages, care is taken to ensure that the object language is clearly separated from the metalanguage.

Scientific terminologya set of words with an exact, unique meaning within a given scientific discipline.

The basis of scientific terminology is scientific definitions

There are two meanings of the term “definition”:

1) definition an operation that allows you to distinguish an object from other objects, to clearly distinguish it from them; this is achieved by indicating a feature inherent in this, and only this, object ( distinctive feature) (for example, to distinguish a square from the class of rectangles, one points to a feature that is inherent in squares and not inherent in other rectangles, such as equality of sides);

2) definition a logical operation that makes it possible to reveal, clarify or form the meaning of some linguistic expressions with the help of other linguistic expressions (for example, a tithe is an area equal to 1.09 hectares since a person understands the meaning of the expression “1.09 hectares”, for The meaning of the word “tithe” becomes clear to him.

A definition that gives a distinctive characteristic of a certain object is called real. A definition that reveals, clarifies or forms the meaning of some linguistic expressions with the help of others is called nominal. These two concepts are not mutually exclusive. The definition of an expression can simultaneously be a definition of the corresponding subject.

Nominal:

Explicit (classical and genetic or inductive);

Contextual.

In science, definitions play an essential role. By giving a definition, we gain the opportunity to solve a number of cognitive problems related, firstly, to the procedures of naming and recognition. These tasks include:

Establishing the meaning of an unfamiliar linguistic expression using expressions that are familiar and already meaningful (registering definitions);

Clarification of terms and, at the same time, development of an unambiguous characteristic of the subject under consideration (clarifying definitions);

Introduction into scientific circulation of new terms or concepts (postulating definitions).

Secondly, definitions allow the construction of inferential procedures. Thanks to definitions, words acquire precision, clarity and unambiguity.

However, the meaning of definitions should not be exaggerated. It must be borne in mind that they do not reflect the entire content of the subject in question. The actual study of scientific theory is not limited to mastering the sum of definitions that are contained in them. Question about the accuracy of terms.

METHODOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC COGNITION - the doctrine of methods (method) of cognition, i.e., a system of rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive problems

Any scientific research - from creative concept to final design scientific work, is carried out very individually. But we can still name general methodological approaches to its implementation.

Modern scientific and theoretical thinking strives to penetrate into the essence of the phenomena and processes being studied. This is possible subject to a holistic approach to the object of study, consideration of this object in its emergence and development, that is, the use of a historical approach.

To study in the scientific sense is to conduct exploratory research, as if looking into the future. Imagination, fantasy, dreams, based on real achievements of science and technology, are the most important factors in scientific research.

To study in the scientific sense is to be scientifically objective. Facts cannot be thrown aside just because they are difficult to explain or find practical application for. The fact is that the essence of what is new in science is not always visible to the researcher himself. New scientific facts and discoveries, due to the fact that their significance is poorly disclosed, can remain in the reserve of science for a long time and not be used in practice.

The development of an idea to the stage of solving a problem is usually carried out as a planned process of scientific research. Science is also aware of accidental discoveries, but only planned scientific research, well equipped with modern technical means, allows one to reveal and deeply understand objective patterns in nature. In the future, the process of targeted processing of the original plan continues. Clarifications, changes, additions are made to it, and the planned research scheme is developed.

Any scientific research is carried out using appropriate techniques and methods and according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. In the literature, this concept means a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.) and the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology. For example, economists consider methodology as the application of a system of logical techniques and special methods for studying phenomena.

Ultimately, scientists understand the methodology of scientific knowledge as the doctrine of methods (method) of knowledge, that is, a system of rules, methods and techniques designed to successfully solve cognitive problems.

Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods, tools and techniques that were discovered in philosophy, science and other forms of human activity. Methodology in a certain sense is “broader” than dialectics, since it studies not only the universal (like the latter), but other levels of methodological knowledge, as well as their interrelationships, modifications, etc.

The methodology, in a certain sense, is already the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of the forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the problems of the nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the subject and object of knowledge, the possibilities and boundaries of knowledge, the criteria of its truth, etc. On the other hand On the other hand, methodology is “broader” than epistemology, since it is interested not only in methods of cognition, but also in all other forms of human activity.

Methodology of scientific research (planning, forecasting, topic selection)

The method of scientific research is a set of ways of knowing objective reality. A method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations aimed at studying the object or subject of research. The concept of “method” should be distinguished from the concepts of “technique”, “procedure” and “technique” of scientific research.

Research methodology is a set of research methods used in a certain sequence to study the object or subject of research. It depends on the nature of the object of study, methodology, purpose of the study, methods developed, and the general level of qualifications of the researcher.

It is impossible to draw up a research program and methodology:

Firstly, without clarifying in what external signs the phenomenon being studied manifests itself, what are the indicators and criteria for its development;

Secondly, without correlating research methods with the various manifestations of the phenomenon under study. Only if these conditions are met can one hope for reliable scientific conclusions.

During the research, a program is drawn up. It should reflect:

What phenomenon is being studied;

By what indicators?

What evaluation criteria are applied;

What research methods are used;

The order of application of certain methods.

Thus, the methodology is like a research model, and unfolded over time. A certain set of methods is thought out for each stage of the study.

When choosing a methodology, many factors are taken into account, and above all the subject, purpose, and objectives of the study.

The research methodology, despite its individuality, has a certain structure when solving a specific problem. Its main components:

The theoretical and methodological part, the concept on the basis of which the entire methodology is built;

Researched phenomena, processes, signs, parameters;

Subordination and coordination connections and dependencies between them;

The set of methods used, their subordination and coordination;

The procedure for applying methods and methodological techniques;

Sequence and technique for summarizing research results;

Composition, role and place of researchers in the process of implementing the research plan.

Skillful definition of the content of each structural element Methods and their relationships are the art of research.

A well-thought-out methodology organizes the research, ensures the receipt of the necessary factual material, based on the analysis of which scientific conclusions are drawn.

Scientific research methods:

Stage 0. Methodology for posing a scientific problem based on revealing the contradictions between the currently available knowledge about the object of research and the knowledge necessary for the practical solution of a problem demanded by society.

Stage 1. Methodology for selecting a topic and scientific justification of its relevance for the development of science and practical application

Stage 2. Methodology for information search for ways to solve a problem and formulation of a hypothesis with clarification of research objectives, development of a scientific research plan

Stage 3. Methodology of scientific research - conducting scientific research (theoretical and experimental work)

Stage 4. Methodology for formulating scientific theses based on a generalization of scientific results.

Scientific research begins with the formulation of a problem, so the methodology should allow one to reveal contradictions between existing knowledge about the object of research, which are necessary for the practical solution of the problem, i.e. There is clearly insufficient theoretical information about the object of research to obtain the required result (stage 0). Statement of the problem allows you to select a research topic based on the methodology for formulating the topic and justifying its relevance for solving a specific research problem (stage 1). The choice of topic, its formulation and justification of the relevance of the development allows us to move on to the next stage - an information search for ways to solve the problem based on the methodology of analyzing literary sources to summarize the existing scientific results in this field of knowledge (review of literary sources and use information resources Internet). The result will be a plan for conducting scientific research on the problem posed (stage 2). A scientific research methodology is usually formed based on a selection from existing methods that have previously been used for other objects (processes, phenomena) in related fields, or if a prototype of such a methodology is not available, then A new proprietary method is being developed to solve the problem posed in the topic (stage 3).