To methods empirical research in science and technology include, among several others, observation, comparison, measurement and experiment.

Observation is understood as a systematic and purposeful perception of an object that interests us for some reason: things, phenomena, properties, states, aspects of the whole - both material and ideal nature.

This is the simplest method, which, as a rule, acts as part of other empirical methods, although in a number of sciences it acts independently or as the main one (as in weather observation, observational astronomy, etc.). The invention of the telescope allowed man to extend observation to a previously inaccessible area of ​​the megaworld; the creation of the microscope marked an invasion of the microworld. An X-ray machine, radar, ultrasound generator and many other technical means of observation have led to an unprecedented increase in the scientific and practical value of this research method. There are also methods and techniques for self-observation and self-control (in psychology, medicine, physical education and sports, etc.).

The very concept of observation in the theory of knowledge generally appears in the form of the concept of “contemplation”; it is associated with the categories of activity and activity of the subject.

To be fruitful and productive, observation must satisfy the following requirements:-

be intentional, that is, carried out to solve well-defined problems within the framework of the general goal(s) of scientific activity and practice; -

systematic, that is, to consist of observations following a specific plan, pattern, resulting from the nature of the object, as well as the goals and objectives of the study; -

purposeful, that is, to fix the observer’s attention only on the objects that interest him and not to dwell on those that fall outside the observation tasks. Observation aimed at the perception of individual details, sides, aspects, parts of an object is called fixing, and covering the whole under the condition of repeated observation (return) - fluctuating. The combination of these types of observation ultimately gives a holistic picture of the object; -

to be active, that is, when the observer purposefully searches for objects necessary for his tasks among a certain set of them, considers individual properties and aspects of these objects that interest him, while relying on his own stock of knowledge, experience and skills; -

systematic, that is, when the observer conducts his observation continuously, and not randomly and sporadically (as with simple contemplation), according to a certain, pre-thought-out scheme, in various or strictly specified conditions.

Observation as a method of scientific knowledge and practice gives us facts in the form of a set of empirical statements about objects. These facts form primary information about the objects of cognition and study. Let us note that in reality itself there are no facts: it simply exists. Facts are in people's heads. The description of scientific facts occurs on the basis of a certain scientific language, ideas, pictures of the world, theories, hypotheses and models. It is they who determine the primary schematization of the idea of ​​a given object. Actually, it is precisely under such conditions that the “object of science” arises (which should not be confused with the object of reality itself, since the second is a theoretical description of the first!).

Many scientists specifically developed their ability to observe, that is, observation. Charles Darwin said that he owed his successes to the fact that he intensively developed this quality in himself.

Comparison is one of the most common and universal methods of cognition. A well-known aphorism: “Everything is known by comparison” - the best for that proof. Comparison is the establishment of similarities (identities) and differences between objects and phenomena of various kinds, their aspects, etc., in general, objects of study. As a result of comparison, what is common to two or more objects is established - in this moment or in their history. In sciences of a historical nature, comparison was developed to the level of the main method of research, which was called comparative historical. Identification of the general, recurring in phenomena, as is known, is a step on the path to knowledge of the natural.

In order for a comparison to be fruitful, it must satisfy two basic requirements: only such aspects and aspects, objects as a whole, between which there is an objective commonality, should be compared; the comparison should be based on the most important, significant characteristics in a given research or other task. Comparison based on unimportant characteristics can only lead to misconceptions and errors. In this regard, one must be careful when drawing conclusions “by analogy.” The French even say that “comparison is not proof!”

Objects of interest to a researcher, engineer, or designer can be compared either directly or indirectly - through a third object. In the first case, qualitative assessments of the type are obtained: more - less, lighter - darker, higher - lower, closer - further, etc. True, even here you can get the simplest quantitative characteristics: “twice as high”, “twice as heavy” and etc. When there is also a third object in the role of a standard, measure, scale, then especially valuable and more accurate quantitative characteristics are obtained. I call such a comparison through an intermediary object a measurement. The comparison also prepares the basis for a number of theoretical methods. It itself is often based on inferences by analogy, which we will discuss further.

Measurement has historically developed from observation and comparison. However, unlike a simple comparison, it is more effective and accurate. Modern natural science, which began with Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo and Newton. It flourished due to the use of measurements. It was Galileo who proclaimed the principle of a quantitative approach to phenomena, according to which the description of physical phenomena should be based on quantities that have a quantitative measure - number. He said that the book of nature is written in the language of mathematics. Engineering, design and construction continue this same line in their methods. We will consider measurement here, in contrast to other authors who combine measurement with experiment, as an independent method.

Measurement is a procedure for determining the numerical value of some characteristic of an object by comparing it with a unit of measurement accepted as a standard by a given researcher or all scientists and practitioners. As is known, there are international and national units of measurement of the basic characteristics of various classes of objects, such as hour, meter, gram, volt, bit, etc.; day, pud, pound, verst, mile, etc. Measurement presupposes the presence of the following basic elements: an object of measurement, a unit of measurement, that is, a scale, measure, standard; measuring device; measurement method; observer.

Measurements can be direct or indirect. In direct measurement, the result is obtained directly from the measurement process itself (for example, using measures of length, time, weight, etc.). With indirect measurement, the desired value is determined mathematically on the basis of other values ​​previously obtained by direct measurement. This is how, for example, the specific gravity, area and volume of bodies of regular shape, speed and acceleration of the body, power, etc. are obtained.

Measurement allows us to find and formulate empirical laws and fundamental world constants. In this regard, it can serve as a source of formation of even entire scientific theories. Thus, long-term measurements of the motion of planets by Tycho de Brahe later allowed Kepler to create generalizations in the form of the well-known three empirical laws of planetary motion. The measurement of atomic weights in chemistry was one of the foundations for Mendeleev’s formulation of his famous periodic law in chemistry, etc. Measurement provides not only accurate quantitative information about reality, but also allows us to introduce new qualitative considerations into the theory. This is what ultimately happened with Michelson’s measurement of the speed of light during the development of Einstein’s theory of relativity. The examples can be continued.

The most important indicator of the value of a measurement is its accuracy. Thanks to it, facts can be discovered that are not consistent with currently existing theories. At one time, for example, deviations in the perihelion of Mercury from the calculated value (that is, consistent with the laws of Kepler and Newton) by 13 seconds per century could only be explained by creating a new, relativistic concept of the world in the general theory of relativity.

The accuracy of measurements depends on the available instruments, their capabilities and quality, the methods used and the training of the researcher. Large amounts of money are often spent on measurements, and they are often prepared long time, many people participate in them, and the result may be either zero or inconclusive. Often, researchers are not ready for the results obtained, because they share a certain concept, theory, but it cannot include this result. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, the scientist Landolt very accurately tested the law of conservation of weight of substances in chemistry and became convinced of its validity. If his technique were improved (and the accuracy increased by 2 - 3 orders of magnitude), then it would be possible to derive Einstein's famous relation between mass and energy: E = mc. But would this have been convincing to the scientific world of that time? Hardly! Science was not yet ready for this. In the 20th century, when, by determining the masses of radioactive isotopes by the deflection of an ion beam, the English physicist F. Aston confirmed Einstein’s theoretical conclusion, this was perceived in science as a natural result.

Please note that there are certain requirements for the level of accuracy. It must be in accordance with the nature of the objects and with the requirements of the cognitive, design, engineering or engineering task. So, in engineering and construction they constantly deal with measuring mass (that is, weight), length (size), etc. But in most cases, precision accuracy is not required here; moreover, it would look generally funny if, say, weight support column for the building was checked to thousandths or even smaller fractions of a gram! There is also the problem of measuring bulk material associated with random deviations, as happens in large aggregates. Similar phenomena are typical for objects of the microworld, for biological, social, economic and other similar objects. The search for a statistical average and methods specifically focused on processing randomness and its distributions in the form of probabilistic methods, etc. are applicable here.

To eliminate random and systematic measurement errors, identify errors and errors associated with the nature of the instruments and the observer (human), a special mathematical theory errors.

In the 20th century, measurement methods in conditions of rapid processes, in aggressive environments where the presence of an observer is excluded, etc., acquired particular importance in connection with the development of technology. Methods of auto- and electrometry, as well as computer information processing and control of measurement processes, came to the rescue here. In their development, an outstanding role was played by the developments of scientists from the Novosibirsk Institute of Automation and Electrometry SB RAS, as well as NSTU (NETI). These were world class results.

Measurement, along with observation and comparison, is widely used at the empirical level of cognition and human activity in general; it is part of the most developed, complex and significant method - experimental.

An experiment is understood as a method of studying and transforming objects when a researcher actively influences them by creating artificial conditions necessary to identify any properties, characteristics, or aspects of interest to him, consciously changing the course of natural processes, while conducting regulation, measurements and observations. The main means of creating such conditions are a variety of instruments and artificial devices, which we will discuss below. An experiment is the most complex, comprehensive and effective method of empirical knowledge and transformation of objects of various kinds. But its essence is not in complexity, but in purposefulness, intentionality and intervention through regulation and management during the studied and transformed processes and states of objects.

Galileo is considered the founder of experimental science and the experimental method. Experience as the main path for natural science was first identified at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries by the English philosopher Francis Bacon. Experience is the main path for engineering and technology.

The distinctive features of an experiment are the possibility of studying and transforming an object in a relatively pure form, when all the side factors that obscure the essence of the matter are eliminated almost entirely. This makes it possible to study objects of reality under extreme conditions, that is, at ultra-low and ultra-high temperatures, pressures and energies, process rates, electric and magnetic field strengths, interaction energies, etc.

Under these conditions, it is possible to obtain unexpected and surprising properties from ordinary objects and, thereby, penetrate deeper into their essence and mechanisms of transformation (extreme experiment and analysis).

Examples of phenomena discovered under extreme conditions are superfluidity and superconductivity at low temperatures. The most important advantage of an experiment is its repeatability, when observations, measurements, tests of the properties of objects are carried out repeatedly under varying conditions in order to increase the accuracy, reliability and practical significance of previously obtained results, and to verify the existence of a new phenomenon in general.

The experiment is resorted to in the following situations: -

when they try to discover previously unknown properties and characteristics of an object - this is a research experiment; -

when the correctness of certain theoretical positions, conclusions and hypotheses is checked - a theory-testing experiment; -

when the correctness of previously performed experiments is checked - a verification (for experiments) experiment; -

educational and demonstration experiment.

Any of these types of experiments can be carried out either directly with the object being examined or with its substitute - models of various kinds. Experiments of the first type are called full-scale, the second - model (simulation). Examples of experiments of the second type are studies of the hypothetical primary atmosphere of the Earth on models of a mixture of gases and water vapor. The experiments of Miller and Abelson confirmed the possibility of the formation of organic formations and compounds during electrical discharges in the model of the primary atmosphere, and this, in turn, became a test of the theory of Oparin and Haldane about the origin of life. Another example is model experiments on computers, which are becoming increasingly widespread in all sciences. In this regard, physicists today talk about the emergence of “computational physics” (computer operation is based on mathematical programs and computational operations).

The advantage of the experiment is the ability to study objects in a wider range of conditions than the original allows, which is especially noticeable in medicine, where it is impossible to conduct experiments that harm human health. Then they resort to the help of living and non-living models that repeat or imitate the characteristics of a person and his organs. Experiments can be conducted both on material-field and information objects, and with their ideal copies; in the latter case, we have a thought experiment, including a computational one, as an ideal form of a real experiment (computer simulation of an experiment).

At present, attention to sociological experiments is increasing. But there are features here that limit the possibilities of such experiments in accordance with the laws and principles of humanity, which are reflected in the concepts and agreements of the UN and international law. Thus, no one except criminals will plan experimental wars, epidemics, etc. in order to study their consequences. In this regard, scenarios of a nuclear missile war and its consequences in the form of a “nuclear winter” were played out on computers here and in the USA. Conclusion from this experiment: nuclear war will inevitably bring the death of all humanity and all life on Earth. The importance of economic experiments is great, but even here the irresponsibility and political bias of politicians can and does lead to catastrophic results.

Observations, measurements and experiments are mainly based on various instruments. What is a device in terms of its role for research? In the broad sense of the word, instruments are understood as artificial, technical means and various kinds of devices that allow us to study any phenomenon, property, state, or characteristic of interest to us from a quantitative and/or qualitative side, as well as create strictly defined conditions for their detection, implementation and regulation; devices that allow observation and measurement at the same time.

It is equally important to choose a reference system and create it specifically in the device. By reference systems we understand objects that are mentally accepted as initial, basic and physically at rest, motionless. This is most clearly seen when measured using different reference scales. In astronomical observations, these are the Earth, the Sun, other bodies, fixed (conditionally) stars, etc. Physicists call “laboratory” that reference system, an object that coincides with the place of observation and measurement in the spatio-temporal sense. In the instrument itself, the reference system is an important part of the measuring device, conditionally calibrated on a reference scale, where the observer records, for example, the deviation of a needle or light signal from the beginning of the scale. In digital measurement systems, we still have a reference point known to the observer based on knowledge of the features of the countable set of measurement units used here. Simple and understandable scales, for example, on rulers, watches with a dial, on most electrical and heat measuring instruments.

In the classical period of science, among the requirements for instruments were, firstly, sensitivity to the influence of an external measured factor for measuring and regulating experimental conditions; secondly, the so-called “resolution” - that is, the limits of accuracy and maintenance of specified conditions for the process being studied in an experimental device.

At the same time, it was tacitly believed that with the progress of science they would all be able to be improved and increased. In the 20th century, thanks to the development of the physics of the microworld, it was found that there is a lower limit to the divisibility of matter and field (quanta, etc.), there is a lower value of the magnitude of the electric charge, etc. All this caused a revision of previous requirements and attracted special attention to physical systems and other units known to everyone from the school physics course.

An important condition for the objectivity of the description of objects was also considered the fundamental possibility of abstraction, abstraction from reference systems by or choosing the so-called " natural system reference", or by discovering such properties in objects that do not depend on the choice of reference systems. In science they are called "invariants" There are not so many such invariants in nature itself: this is the weight of the hydrogen atom (and it has become a measure, a unit for measuring the weight of others chemical atoms), this is an electric charge, the so-called “action” in mechanics and physics (its dimension is energy x time), the Planck quantum of action (in quantum mechanics), the gravitational constant, the speed of light, etc. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, science found out , it seemed, paradoxical things: mass, length, time are relative, they depend on the speed of movement of particles of matter and fields and, of course, on the position of the observer in the reference system. In the special theory of relativity, a special invariant was eventually found - the “four-dimensional interval”.

The importance and role of research into reference systems and invariants grew throughout the 20th century, especially in the study extreme conditions, the nature and speed of processes, such as ultra-high energies, low and ultra-low temperatures, fast processes, etc. The problem of measurement accuracy also remains important. All instruments used in science and technology can be divided into observational, measuring and experimental. There are several types and subspecies according to their purpose and functions in the study:

1. Measuring partings of various kinds with two subtypes:

a) direct measurement (rulers, measuring vessels, etc.);

b) indirect, indirect measurement (for example, pyrometers that measure body temperature by measuring radiation energy; strain gauges and sensors - pressure through electrical processes in the device itself; etc.). 2.

Strengthening the natural organs of a person, but not changing the essence and nature of the observed and measured characteristics. These include optical instruments (from glasses to a telescope), many acoustic instruments, etc. 3.

Transforming natural processes and phenomena from one type to another, accessible to the observer and/or his observation and measuring devices. These are X-ray machines, scintillation sensors, etc.

4. Experimental instruments and devices, as well as their systems, including observation and measuring instruments as an integral part. The range of such devices extends to the size of giant particle accelerators, such as Serpukhov. In them, processes and objects of various kinds are relatively isolated from the environment, they are regulated, controlled, and phenomena are isolated in the most pure form (that is, without other extraneous phenomena and processes, interference, disturbing factors, etc.).

5. Demonstration devices that serve to visually demonstrate various properties, phenomena and patterns of various kinds during teaching. These also include test benches and simulators of various kinds, since they are visual and often imitate certain phenomena, as if deceiving students.

There are also instruments and devices: a) for research purposes (for us they are the main thing here) and, b) for mass consumer use. The progress of instrument making is a concern not only for scientists, but also for designers and instrument engineers in the first place.

One can also distinguish model devices, as if a continuation of all the previous ones in the form of their substitutes, as well as reduced copies and models of real instruments and devices, natural objects. An example of models of the first kind will be cybernetic and computer simulations of real ones, which allow one to study and design real objects, often in a wide range of somewhat similar systems (in control and communications, design of systems and communications, networks of various kinds, in CAD). Examples of models of the second kind are real models of a bridge, an airplane, a dam, a beam, a car and its components, or any device.

In a broad sense, a device is not only some artificial formation, but it is also an environment in which some process takes place. The latter can also be played by a computer. Then they say that we have before us a computational experiment (when operating with numbers).

Computational experiment as a method has a great future, since often the experimenter deals with multifactorial and collective processes where enormous statistics are needed. The experimenter also deals with aggressive environments and processes that are dangerous to humans and living things in general (in connection with the latter, there are environmental problems of scientific and engineering experiments).

The development of microworld physics has shown that in our theoretical description of microworld objects we, in principle, cannot get rid of the influence of the device on the desired answer. Moreover, here we, in principle, cannot simultaneously measure the coordinates and momenta of microparticles, etc.; after the measurement, it is necessary to construct mutually complementary descriptions of the behavior of the particle due to the readings of different instruments and non-simultaneous descriptions of measurement data (W. Heisenberg's uncertainty principles and N. Bohr's complementarity principle).

Progress in instrument making often creates a genuine revolution in a particular science. Classic examples are discoveries made through the invention of the microscope, telescope, X-ray machine, spectroscope and spectrometer, the creation of satellite laboratories, the carrying of instruments into space on satellites, etc. Expenses for instruments and experiments in many research institutes often make up the lion's share of their budgets. Today there are many examples when experiments are beyond the means of entire large countries, and therefore they go for scientific cooperation (like CERN in Switzerland, in space programs, etc.).

In the course of the development of science, the role of instruments is often distorted and exaggerated. So in philosophy, in connection with the peculiarities of experiments in the microworld, as discussed just above, the idea arose that in this area all our knowledge is entirely of instrumental origin. The device, as if continuing the subject of cognition, interferes with the objective course of events. Hence the conclusion is drawn: all our knowledge about the objects of the microworld is subjective, it is of instrumental origin. As a result, a whole direction of philosophy arose in the science of the 20th century - instrumental idealism or operationalism (P. Bridgman). Of course, there was response criticism, but a similar idea is still found among scientists. In many ways, it arose due to the underestimation of theoretical knowledge and cognition, as well as its capabilities.

Empirical research methods

1. Empirical methods (methods-operations).

Study of literature, documents and results of activities. Issues of working with scientific literature will be discussed separately below, since this is not only a research method, but also a mandatory procedural component of any scientific work.

The source of factual material for the research is also a variety of documentation: archival materials in historical research; documentation of enterprises, organizations and institutions in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other studies, etc. The study of performance results plays an important role in pedagogy, especially when studying the problems of professional training of students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology of labor; and, for example, in archeology, during excavations, the analysis of the results of human activity: by the remains of tools, dishes, dwellings, etc. allows us to restore the way of their life in a particular era.

Observation is, in principle, the most informative research method. This is the only method that allows you to see all aspects of the phenomena and processes being studied that are accessible to the perception of the observer - both directly and with the help of various instruments.

Depending on the goals pursued in the process of observation, the latter can be scientific or non-scientific. Purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the external world, associated with the solution of a specific scientific problem or task, is usually called scientific observation. Scientific observations involve obtaining certain information for further theoretical understanding and interpretation, for affirming or refuting a hypothesis, etc. Scientific observation consists of the following procedures:

• · determination of the purpose of observation (for what, for what purpose?);
• · selection of an object, process, situation (what to observe?);
• · choice of method and frequency of observations (how to observe?);
• · choice of methods for recording the observed object, phenomenon (how to record the information received?);
• · processing and interpretation of received information (what is the result?).

The observed situations are divided into:

• · natural and artificial;
• · controlled and not controlled by the subject of observation;
• · spontaneous and organized;
• · standard and non-standard;
• · normal and extreme, etc.

In addition, depending on the organization of observation, it can be open and hidden, field and laboratory, and depending on the nature of the recording - ascertaining, evaluative and mixed. Based on the method of obtaining information, observations are divided into direct and instrumental. Based on the scope of coverage of the objects under study, continuous and selective observations are distinguished; by frequency – constant, periodic and single. A special case of observation is self-observation, which is quite widely used, for example, in psychology.

Observation is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to obtain initial information, would not have scientific facts and empirical data, and therefore the theoretical construction of knowledge would be impossible.

However, observation as a method of cognition has a number of significant disadvantages. The personal characteristics of the researcher, his interests, and finally, his psychological state can significantly influence the results of the observation. Objective observation results are even more susceptible to distortion in cases where the researcher is focused on obtaining a certain result, on confirming his existing hypothesis.

To obtain objective observation results, it is necessary to comply with the requirements of intersubjectivity, that is, observation data must (and/or can) be obtained and recorded, if possible, by other observers.

Replacing direct observation with instruments unlimitedly expands the possibilities of observation, but also does not exclude subjectivity; the evaluation and interpretation of such indirect observation is carried out by the subject, and therefore the subject influence of the researcher can still occur.

Observation is most often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.

Measurement. Measurement is used everywhere, in any human activity. Thus, almost every person takes measurements dozens of times during the day, looking at his watch. General definition measurement is as follows: “Measurement is a cognitive process consisting of comparing... a given quantity with some of its values, accepted as a standard of comparison” (see, for example,).

Including, measurement is an empirical method (method-operation) of scientific research.

A specific measurement structure can be distinguished, including the following elements:

1) a cognizing subject who carries out measurements for certain cognitive purposes;

2) measuring instruments, among which there can be both devices and tools designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;

3) the object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;

4) a method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;

5) the result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using appropriate names or signs.

The epistemological justification of the measurement method is inextricably linked with the scientific understanding of the relationship between the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the object (phenomenon) being studied. Although this method only records quantitative characteristics, these characteristics are inextricably linked with the qualitative certainty of the object being studied. It is thanks to qualitative certainty that quantitative characteristics to be measured can be identified. The unity of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the object being studied means both the relative independence of these aspects and their deep interconnection. The relative independence of quantitative characteristics makes it possible to study them during the measurement process, and use the measurement results to analyze the qualitative aspects of the object.

The problem of measurement accuracy also relates to the epistemological foundations of measurement as a method of empirical knowledge. The accuracy of the measurement depends on the ratio of objective and subjective factors in the measurement process.

Such objective factors include:

the possibility of identifying certain stable quantitative characteristics in the object under study, which in many cases of research, in particular, social and humanitarian phenomena and processes, is difficult, and sometimes even impossible;

– the capabilities of measuring instruments (their degree of perfection) and the conditions in which the measurement process takes place. In some cases, finding the exact value of a quantity is fundamentally impossible. It is impossible, for example, to determine the trajectory of an electron in an atom, etc.

Subjective measurement factors include the choice of measurement methods, the organization of this process and a whole range of cognitive capabilities of the subject - from the qualifications of the experimenter to his ability to correctly and competently interpret the results obtained.

Along with direct measurements, the method of indirect measurement is widely used in the process of scientific experimentation. With indirect measurement, the desired quantity is determined on the basis of direct measurements of other quantities associated with the first functional dependence. Based on the measured values ​​of mass and volume of a body, its density is determined; The resistivity of a conductor can be found from the measured values ​​of resistance, length and cross-sectional area of ​​the conductor, etc. The role of indirect measurements is especially great in cases where direct measurement in conditions of objective reality is impossible. For example, the mass of any space object (natural) is determined using mathematical calculations based on the use of measurement data of other physical quantities.

The measurement results need to be analyzed, and for this it is often necessary to build derivative (secondary) indicators on their basis, that is, apply one or another transformation to the experimental data. The most common derived indicator is the averaging of values ​​- for example, the average weight of people, average height, average per capita income, etc.

Survey. This empirical method is used only in the social sciences and humanities. The survey method is divided into oral survey and written survey.

Oral survey (conversation, interview). The essence of the method is clear from its name. During the interview, the questioner has personal contact with the answerer, that is, he has the opportunity to see how the answerer reacts to a particular question. The observer can, if necessary, ask various additional questions and thus obtain additional data on some unanswered questions.

Oral surveys provide concrete results, and with their help it is possible to obtain comprehensive answers to complex questions of interest to the researcher. However, to questions

respondents of a “sensitive” nature answer in writing much more frankly and give more detailed and thorough answers.

The respondent spends less time and energy on an oral response than on a written one. However, this method also has its negative sides. All respondents are in different conditions, some of them can receive additional information through the researcher’s leading questions; the facial expression or some gesture of the researcher has some effect on the respondent.

The questions used for the interview are planned in advance and a questionnaire is drawn up, where space should be left for recording (logging) the answer.

Basic requirements when writing questions:

the survey should not be random, but systematic; at the same time, questions that are more understandable to the respondent are asked earlier, more difficult ones - later;

questions should be concise, specific and understandable to all respondents;

questions should not conflict with ethical standards. Survey rules:

1) during the interview, the researcher must be alone with the respondent, without outside witnesses;

2) each oral question is read from the question sheet (questionnaire) verbatim, unchanged;

3) the order of the questions is strictly followed; the respondent should not see the questionnaire or be able to read subsequent questions;

4) the interview should be short - from 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the age and intellectual level of the respondents;

5) the interviewer should not influence the respondent in any way (indirectly suggest an answer, shake his head as a sign of disapproval, nod his head, etc.);

6) the interviewer can, if necessary, if the given answer is unclear, ask additionally only neutral questions (for example: “What did you want to say by this?”, “Explain in a little more detail!”).

7) answers are recorded in the questionnaire only during the survey.

The responses are subsequently analyzed and interpreted.

Written survey – questionnaire. It is based on a pre-developed questionnaire (questionnaire), and the responses of respondents (interviewees) to all items of the questionnaire constitute the required empirical information.

The quality of empirical information obtained as a result of a survey depends on factors such as the wording of the survey questions, which should be understandable to the respondent; qualifications, experience, integrity, psychological characteristics of researchers; the situation of the survey, its conditions; emotional condition respondents; customs and traditions, ideas, everyday situations; and also – attitude towards the survey. Therefore, when using such information, it is always necessary to make allowances for the inevitability of subjective distortions due to the specific individual “refraction” of it in the minds of the respondents. And where we're talking about on fundamentally important issues, along with the survey, they also turn to other methods - observation, expert assessments, document analysis.

Particular attention is paid to the development of a questionnaire - a questionnaire containing a series of questions necessary to obtain information in accordance with the objectives and hypothesis of the study. The questionnaire must meet the following requirements: be reasonable regarding the purposes of its use, that is, provide the required information; have stable criteria and reliable rating scales that adequately reflect the situation being studied; the wording of the questions must be clear to the respondent and consistent; Questionnaire questions should not cause negative emotions in the respondent (answer).

Questions can be closed or open-ended. A question is called closed if it has a full set of answer options in the questionnaire. The respondent only marks the option that coincides with his opinion. This form of the questionnaire significantly reduces the filling out time and at the same time makes the questionnaire suitable for processing on a computer. But sometimes there is a need to find out directly the opinion of the respondent on a question that excludes pre-prepared answer options. In this case, they resort to open questions.

When answering an open question, the respondent is guided only by his own ideas. Therefore, this response is more individualized.

Compliance with a number of other requirements also helps to increase the reliability of answers. One of them is to provide the respondent with the opportunity to evade the answer and express an uncertain opinion. To do this, the rating scale should include answer options: “hard to say”, “difficult to answer”, “sometimes differently", "when and how", etc. But the predominance of such options in the answers is evidence of either the incompetence of the respondent or the unsuitability of the wording of the question to obtain the necessary information.

In order to obtain reliable information about the phenomenon or process under study, it is not necessary to interview the entire contingent, since the object of study can be numerically very large. In cases where the object of study exceeds several hundred people, selective questioning is used.

Method of expert assessments. Essentially, this is a type of survey associated with the involvement of the most competent people in the assessment of the phenomena and processes being studied, whose opinions, complementing and cross-checking each other, allow a fairly objective assessment of what is being studied. Using this method requires a number of conditions. First of all, this is a careful selection of experts - people who know the area being assessed, the object being studied well, and are capable of an objective, unbiased assessment.

The choice of an accurate and convenient rating system and corresponding measurement scales is also essential, which organizes judgments and makes it possible to express them in certain quantities.

It is often necessary to train experts to use the proposed scales for unambiguous assessment in order to minimize errors and make assessments comparable.

If experts acting independently of each other consistently give coinciding or similar assessments or express similar opinions, there is reason to believe that they are approaching objectiveness. If the estimates differ greatly, then this indicates either an unsuccessful choice of the rating system and measurement scales, or the incompetence of the experts.

Varieties of the expert assessment method are: the commission method, the brainstorming method, the Delphi method, the heuristic forecasting method, etc.

Testing is an empirical method, a diagnostic procedure consisting in the use of tests (from English test - task, test). Tests are usually asked to subjects either in the form of a list of questions that require short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of tasks that do not take much time to solve and also require unambiguous solutions, or in the form of any short-term practical work of the subjects, for example, qualifying trial work in vocational education, in labor economics, etc. Tests are divided into blank, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual and group use.

These are, perhaps, all the empirical methods and operations that the scientific community has at its disposal today. Next, we will consider empirical action methods, which are based on the use of operational methods and their combinations.

2. Empirical methods (methods-actions).

Empirical methods-actions should, first of all, be divided into two classes. The first class is methods of studying an object without transforming it, when the researcher does not make any changes or transformations to the object of study. More precisely, it does not make significant changes to the object - after all, according to the principle of complementarity (see above), the researcher (observer) cannot help but change the object. Let's call them object tracking methods. These include: the tracking method itself and its particular manifestations - examination, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.

Another class of methods is associated with the researcher’s active transformation of the object being studied - let’s call these methods transformative methods - this class will include methods such as experimental work and experiment.

Tracking, often in a number of sciences, is perhaps the only empirical method-action. For example, in astronomy. After all, astronomers cannot yet influence the space objects they study. The only way to monitor their condition is through operation methods: observation and measurement. The same, to a large extent, applies to such branches of scientific knowledge as geography, demography, etc., where the researcher cannot change anything in the object of research.

In addition, tracking is also used when the goal is to study the natural functioning of an object. For example, when studying certain features of radioactive radiation or when studying the reliability of technical devices, which is verified by their long-term operation.

Examination - how special case The tracking method is the study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher. A synonym for the word “inspection” is “inspection,” which suggests that an inspection is basically an initial study of an object, carried out to familiarize itself with its condition, functions, structure, etc. Surveys are most often used in relation to organizational structures– enterprises, institutions, etc. – or in relation to public entities, for example, settlements, for which surveys can be external and internal.

External surveys: survey of the sociocultural and economic situation in the region, survey of the goods and services market and the labor market, survey of the state of employment of the population, etc. Internal surveys: surveys within an enterprise, institution - survey of the state of the production process, surveys of the workforce, etc.

The survey is carried out through methods-operations of empirical research: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written surveys, involvement of experts, etc.

Any survey is carried out according to a pre-developed detailed program, in which the content of the work, its tools (drawing up questionnaires, sets of tests, questionnaires, a list of documents to be studied, etc.) are planned in detail, as well as criteria for assessing the phenomena and processes to be studied. Then follow the stages: collecting information, summarizing materials, summing up results and preparing reporting materials. At each stage, it may be necessary to adjust the survey program when the researcher or group of researchers conducting it becomes convinced that the collected data is not enough to obtain the desired results, or the collected data does not reflect the picture of the object being studied, etc.

Based on the degree of depth, detail and systematization, surveys are divided into:

– aerobatic (reconnaissance) surveys carried out for preliminary, relatively superficial orientation in the object under study;

– specialized (partial) surveys conducted to study individual aspects and aspects of the object being studied;

modular (complex) surveys - for the study of entire blocks, sets of questions programmed by the researcher on the basis of a sufficiently detailed preliminary study of the object, its structure, functions, etc.;

systemic surveys – conducted as full-fledged independent studies based on the identification and formulation of their subject, purpose, hypothesis, etc., and implying a holistic consideration of the object and its system-forming factors.

The researcher or the research team decides at what level to carry out the survey in each specific case, depending on the goals and objectives of the scientific work.

Monitoring. This is constant supervision, regular monitoring of the condition of an object, the values ​​of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, and also prevent undesirable phenomena. For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.

Study and generalization of experience (activities). When conducting research, the study and generalization of experience (organizational, production, technological, medical, pedagogical, etc.) is used for various purposes: to determine the existing level of detail of enterprises, organizations, institutions, the functioning of the technological process, to identify shortcomings and bottlenecks in practice one or another field of activity, studying the effectiveness of applying scientific recommendations, identifying new models of activity that are born in the creative search of leading managers, specialists and entire teams. The object of study can be: mass experience - to identify the main trends in the development of a particular sector of the national economy; negative experience – to identify typical shortcomings and bottlenecks; advanced experience, in the process of which new positive discoveries are identified, generalized, and become the property of science and practice.

The study and generalization of advanced experience is one of the main sources for the development of science, since this method allows us to identify current scientific problems and creates the basis for studying the patterns of development of processes in a number of areas of scientific knowledge, primarily the so-called technological sciences.

The disadvantage of the tracking method and its variations is:

- survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience as empirical methods-actions - is the relatively passive role of the researcher - he can study, monitor and generalize only what has developed in the surrounding reality, without being able to actively influence the ongoing processes. Let us emphasize once again that this shortcoming is often due to objective circumstances. Methods for transforming an object do not have this drawback: experimental work and experiment.

Methods that transform the object of research include experimental work and experiment. The difference between them lies in the degree of arbitrariness of the researcher’s actions. If experimental work is a loose research procedure in which the researcher makes changes to the object at his own discretion, based on his own considerations of expediency, then an experiment is a completely strict procedure where the researcher must strictly follow the requirements of the experiment.

Experimental work is, as already mentioned, a method of introducing deliberate changes into the object being studied with a certain degree of arbitrariness. So, the geologist himself determines where to look, what to look for, what methods to use - drill wells, dig pits, etc. In the same way, an archaeologist or paleontologist determines where and how to excavate. Or in pharmacy there is a long search for new drugs - out of 10 thousand synthesized compounds, only one becomes a drug. Or, for example, experienced work in agriculture.

Experimental work as a research method is widely used in sciences related to human activities - pedagogy, economics, etc., when models, usually author's ones, are created and tested: of companies, educational institutions, etc., or created and various proprietary methods are tested. Or an experimental textbook, an experimental drug, a prototype is created and then they are tested in practice.

Experimental work is in a sense similar to a thought experiment - in both cases the question is posed: “what will happen if...?” Only in a thought experiment is the situation played out “in the mind,” but in experimental work is the situation played out in action.

But experimental work is not a blind, chaotic search through “trial and error.”

Experimental work becomes a method of scientific research under the following conditions:

1. When it is set on the basis of data obtained by science in accordance with a theoretically based hypothesis.
2. When it is accompanied by in-depth analysis, conclusions are drawn from it and theoretical generalizations are created.

In experimental work, all methods and operations of empirical research are used: observation, measurement, document analysis, expert assessment, etc.

Experimental work occupies an intermediate place between object tracking and experimentation.

It is a way for the researcher to actively intervene in an object. However, experimental work gives, in particular, only the results of the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of certain innovations in a general, summary form. Which of the factors of introduced innovations give a greater effect, which ones have a smaller effect, how they influence each other - experimental work cannot answer these questions.

For a deeper study of the essence of a particular phenomenon, the changes occurring in it, and the reasons for these changes, in the process of research they resort to varying the conditions for the occurrence of phenomena and processes and the factors influencing them. The experiment serves these purposes.

An experiment is a general empirical research method (action method), the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied under strictly controlled and manageable conditions. The basic principle of any experiment is to change only one factor in each research procedure, while keeping the rest unchanged and controlled. If it is necessary to check the influence of another factor, the following research procedure is carried out, where this last factor is changed, and all other controlled factors remain unchanged, etc.

During the experiment, the researcher deliberately changes the course of some phenomenon by introducing a new factor into it. A new factor introduced or changed by the experimenter is called an experimental factor, or independent variable. Factors that change under the influence of an independent variable are called dependent variables.

There are many classifications of experiments in the literature. First of all, depending on the nature of the object being studied, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, biological, psychological, etc. experiments. According to the main purpose, experiments are divided into verification (empirical testing of a certain hypothesis) and exploratory (collection of the necessary empirical information to construct or clarify the put forward guess or idea). Depending on the nature and variety of means and experimental conditions and methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions, for example, in space ), laboratory (under artificial conditions) experiment.

Finally, we can talk about qualitative and quantitative experiments, based on the difference in the results of the experiment. Qualitative experiments, as a rule, are undertaken to identify the impact of certain factors on the process under study without establishing an exact quantitative relationship between characteristic quantities. To ensure accurate values ​​of the essential parameters influencing the behavior of the object under study, a quantitative experiment is necessary.

Depending on the nature of the experimental research strategy, there are:

1) experiments carried out using the “trial and error” method;

2) experiments based on a closed algorithm;

3) experiments using the “black box” method, leading to conclusions from knowledge of the function to knowledge of the structure of the object;

4) experiments using an “open box”, allowing, based on knowledge of the structure, to create a sample with given functions.

IN last years Experiments in which a computer is a means of cognition have become widespread. They are especially important when real systems do not allow either direct experimentation or experimentation using material models. In a number of cases, computer experiments dramatically simplify the research process - with their help, situations are “played out” by constructing a model of the system being studied.

In talking about experiment as a method of cognition, one cannot fail to note another type of experimentation, which plays a large role in natural science research. This is a thought experiment - the researcher operates not with specific, sensory material, but with an ideal, model image. All knowledge obtained during mental experimentation is subject to practical testing, in particular in a real experiment. Therefore, this type of experimentation should be classified as methods of theoretical knowledge (see above). P.V. Kopnin, for example, writes: “Scientific research is only truly experimental when the conclusion is drawn not from speculative reasoning, but from sensory, practical observation of phenomena. Therefore, what is sometimes called a theoretical or thought experiment is not actually an experiment. A thought experiment is ordinary theoretical reasoning that takes the external form of an experiment.”

Theoretical methods of scientific knowledge should also include some other types of experiment, for example, the so-called mathematical and simulation experiments. “The essence of the method of mathematical experiment is that experiments are carried out not with the object itself, as is the case in the classical experimental method, but with its description in the language of the corresponding branch of mathematics.” A simulation experiment is an idealized study by modeling the behavior of an object instead of actual experimentation. In other words, these types of experimentation are variants of a model experiment with idealized images. Mathematical modeling and simulation experiments are discussed in more detail below in the third chapter.

So, we tried to describe research methods from the most general positions. Naturally, in each branch of scientific knowledge certain traditions have developed in the interpretation and use of research methods. Thus, the frequency analysis method in linguistics will refer to the tracking method (method-action), carried out by the methods-operations of document analysis and measurement. Experiments are usually divided into ascertaining, training, control and comparative. But all of them are experiments (methods-actions), carried out by methods-operations: observation, measurement, testing, etc.

Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information, which is then used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations.

It is customary to distinguish two main levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. This division is due to the fact that the subject can obtain knowledge experimentally (empirically) and through complex logical operations, that is, theoretically.

The empirical level of knowledge includes

Observation of phenomena

Accumulation and selection of facts

Establishing connections between them.

The empirical level is the stage of collecting data (facts) about social and natural objects. At the empirical level, the object under study is reflected mainly from external connections and manifestations. The main thing for this level is factualizing activity. These problems are solved using appropriate methods.

The theoretical level of cognition is associated with the predominance of mental activity, with the comprehension of empirical material and its processing. At the theoretical level it reveals

Internal structure and patterns of development of systems and phenomena

Their interaction and conditionality.

Empirical research (from the Greek empeiria - experience) is “the establishment and generalization of social facts through direct or indirect registration of accomplished events characteristic of the social phenomena, objects and processes being studied”)