Development is a movement from simple forms and structures to higher, more complex ones.
The development of life, for example, is not a cycle of events, but a consistent process, a movement from simple to more complex forms of life. This development is associated with the complication of connections, forms of movement of matter, and the structure of material systems.
The process of development of nature cannot be imagined as a straight line. In its development, as A.I. said, Herzen, that “throws in different directions and never marches forward in the right direction.” This determined all the diversity of forms of existence of material bodies and phenomena. For example, the development of organic matter went in thousands of directions and gave an immeasurable wealth of species of flora and fauna. Human evolution is only one of the lines of development of the organic world.
Scientists of the materialist school consider the human psyche as a property of highly organized matter, which is the product of long-term (millions of years) development. The emergence and development of the psyche are associated with the emergence and development of organic nature. The development of living nature, the development of the psyche goes from elementary, simplest forms to the highest manifestations in humans logical thinking, consciousness.
The history of the development of the human psyche had a prehistory associated with the biological evolution of living organisms.
To understand the prehistory of the development of consciousness, the teachings of Charles Darwin (evolutionary theory) played a major role, who revealed the main ways of development of nature and its laws. However, when analyzing the problem of the emergence of man, Charles Darwin was unable to find out the driving factors of development, under the influence of which the animal ancestor of man turned into Living being. He assumed that man arose according to the biological laws of natural selection, but could not rise to the understanding of the leading role of social production, creates new, different from biological, socio-historical laws of development.
To understand how the human psyche, his consciousness, arose, it is necessary to consider how it arose in the process of the evolution of living forms, how over the course of many millions of years it developed from simple, elementary forms to higher ones.
Investigating the nature of matter, material scientists study various forms of movement of matter, since movement is the way of existence of matter, its internal property. Immobile matter does not exist at all. Everything in the Universe, all organic and inorganic nature, is in a state of movement, change and development.
All types of matter, from inanimate, inorganic to the highest complex matter - the human brain, have an inherent image quality, that is, the ability to respond to influences. The forms of reflection depend on the forms of existence of matter: reflection manifests itself in the ability to respond to external influences in accordance with the nature of the influence and the form of existence of matter. The highest form of reflection is mental reflection, and the highest form of mental reflection is Svidomo.
This point of view did not arise immediately.
There are several approaches to solving the problem of the emergence of the psyche:
1) “anthropopsychism,” which is based on the idea, which originates from Descartes and is supported by some scientists today, that the psyche is inherent only to man;
2) “panpsychism” J.B. Robin, G. Fechner and others, who considered the psyche to be a property of any matter;
3) “biopsychism” - recognition of the psyche as a property only of living matter (T. Hobbes, W. Wundt, E. Haeckel, etc.);
4) the concept of “neuropsychism” put forward by C. Darwin and G. Spencer, which has become most widespread both in modern physiology and psychology. Behind it, the psyche is not inherent in any matter at all, and not only in living matter, but only in organisms that have a nervous system.
IN inanimate nature reflection can manifest itself as a mechanical, physical or chemical interaction of bodies or substances (wave and stone, Sunbeam and water surface, ozone after a thunderstorm, etc.).
With the advent of life on Earth, living matter acquires special properties. Common property of all living organisms is irritation - the ability of a living organism to respond to external environmental influences with certain biological processes. Irritability is a necessary condition for the metabolism between the body and the environment. This is a biological form of display.
Let's look at how it manifests itself.
The animal responds with activity (external and internal) to direct influences, which in themselves have a positive or negative effect on the body. For example, nutrients, dissolved in water, cause the process of assimilation in ciliates, that is, their assimilation. The contact of a foreign body with the shell of the amoeba causes the process of capture (regardless of the properties of this body).
Thus, with the emergence of life, reflection becomes qualitatively different. In inanimate nature the object remains passive regarding influences, and in living nature creatures are active, they selectively respond to influences due to the ability to self-regulate.
Note that recently there have been publications showing that plants have complex shapes response to external influences. The elementary movements carried out by plants are called tropisms (a sunflower returns for the sun; a mimosa curls up when touched; a sundew, having captured an insect, closes the petals of a flower, etc.).
Complex manifestations of plant responses are also described. It is known that with the help of electrodes attached to plants, their bioelectrical activity can be determined. If near with the plant to which the electrodes are attached, break the other, then an increase in bioelectric potential is recorded. Moreover, the return of the person who broke this flower to the table with plants again causes the same reaction that the plant “recognizes” him. A similar reaction was observed in plants when a shrimp was dipped into boiling water. Of course, such phenomena require massive experimental confirmation, but they indicate the complexity of the manifestation of reflection forms.
Irritability is the basis for the emergence of a higher level of display - mental.
Psychic reflection arises at a certain stage of development of the animal world in the form of the ability to feel.
The ability to feel - sensitivity - manifests itself in response to such environmental influences, on which the life of the organism does not directly depend, but which signal biologically significant environmental influences. For example, the vibration of a web caused by insects entering it is not directly related to the needs of the spider, but it is a signal for it that there is food nearby. A slight rustling sound for a frog does not itself support its life and is not harmful to it, but it represents a signal for it about the presence of food or danger. The role of a signal can be played by sounds, smells, colors and other qualities of objects and their combinations.
The emergence in an animal of the ability to distinguish between individual stimuli that play a signaling role in its adaptation to the external environment is the beginning of the development of the psyche.
Thanks to the ability to reflect at least elementary connections between stimuli, a mechanism for predicting the expected event is produced. This provides an opportunity to prepare for the impact reflection that is about to take place. (advanced reflection). For example, insects find food and individuals of the opposite sex by smell and sound; sounds and smells are a danger signal for them and the like.
So, the psyche performs a signaling function in the adaptation of animals to the external environment.
Emergence and development sensitivity - a new level of reflective activity - are inextricably linked with the complication of the lifestyle of animals and the development of their nervous system, sensory organs and organs of movement.
The improvement of the bodily organization of animals under the influence of their way of life occurred in two opposite directions: firstly, towards increasing specialization of the senses (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, etc.) and organs of movement (legs, wings) in secondly, towards the centralization of the nervous system: from the reticular (jellyfish), nodular (worms, insects) to the nervous system of vertebrates.
In vertebrates, the brain and its highest part, the cerebral cortex, are increasingly developing. An increase in the volume and role of the cerebral cortex is called corticalization. What greater development reaches the nervous system and brain of the animal, the higher the level of its psyche.
The entire long process of mental development consists of two qualitatively different periods:
o the development of the psyche in animals, which is subject to the laws of heredity, variability and natural selection;
o the development of the psyche - consciousness in a person, which is determined by socio-historical patterns.
A.N. Leontiev, in his book “Problems of Psychic Development,” proposed a hypothesis about the stage and level of development of mental reflection from the simplest animals to humans. Later it was refined on the basis of the latest zoopsychological data and developed in the works of the Soviet psychologist K.E. Fabry. According to the views of Leontiev-Fabry on the development of mental reflection and behavior from animals to humans, the table “Stages and levels of development of the psyche and behavior of animals” was formed (see Table 4.1).
Table 4 .1. Stages and levels of development of the psyche and behavior of animals
(According to A.N. Leontyev and K.E. Fabry)
|
Stages and levels mental reflection, its characteristics |
Features of behavior corresponding to a given stage and level |
Types of living beings at this level |
||
|
I. Stage of elementary sensory psyche. |
||||
|
A. Lowest level Primitive elements of sensitivity. Developed irritability |
A. Clear reactions to biological significant properties environment through a change in the speed of movement direction. Elementary forms of movements. Weak behavioral flexibility. The ability to respond to biologically neutral, devoid of vital significance properties of the environment has been formed. Weak, unfocused physical activity |
A. Protozoa. Many lower multicellular organisms living in aquatic environments |
||
|
B. Highest level The presence of sensations. The appearance of the most important organ of manipulation - the jaws. Ability to form elementary reflexes |
B. Clear reactions to biologically neutral stimuli. Developed motor activity is associated with exiting the water onto land. Ability to avoid unfavorable conditions environment, move away from them, actively search for positive stimuli. Individual experience and training play a minor role. Rigid innate programs are of primary importance in behavior. |
B. Higher (annelid) worms, gastropods (snails), some other invertebrates |
||
|
II. Perceptual psyche stage |
||||
|
A. low level Display of external reality in the form of images of objects, integration, unification of properties that affect the holistic image. The main organ of manipulation is the jaws |
A. Formation of motor skills. Predominance of rigid, genetically programmed components. The movements are quite varied and complex (diving, crawling, walking, running, jumping, climbing, flying, etc.). Active search positive stimuli, avoidance of negative ones, developed defensive behavior |
A. Fish and other lower vertebrates, as well as partially some higher invertebrates, arthropods and cephalopods. Insects |
||
|
B. Highest level Elementary forms of thinking (problem solving). Development of a certain “picture of the world” |
B. Highly developed instinctive forms of behavior. Ability to learn |
B. Higher vertebrates (birds, some mammals) |
||
|
IN. high level. Selection in practical activities special, orientation-research, preparatory phase. The ability to solve the same task using different methods. Transfer of the found principle for solving the problem to new conditions. Creation and use of primitive tools. Ability to Cognize environment regardless of existing biological needs. Vision and consideration of cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena. |
B. Identification of special organs of manipulation: paws and arms. Development of research behaviors with extensive use of previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities |
V. Monkeys |
||
In the process of biological evolution of animals, three qualitatively different stages of mental development are distinguished (A. N. Leontiev):
o stage of elementary sensitivity - sensory;
o stage objective perception- perceptual;
o simple stage intellectual behavior.
At the stage of the elementary sensory psyche, the animal reacts only to individual influences on it from the properties of objects outside world, which have a certain meaning for her biological significance, that is, they are associated with those actions on which the implementation of the basic biological functions of animals depends. Reflections of reality at this stage are presented in the form of elementary sensations. Sensory reflection is observed in animals with reticular and nodular nervous systems. They extract individual properties from the environment: vibration, sounds, smells, colors, which have an analytical signal meaning for animals and orient animals in the outside world (a caterpillar curls up in response to a touch; a bee flies to flowers by smell). Touch and smell signal other vital influences.
All mammals with a sufficiently developed brain are at the perceptual stage of mental reflection. Its reflective function is richer, and its regulatory function is more perfect. This stage is characterized by the ability to synthetically display various properties of one object, often complex (the dog recognizes the owner by a number of signs: voice, clothing, smell). An idea is formed and memory is improved. But some of the properties of an object are more significant for animals (as a signal), while others play a lesser role.
For mental development great importance has the lifestyle of animals. Birds and fish that live in a monotonous environment have a less developed psyche than many land animals.
The leading activity for these animals is, as in the previous stage, instinctive activity, but a reverse reaction occurs to things and images. There are organs of perception that work based on the interaction of a group of analyzers. A reaction to distant stimuli occurs: the dog develops a reflex to the bell and food. the food was shown in another room and only then the bell was given - the dog opened the door and found the food himself. This example indicates that at this stage animals have an image, representation, memory, as well as the ability to respond to properties that determine the method of action, operation, giving rise to the development of a new form of consolidation of animal experience - skills.
The most organized animals rise to one more stage of development - the stage intelligence, which is characterized by complex forms of reflection of reality.
Essential for this stage of mental development is the ability to solve so-called “two-phase” problems. During the preparation phase, the animal’s actions are guided not by the object at which they are directed, not by the final goal, but by what is only a means to achieve this goal. The second phase of “activity” is directed directly at the object that is its immediate factor. The same task can be solved different ways using various operations.
The intellectual behavior of animals is characterized by the following main features:
o in difficult conditions, animals find solutions after repeated “trial and error”;
o if you put an animal in similar conditions, they immediately find a solution;
o if the conditions are slightly modified, solutions are found, which means that they tend to carrying;
o solve “two-phase problems” (some psychologists argue that monkeys can also solve “three-phase problems”, which is already an indicative basis for activity).
At the same time, in non-standard situations the limitations of the intellectual behavior of animals are clearly manifested. So, in a well-known experiment with a monkey who extinguished a fire with water from a tank, when conditions changed (the fire was on a raft in the middle of the river, and the tank with water was on another piece of flesh, which was difficult to get to), she tried to solve the problem using the old method - she got to the tank with water instead of using water from the river.
The main distinctive feature of the human psyche is the presence of consciousness, and conscious reflection is a reflection of objective reality in which its objective stable properties are highlighted, regardless of the subject’s relationship to it.
The criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity, that is, the ability to respond to vital environmental stimuli (sound, smell, etc.), which are signals of vital stimuli (food, danger) due to their objectively stable connection. The criterion of sensitivity is the ability to form conditioned reflexes. Reflex is a natural connection between an external or internal stimulus through the nervous system with a particular activity. The psyche arises and develops in animals precisely because otherwise they could not navigate the environment and exist.
The human psyche is a qualitatively higher level than the psyche of animals. Human consciousness and reason developed in the process of labor activity, which arises due to the need to carry out joint actions to obtain food during a sharp change in living conditions primitive man. And although the specific morphological characteristics of humans have been stable for thousands of years, the development of the human psyche occurred in the process of labor activity. Labor activity is productive in nature: labor, carrying out the production process, is imprinted in its product (that is, there is a process of embodiment, objectification of their spiritual powers and abilities in the products of people’s activities). Thus, the material, spiritual culture of humanity is an objective form of embodiment of the achievements of the mental development of humanity.
In the process of historical development of society, a person changes the ways and techniques of his behavior, transforms natural inclinations and functions into “higher mental functions” - specific and human, socially historically conditioned forms of memory, thinking, perception (logical memory, abstract logical thinking), mediated by the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process of historical development. The unity of higher mental functions forms human consciousness.
Consciousness is the highest, human-specific form of generalized reflection of the objective stable properties and patterns of the surrounding world, the formation of a person’s internal model of the external world, as a result of which knowledge and transformation of the surrounding reality is achieved.
The functions of consciousness consist in the formation of goals of activity, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and the anticipation of their results, which ensures reasonable regulation of human behavior and activity.
Consciousness develops in humans only through social contacts. In phylogenesis, human consciousness develops and becomes possible only under conditions of active influence on nature and labor activity. Consciousness is possible only in the conditions of the existence of language, speech, which arises simultaneously with consciousness in the process of labor.
1. The main stages of mental development in phylogenesis.
The stages of development in phylogeny and their brief characteristics are presented in the table.
2. Main features of the ontogenesis of the human psyche.
1) In the development of living beings the following is observed
current pattern: the higher the place that a given living organism occupies on the scale
phylogenetic development, the more complex his nervous system is, but the longer it takes him to achieve full psychological and behavioral maturity.
The human individual is born into the world least adapted to independent life of all creatures living on Earth, however, this is compensated by the extreme plasticity of its brain, the ability to form during life
functional systems.
If in animals the species experience is fixed primarily in genetic programs, which automatically unfold as individual development progresses, then in humans most of the species experience is fixed not in genetic, but in external form- in the form of cultural and historical experience, which is acquired by the child in the process of interaction with adults.
The difference in the processes of ontogenetic development of the psyche in animals and humans can be explained by the following diagram.
(See Table 12)
2) The mental development of a child depends on the combined influence of two factors:
(1) biological maturation of the organism,
(2) from interaction with the environment.
For each psychological property of an individual there is an optimal period of formation, when the influence of the environment is most effective. It is called the sensitive period for of this property. For example, the sensitive period of optimal speech development covers the age from 1 year to 3 years.
3) A person’s mental development occurs simultaneously along several lines: cognitive (intellectual) development; social development; personal development; moral development, etc. Development different areas development of the psyche occurs unevenly: along some lines development may proceed more intensively, along others more slowly. Uneven mental development leads to the emergence of so-called developmental crises. An example is the crisis of one year, the crisis of three years or the crisis of adolescence, which arise as a result of a discrepancy in the development of the intellectual and motivational-need spheres.
The positive significance of such crises is that they stimulate the development of “lagging” areas, thus being driving force self-development of the individual as a whole.
3. Characteristics of human consciousness.
Consciousness, as the highest form of mental reflection, has a number of distinctive features.
1) The structure of consciousness includes the totality of knowledge about the world. Thanks to language, this knowledge is obtained by a person not only from individual experience (like animals), but also from cultural experience, from past generations. A person can gain knowledge about objects and phenomena that he has never personally encountered.
2) A distinctive feature of consciousness is the separation of subject and object, that is, the distinction between “I” and “not-I”, the ability to separate an object from one’s relationship to it.
In animals and small children, subject and object are fused. That is, the feelings and emotions that a certain object (or person) evokes are perceived as properties of the object (or person) itself. As consciousness develops, a person learns to distinguish one from the other. (Although adults are often inclined to confuse the objective characteristics of a situation with their attitude towards it).
3) A conscious individual has the ability for goal-setting activity, thanks to which voluntary regulation of behavior becomes possible.
In an animal, activity is directed and regulated by biological need or external situation. A person can perform actions in the absence of an actual need (for example, preparing food without being hungry). A person is able to focus his activity not only on the current situation, but also on the situation that may occur in the future. Thus, a person who has consciousness has the opportunity not to be led by a situation or need. The function of regulating his behavior is taken over by a consciously set goal.
It happens that a person’s activity is determined not by a goal, but by an immediate need or situation (Freud’s “erroneous actions”, various types of impulsive or reflexive behavior, etc.). This is explained by the genetic diversity of the human psyche, i.e., by the fact that pre-conscious (genetically earlier) forms of the psyche coexist with consciousness.
SELF-PREPARATION FOR THE CLASS.
Goals of self-preparation to know: 1. The importance of methodology for understanding psychological facts, patterns, mechanisms, theories.
2. Basic methodological principles of modern psychology.
3. The main stages of phylogenetic development of the psyche.
4. Features of ontogenesis of the human psyche;
5. Basic characteristics of consciousness.
Self-study plan: 1) Listen and take notes on the lectures “Subject of Psychology”, “Structure of the Psyche”. When preparing for class, recall the content of these lectures in your memory.
2) Read the sections: “Methodological principles of modern psychology”, “Formation of the psyche in phylogenesis”, “Development of the psyche in ontogenesis”, “Consciousness” from any psychology textbook you have.
3) Read the information material on the topic from this workshop.
4) Answer the test questions to check your preparedness for the lesson.
Main literature:
1. Gamezo N.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of Psychology. M., Education, 1986.
2. Luria A. R. Evolutionary introduction to psychology. Moscow State University, 1975.
3. Nemov R. S. Psychology. Book 1. M., Education, 1994.
4. General psychology. Ed. A. V. Petrovsky. M., Education, 1986.
5. Tvorogova N. D. Psychology. M., 1996.
Test questions for self-assessment of readiness for the lesson.
1. What is methodology?
2. What is the methodology used for? Why is knowledge of methodological principles necessary?
3. What are the basic methodological principles of modern psychology? What are they?
4. What are the main stages of phylogenetic development of the psyche?
5. What is consciousness? What are its distinctive features compared to other forms of psychic reflection?
6. What are the conditions for the formation of consciousness in ontogenesis?
7. What are the main features of the ontogenesis of the human psyche?
Sample answers to these questions can be found in the information material and recommended literature.
WORK IN CLASS.
Lesson plan: 1. Organizational issues.
2. Identification of the initial level using test tasks.
3. Independent work in class (individual, in micro-groups, group discussion).
TEST TASKS TO IDENTIFY THE INITIAL LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE.
Fill in the blanks in the following paragraphs
1) In humans, most of the species experience is recorded in the form of....
2) In creatures that are at the intellectual stage of mental reflection, a decisive influence on the characteristics of behavior has....
3) In the process of evolution of mental reflection, instincts are increasingly replaced by the ability to....
4) The ability to form the simplest conditioned reflexes appears in living beings who are at the stage of... the psyche.
5) A person who has consciousness has the ability to receive information about the world around him; own inner world and about....
6) The higher the place a living creature occupies on the scale of phylogenetic development, the... time it requires to achieve full mental and behavioral maturity.
7) The period when the formation of some psychological property of an individual occurs most effectively is called....
8) Developmental crises are a consequence of... mental development.
In the following paragraphs, select one or more correct answers:
9. The cause of mental phenomena lies:
a) in physiological processes in the nervous system
b) in external reality factors
c) in the activity of the individual
d) everything is correct.
10. The activity of mental reflection is manifested in:
a) selectivity of response to environmental factors
b) the individual’s ability to search for the most suitable conditions for himself
c) the ability to form conditioned reflexes
d) everything is correct.
11. The difference in norms of behavior and values between representatives of Western European and Eastern cultures is explained by:
a) features of microgenesis of the psyche
b) features of the sociogenesis of the psyche
c) difference in living conditions
d) difference in thinking style.
12. The peculiarity of human knowledge about the world is that:
a) this knowledge is generalized
b) they are fixed in language
c) SOURCES t will bring up ZHUMKTSCIYANY experience, but also the experience of others
d) everything is correct.
The following statements are true or false:
13. Unity, the connection of mental phenomena and facts of behavior is characteristic only of a person who has consciousness.
14. A person’s behavior in a situation is determined by the objective characteristics of this situation.
15. Any change external environment causes a change in the content of consciousness.
16. When studying a separate mental property, it is necessary to separate this property from others, its isolation.
17. Uneven mental development means that individual groups of mental properties develop independently of each other.
18. Human thinking is subject to the same laws as the thinking of higher mammals in general.
19. Genetically early forms of the psyche completely disappear at higher stages of phylogenesis.
20. Human behavior is always arbitrary and purposeful.
21. Presence genetically early forms psyche is a necessary condition for the development of higher forms of psyche.
TASKS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK IN THE CLASS.
Students work on assignments independently, then it is useful to discuss them (the assignments) in microgroups of 3-4 people, and then in the entire study group (each microgroup offers its own answer options).
Task 1. Chimpanzee Rafael (in the experiments of Pavlov and Orbeli) learned to pour out the fire that was preventing him from getting a treat from the box by filling a mug with water from the tank. In one of the next experiments, a box with an orange and a fire burning in front of the opening of the box was placed on a raft on a lake. On another raft, connected to the first by a bamboo beam, there was a water tank known to Raphael. The chimpanzee, in order to light the fire, climbed over the crossbar to another raft to the tank, not thinking about scooping up water from the lake.
What feature of the mental reflection of a monkey (in comparison with the mental reflection of a human) is manifested in this example?
Task 2. In 1920, near the Indian village of Godamuri, two girls (who later received the names Amala and Kamala) were found in a wolf den. The youngest (Amala) was approximately 18 months old; the eldest (Kamala) is about 7 years old. The girls were sent to an orphanage in Midnapore, where an attempt was made to re-educate them. Amala lived in the shelter for about a year. During this time, quite rapid progress was noted in her upbringing. At the same time, Kamala's re-education proceeded with great difficulty. After 4 years, she only learned 6 words. Between the ages of 16 and 18, she behaved like a four-year-old child.
What explains Kamala's developmental delay? Why was Amala's upbringing so much more successful?
Task 3. N.N. Ladygina-Kots compared the imitative construction of a chimpanzee and a three and a half year old child. The following facts were discovered:
a) One of them could make a figure from two or three parts only if there was a sample figure in front of him, the other could complete the task in the absence of an image, from memory.
b) One of the reasons for the designer’s mistakes was that, having seen a sample figure, he refused to make it, but made a figure similar to the one he had seen in a previous experiment. It took some effort to get him to do the task correctly.
c) Both the chimpanzee and the child, when choosing the elements offered for construction, were tempted by their novelty and unusualness. But if one took an unnecessary element and did not include it in the design, the other often tried to do so, and only the experimenter’s instructions helped him avoid a mistake.
Determine which of the given facts relates to the behavior of a chimpanzee and which relates to the behavior of a child. What features of the regulation of a child’s behavior in comparison with the behavior of a chimpanzee are manifested in this example?
Task 4. German scientists W. and L. Kellogg experimented with pulling the hair of a chimpanzee and a child. It turned out that while one of the subjects immediately began to whimper, the other, even with a stronger jerk, did not make any sounds, but only moved the researcher’s hand away with his hand.
Which manifestation refers to the behavior of a chimpanzee and which - a child? Why?
Task 5. Do the concepts described below contradict any methodological principles of modern psychology? Which one exactly?
A. According to the American psychologist of the early 20th century J. Watson, by manipulating external stimuli and environmental features, it is possible to control a person’s emotional reactions according to a given program
and, moreover, it is possible to “make” a person of any type, with any behavioral characteristics.
B.V. Wundt argued that consciousness is fundamentally different from everything external and material. Therefore, psychology has a unique subject - direct experience subject, comprehended solely through introspection. All other sciences study the results of processing this experience.
B. According to 3. Freud, the factor of the unconscious is decisive for the laws of both personal and public life. A person’s unconscious needs and drives are the reason for his interests, tastes, affections, choice of one or another type of professional activity, his superstitions and beliefs, etc.
Psyche - a systemic property of highly organized matter (brain), manifested in a specific reflection of objective reality by the subject.
The human psyche is even more complex in structure and has a number of important differences from the psyche of animals:
1) The basis of human behavior, unlike animals, is only the satisfaction of biological needs (for example, heroism).
2) A person is able to distract himself from a specific situation and foresee the consequences that may arise in connection with this situation.
3) Man is able to create tools according to a pre-thought-out plan and preserve them. In addition, in animals, tool activity is never performed collectively.
4) A person can accumulate and transfer accumulated social experience. Animals also have a language of communication, but with its help they only give signals about a given situation (danger). A person can inform people about the past, present and future and assimilate the experience accumulated by other people.
The production, use and preservation of tools, division of labor contributed to the development abstract thinking, speech, language, development of socio-historical relations between people. In the process of historical development of society, a person changes the methods and techniques of his behavior, transforms natural inclinations and functions into higher ones. mental functions- specifically human, socially and historically conditioned forms of memory, thinking, perception (logical memory, abstract-logical thinking), mediated by the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process of historical development. Unity of higher mental functions forms human consciousness. Thus, consciousness is the highest stage of mental development.
Consciousness- this is the highest function of the brain, characteristic only of humans and associated with speech, which consists in a generalized and evaluative reflection of reality, as well as its creative transformation, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and prediction of results, in the reasonable regulation of behavior.
Consciousness, as the highest part of mental development, includes the following components:
1. Knowledge(about himself and the world around him), which a person receives through cognitive processes.
2. Self-awareness(isolating oneself from the surrounding world and contrasting oneself with others).
3. Goal setting(the ability to set a goal and achieve it with the help of will).
4. Grade (emotional attitude to the surrounding world).
Taking into account all the noted provisions, it can be noted that in modern psychological literature there are three main forms of the existence of the mental, these are: mental processes, mental states and mental properties. These forms differ from each other in the time of occurrence and the degree of generalization of the mental.
Fig.3 Structure of the psyche
1) Organizational methods.
2) Empirical methods.
3) Data processing methods.
4) Interpretive methods.
Correction methods (methods of psychological influence) are included in a separate group.
Organizational methods include:
1) Comparative method or cross-sectional method (this is a comparison of different groups of subjects by age, activity, etc.). Advantage: obtaining results within a short time. Disadvantage: this method makes it possible to determine purely external changes in development and obtain average values common to all.
This hierarchy looks like this:
Self-actualization;
Consciousness of self-worth;
Social needs.
UDC 15.0(075.8) BBK 88.3 i 73-1 B-686
Reviewers: . Doctor of Psychology sciences, prof. (NSGTU)
V.G. Leontyev Ph.D. psychol. Sciences, Associate Professor (SSGA)
D. X. Khasanbaeva
Ph.D. psychol. Sciences, Associate Professor (Sib AGS) IV. Doronina
Arkhipova I.V., Voloshina T.V. IN - 686 Introduction to general psychology:Tutorial.
Novosibirsk: Publishing house. NSPU, 2000. - 115 p.
ISBN 5-85921-189-9
The training manual outlines the course general psychology- a discipline studied by students of pedagogical universities. This basic course will allow you to get acquainted with the main achievements of psychological science. It is intended to give a theoretical understanding of the nature of the psyche of consciousness, the driving forces of personality development, and is also focused on obtaining practical skills in understanding and purposefully influencing psychological manifestations person.
Intended for university students, teachers and psychologists in the system of higher and secondary education.
Preface........................................................ ....................... 3
Topic 1. Introduction to psychology.................................................... 4
Topic 2. Development of the psyche and consciousness.................................. 10
Topic 3. Personality................................................... ............... 20
Topic 4. Cognitive processes.................................... 38
Topic a5. Emotional-volitional sphere of personality......66
Topic 6. Individual psychological
personality traits................................................... ...... 78
Subject?. Communication and activities.................................................. 107
Bibliography................................................................ 114
UDC 15.0(075.8) BBK 88.3 i 73 -1 B-686
ISBN 5 - 85921- 189 - 9
© I.V. Arkhipova, T.V. Voloshina, 2000
PREFACE
In conditions of socio-economic instability of society, the problem of forming an active, well-integrated personality, capable of managing oneself and adapting to a rapidly changing social situation, is one of the most pressing.
In the system of professional training in pedagogical universities, a large role is given to psychological education. Its effectiveness is determined not only by the level of lectures given, but also largely by the organization of students’ self-educational activities.
In the process of studying at pedagogical universities, students must not only master the system psychological knowledge, patterns of mental development, but also learn to actively influence it, taking into account the potential capabilities of a particular person, his individual psychological characteristics, using the most appropriate, psychologically sound methods of influence. Based on this, the target settings of this textbook are determined:
Give a scientific understanding of the basic psychology
logical manifestations of a person;
Introduce methods for studying mental problems
processes, personality traits and interpersonal relationships;
Teach how to apply the acquired knowledge to character
teristics and understanding of another person, as well as
the poles of self-knowledge.
This textbook will help students of pedagogical universities study the main sections of the course "General Psychology". It contains a thesis statement of theoretical material, presents literary sources, and also provides questions for self-study.
Topic I INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1. Definition of psychology as a science.
2. Short story development of psychology.
3. The structure of modern psychology.
4. Basic methods of psychology.
Psychology is the science of the laws of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life activity (from the Greek psyche - soul, logos - teaching).
It owes its name and first definition to Greek mythology, according to which the celestial Eros, the son of Aphrodite, fell in love with the earthly woman Psyche. The mother made every effort to separate the lovers and forced Psyche to undergo various tests. For such strong love, the desire to be with her lover, no matter what, Zeus awarded Psyche with immortality. Therefore, Psyche - a mortal who has gained immortality - became a symbol of the soul searching for its ideal.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his treatise “On the Soul,” singled out psychology as a unique field of knowledge. The term “psychology” was introduced into the scientific language in his works by the German philosopher H. Wolf.
The subject of psychology is the psyche. Psyche is a systemic property of highly organized matter, which consists in the subject’s active reflection of the surrounding world. Highly organized matter refers to the work of the brain.
The psyche can also be defined as the basis for organizing interaction with the environment, including
seeking: obtaining information; information processing; data storage; organizing a response.
The tasks of psychology are directly related to the subject of research of this science. The main tasks of modern psychology include the following: the study of the mechanisms and patterns of functioning of the psyche; formation of mental characteristics of the human personality as a conscious subject of activity.
In the development of psychology, two main stages can be distinguished: pre-scientific and scientific.
The first ideas about human nature are characterized by rituals. For example, a burial ritual, which took into account the fact that after the death of a person, his soul needs certain “conveniences”. In ancient China, human skulls were discovered with a hole in the back of the head, necessary “for the liberation of the spirit.”
Ancient people explained their fate and the events happening to them by the intervention of the gods, which was expressed in pagan culture.
In ancient philosophy, in addition to the “external” influence (deity), the existence of an internal substance was assumed - the soul, influencing human behavior. Aristotle put forward the idea that the soul is a function of the body, an engine that allows a living being to exist and realize itself. His treatise "On the Soul" is considered the first psychological work. Some psychological aspects were also considered in philosophical teachings Plato, Democritus, Lucretius, etc.
Thus, the first stage in the development of psychology is philosophical. Psychology was defined as the science of the soul. This understanding of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. It was by the presence of a soul that ancient philosophers tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life.
In the 17th century, various natural sciences began to separate from philosophy, which made it possible to move on to the study of conscious activity, which is a real indicator of the psyche, and not a hypothetical one. The theories put forward began to be subjected to experiment. In 1879, an event occurred in Germany (Leipzig University) that marked the beginning of the development of psychology as a science. W. Wundt created the first psychological laboratory. In it, researchers tried to study the structure of consciousness, to find out its simplest components (sensations, images, feelings). The main method of study was introspection (self-observation).
So, the 2nd stage of the development of psychology begins in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The subject of the study of psychology was consciousness, which during this period was understood as the ability to think, feel, and desire.
The beginning of the 20th century was a new, third stage of development for psychology. The subject of psychology research in that period was behavior, and the main task was experimental observation of human behavior, actions, and reactions. This approach to the study of man was called behaviorism. The main disadvantage of this scientific direction was that the motives were not taken into account
(motives) causing actions and behavior of a person as a whole.
In the second half of the 20th century, psychology entered a new stage of its development. The 4th, modern, stage of development of psychological science has begun. Psychology has become a science that studies all objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche (consciousness, behavior, motives, the unconscious environment, etc.). Currently, psychology is a developed field of research both scientifically and practically. More fundamental (basic) are such branches as general, social, and developmental psychology. Specific, special psychological areas include: management psychology, pedagogical, medical, legal, sports, engineering, etc. All psychological branches, both basic and special, are interconnected.
In psychology, there are methods that help identify significantly important facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche.
The main methods of psychology are:
1,Observation- one of the main methods consisting in the deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of mental phenomena in order to study their specific changes in certain conditions. Distinguish the following types observations:
External and self-observation;
Free and standardized (rigid plan);
Included and not included (from the side).
2.Poll - a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. There are:
Written survey (questionnaire);
Oral survey (conversation, interview).
H.Tests - a method in which an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon being studied is obtained. There are:
Test - questionnaire;
Test - task;
Projective test.
4. Experiment- a method that allows targeted
but create situations in which the properties being studied
stand out, appear and are appreciated best.
Experiments can be laboratory or natural, in
depending on the conditions under which something is studied or
another phenomenon.
5. Modeling- creation of an artificial model
the phenomenon being studied, when direct study is not available
or difficult. The model should repeat the main
parameters and expected properties of the studied precursor
meta or phenomena. Modeling is mathematical
kim, logical, technical, cybernetic.
Questions For self-study
1.
Definition of psychology. Basic views on
subject of psychology.
2.
The practical significance of psychology in life
human beings.
3. Psychology at the present stage, its connection with others
gimi sciences.
4. Traditional and non-traditional methods of psychotherapy
gical research.
Vygotsky L.S. Collected works.: In 6 volumes - M., 1983. Godefroy J. What is psychology. -M., 1992. -T.1. James W. Psychology. - M., 1991. Lange N.N. Psychic world. - M., 1996. Nemov R.S. Psychology. - M., 1995.- T. 1. Psychology: Dictionary. - M., 1990. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology: In 2 volumes - M 1989.
Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don, 1997.
Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology. - M, 1985.
Topic 2. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHE AND CONSCIOUSNESS
1. Brain and consciousness
2. Development of the psyche in the animal world.
3. The origin of consciousness in human society.
4. Consciousness and self-awareness as the highest form of psi
chemical reflection.
According to reflection theory, mental activity is a function of the brain. Psyche is a systemic quality that manifests itself in an ideal (objective) reflection of the surrounding world. Based on this understanding of the psyche, two functions of the psyche are distinguished - reflective and regulating. We can talk about mental reflection when the world around a person appears before him as a world perceived by him. Mental regulation is the establishment of relationships between the bearer of the psyche and the surrounding reality, which appears in the form of a response to a reflected stimulus.
| Yu |
The domestic physiologist I.M. Sechenov explained the functioning of the psyche by the reflex activity of the brain, drawing a conclusion about the reflexive nature of the psyche as a whole. He believed that the basis of the work of the brain (i.e., the psyche) is a reflex (Latin “reflection”), which is a naturally occurring response of the body to irritations coming from the external environment and internal organs. “All facts of conscious and unconscious life, according to the method of origin, are reflexes” (I.M. Sechenov). Thus, mental activity is the result of the transformation of signals from the external
it and the internal environment taking place in the brain.
Russian psychologist A.R. Luria, based on his research, proposed a theory of vertical regulation of the brain, which explains the peculiarities of the functioning of the psyche. He identified three brain blocks. The first of them is called an energy block, or tone block. It is located deep in the brain, within the upper parts of the brain stem, and also covers parts such as the midbrain, hindbrain, hypothalamus, thalamus and reticular formation. The processes occurring in the nerve cells of this block provide flows of excitation, which leads to a state of wakefulness in the body. If the influx of excitation impulses disappears, the person falls into a drowsy state, and then into sleep. So, the first block provides energy nutrition to the brain and the body as a whole.
The second block of the human brain is located in the posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres (occipital region, parietal and temporal regions). This is a block for receiving, processing and storing information that reaches a person from the outside world. Different parts of the brain perform specific functions here. The occipital region is responsible for visual work, the parietal region is responsible for tactile-motor activity, and the temporal region is responsible for auditory-bular activity.
The third block of the brain is located in its anterior sections and includes the frontal lobes. This is a block of programming, regulation and control of human activity. The work of this block allows a person to form and maintain his intentions, create
action programs, monitor and regulate their progress, and monitor their implementation.
For the first time, the role of the frontal lobes was noted by scientists after an incident with the senior foreman of the road construction team, Fenias Gage. He suffered a head injury from a crowbar that went through left cheek and came out near the crown. The frontal lobes were damaged. Gage remained in a stunned state for an hour, after which he was taken to a surgeon, where he was treated. After recovering from his injury, Gage lived another 12 years. All this time he remained a capable person. At the same time, he experienced personality changes. Before the accident, he was a tactful, balanced person, but after it he became impatient, rude, stubborn and indecisive. Because of this, most researchers believe that the most noticeable effect of frontal lobe damage is personality change.
The functional organization of the human brain differs in some ways. It's about that the right and left hemispheres of a person perform different functions. This was discovered in 1960. in the laboratory of Roger Sperry, in which an operation called “split brain” was performed and consisted of separating the fibers of the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres. As a result, the so-called functional asymmetry of the brain was discovered, which makes it possible to find out what functions the left and right hemispheres perform separately.
In laboratory clinical conditions, experiments were carried out in which patients on one half
electrodes were applied to the head, which led to inhibition of brain activity in one of the hemispheres. As a result, man existed with only one waking hemisphere. Thus, researchers have the opportunity to understand what mental functions each hemisphere is responsible for. The main functions of the left hemisphere of the brain are speech, reading, and counting. The functions of the right hemisphere are operating with images, spatial orientation, distinguishing musical tones, melodies and recognizing complex objects ( human faces), dream production.
Thus, the left hemisphere of the brain is the base of logical thinking, and the right hemisphere is the base of imaginative, intuitive thinking. Most people exhibit hemispheric dominance, when the activity of one of the hemispheres is dominant and determines a person’s thinking and behavior. The level of manifestation of hemispheric dominance can be different - from hidden to obvious. There are significant differences in the functional organization of the human and animal brains. While in humans one of the hemispheres is dominant, in animals both hemispheres are equal.
In order to understand the specifics of the human psyche, it is necessary to answer the questions: when and why did the psyche arise in the course of biological evolution? How did the psyche develop and become more complex?
In the history of natural science, there have been various attempts to explain the emergence of the psyche in nature. Among them one can name the theory of “panpsychism”, according to
but with which all nature is endowed with a soul, including inanimate (for example, stones). The theory of “biopsychism” attributed a psyche to all living things, including plants. On the contrary, the theory of “anthropopsychism” greatly narrowed the circle of those with a psyche. According to it, the psyche exists. only in humans, and animals, like plants, are “only living automata.” The theory of “neuropsychism” attributed the psyche only to creatures with a nervous system. All of the above points of view relate more to debatable hypotheses than to well-developed theories.
However, among the many hypotheses, there is one that has received the greatest development and recognition. This is A.N.’s hypothesis. Leontyev on the origin of the psyche. According to it, the criterion for the appearance of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity - the ability to respond to vitally insignificant environmental stimuli (sound, smell, etc.), which signal vital stimuli (food, danger, etc.). The criterion of sensitivity is the ability to form conditioned reflexes. Based on the fact that this ability is observed in almost all animals and is absent in plants, A.N. Leontiev speaks about the presence of the psyche precisely in the animal world.
During the experimental testing of his hypothesis, A.N. Leontiev came to the conclusion that the development of the psyche in animals goes through a number of stages (Fig. 1).
First The stage of development of the psyche in the animal world is called sensory or the stage of elementary sensitivity. At this stage, animals react only to individual properties of objects in the external world, and their
Instincts - congenital forms
Skills - forms of behavior,
purchased individually
animal experience
Intellectual behavior -
complex forms of behavior reflecting interdisciplinary connections
Rice. 1. The main stages of development of the psyche and forms of behavior in the animal world
behavior is determined by innate instincts (feeding, reproduction, self-preservation, etc.). Such animals include many protozoa (for example, slipper ciliates, green euglena, annelids, etc.).
Second The stage of development of the psyche in animals is called the stage of perceptual psyche or object perception. Representatives of this stage reflect external reality no longer in the form of individual sensations, but in the form of holistic images of objects, have the ability to learn, and demonstrate individually acquired behavioral skills. Animals such as vertebrates and arthropods are at this stage.
Third the stage was designated by A.N. Leontyev as the stage of intelligence. This stage is characterized by the presence in animals of the ability to reflect interdisciplinary connections and the situation as a whole. As a result, such animals are able, for example, to avoid obstacles and find ways to solve problems that require preliminary preparatory actions. The actions of many predators are intellectual in nature, but in particular - great apes and dolphins. And yet the intellectual behavior of animals does not work out
beyond the scope of biological need, it acts only within the limits of a visual situation.
Thus, according to A.N. Leontiev, the psyche arises and develops in animals precisely because otherwise they could not navigate the environment and
exist.
The human psyche is a higher level than the psyche of animals (Homo sapiens - Homo sapiens). The peculiarities of the human psyche arose in the process of anthropogenesis and the cultural history of mankind and were directly related to the transition of man from the biological to the social (social) path of development. The main event in this process was the emergence of consciousness. The leading factors in the emergence of consciousness were labor and language. This position received the greatest concrete psychological development in the works of such domestic psychologists as L.S. Vygotsky, S.Ya. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev and others.
A.N. Leontiev has a hypothesis about the origin of consciousness. According to the definition, consciousness is a reflection of objective reality in which its “objective stable properties are highlighted, regardless of the subject’s relationship to it.” This definition emphasizes the idea that in humans, unlike animals, with the advent of consciousness, the world begins to be reflected independently of biological motives. How did this become possible? According to A.N. Leontyev, the impetus for the emergence of consciousness was the emergence of a new form of activity - collective labor. In the course of performing joint work activities,
The first elements of human speech appeared. Perhaps the first words indicated certain actions, tools, objects; these were also “orders” addressed to the partner in joint actions. The results of knowledge began to be recorded in words. A unique feature of human language is its ability to accumulate knowledge acquired by generations of people. Thanks to her, language became the carrier of social consciousness. Each person, in the course of individual development through language acquisition, becomes involved in “shared knowledge” and thanks to this, his own consciousness is formed.
Thus, according to A.N. Leontyev, a person’s mastery of the semantic meanings of language, along with collective work, played a major role in the formation of human consciousness.
L.S. Vygotsky, exploring the mechanisms of formation of higher mental functions (thinking, consciousness, self-awareness), noted that the development of consciousness in human society was carried out in the course of social interaction between people. L.S. Vygotsky outlined the scientific solution to the problem of the development of the human psyche in a concept that he called the cultural-historical theory of the human psyche. In this theory, he analyzes the reasons for the fundamental difference between the human psyche and animals. In his opinion, it consists in the fact that man has learned to master nature with the help of tools. This left a significant imprint on the development of the human psyche: he learned to master his own mental functions and control himself. For this he also used tools, but special ones, psi-
chological. Such tools are signs or symbolic means that have cultural background. The most typical sign system is human speech. Thus, considering the problem of the formation of consciousness in human society, L.S. Vygotsky notes that a vital role belongs to the word.
So, consciousness is a feature of the human psyche associated with the cognitive activity of the hand as an organ of labor, and speech, which develops on the basis of labor. It is activity and communication that determine the structure of consciousness. In psychological terms, consciousness acts primarily as a process of a person’s awareness of the surrounding world and himself. Consciousness and self-awareness are inherent only in humans, but not in every state: it is absent in a newborn, in some categories of mentally ill people and, as a rule, in sleeping people. Consciousness and self-awareness are an active, active, transformative force that gives a person the ability to voluntarily control his behavior. With the help of consciousness, a person not only passively reflects the surrounding reality, but also changes the world.
Questions for self-study
1. The adaptive role of the psyche in the evolution of animals.
2. Main features of the animal psyche.
3. Hypotheses about the origin of consciousness.
4. Qualitative features of the human psyche.
5. Main characteristics of the phenomenon of “consciousness”.
Vygotsky L.S. Collected works: In 6 volumes. -M., 1983.
Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. -M„ 1996.
Leontyev A.N. Selected psychological works 2 vols. - M., 1983.
Luria A.R. The human brain and mental processes: In 2t.-M, 1970.
Nemov R.S. Psychology.- M., 1995.- T. 1.
Petrovsky A.V. Introduction to Psychology. - M, 1995.
Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology. - M, 1994.
Psychology: Dictionary/Ed. A.V.Petrovsky. -M., 1990.
Rubinshtein S.L. Problems of general psychology. M, 1973.
Sechenov I.M. Selected philosophical and psychological works. - M., 1947.
Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human psychology. Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity: A textbook for universities. -M.: Shkola-Press, 1995.
Topic 3 PERSONALITY
1. General concept about personality.
2. Basic theories of personality development.
3. Personality formation in the process of socialization.
4. Self-esteem and its role in becoming self-aware
personality development. Level of aspiration.
The category “personality” is the object of a comprehensive study of psychological science. The reality that is defined by the term “personality” is already manifested in the etymology of this word. Word personality(translated from English as "persona") originally referred to actors' masks worn during stage performances. Thus, in the Roman theater, the actor’s mask was called the “mask” - the face facing the audience. Then this word began to denote the actor himself and his role. Among the Romans, the word “persona” was always used to indicate a certain social function, role (personality of the father, personality of the king, judge, etc.). Consequently, personality in its original meaning is a certain social role or function of a person.
Modern psychological science views personality somewhat differently. Thus, in Russian psychology this term means: 1) a person as a subject of relationships and conscious activity; 2) a stable system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a person of a particular society or community. In other words, a personality is a person taken in a system of such psychological characteristics, co-
which are socially conditioned, manifest themselves in social connections and relationships by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are of significant importance for himself and those around him.
The concept of "personality" is used both broadly and in the narrow sense. In a broad sense, the concept of “personality” represents a social-systemic quality that is formed only in the process of activity and communication. Personality as a system of socially conditioned qualities appears only with the emergence of consciousness and self-awareness. In a narrow, specific sense, a person is a person, as S.L. Rubinstein notes, who has his own position, independence of thinking, originality of feelings, willpower, and inner passion. Therefore, others rarely treat a person in whom personality is felt indifferently.
In psychology, along with the concept of “personality,” the terms “man,” “individual,” and “individuality” are used. In content they are closely intertwined with each other. Therefore, the analysis of each of these concepts and their correlation with the concept of “personality” allows us to more fully reveal the latter.
Man is a generic concept indicating that a creature belongs to the human race, homo sapiens.
An individual is a single representative of the species homo sapiens. Every person from the moment of birth is an individual.
Individuality is the unity of unique personal properties specific person. This is the most
A holistic understanding of personality is impossible without studying its structure. Currently, various concepts of the psychological structure of personality are considered in the psychological literature. K.K. Platonov proposes a model of personality structure, which consists of four blocks:
^personal orientation (beliefs, worldviews, ideals, inclinations, interests, desires, motives, etc.);
2) social experience(habits, knowledge, abilities, skills);
3) psychological processes (sensations, perceptions,
memory, thinking, imagination, attention, will, feeling
qualities, emotions, etc.);
4) biological properties (sex, age, type of higher education
nervous activity, temperament).
According to S.L. Rubinstein, the personality structure includes the following substructures:
Direction (what a person strives for);
Abilities (what a person can do);
Temperament and character (what it is);
Self-awareness as internal regulation of behavior.
Thus, the study of the psychological appearance of a person includes three main areas: a) what he/she wants (interests, needs, desires, etc.); b) what he (a) can (abilities); c) what he (a) is (character).
Psychological structure personality is internally contradictory. Personal development is an interweaving of biological and social principles in behavior.
deniya person. A person is born an individual, has characteristics determined by nature - a genotype. A person becomes a person only as a subject of social relations. The essence of a person as an individual is manifested not in its uniqueness, but in its social quality.
The study of personality is one of the most difficult problems of psychological science. What shapes personality, why do individual differences exist, how does personality develop, and what are the reasons for its changes throughout a person’s life? The authors of various approaches and theories of personality are trying to find answers to these and other questions. These include: depth psychology, behaviorist theory, Gestalt psychological, humanistic, transpersonal, etc.
Proponents of depth psychology put forward the idea that the human psyche is irreducible to consciousness and tried to explore the unconscious part of the psyche. Classical depth psychology includes theories such as Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, Alfred Adler's individual psychology, and Carl Gustav Jung's analytical psychology.
The main provisions of the theory of depth psychologists are as follows:
* Leading role in human behavior belongs to the unconscious sphere of the psyche. The unconscious sphere of the psyche contains innate instincts. According to Freud, there are two such instincts: sexual (“eros”, or libido) and aggression, the desire for destruction. According to Adler, the basic human instinct is the desire for superiority, perfection, and overcoming inferiority.
In addition to instincts, the content of the unconscious includes desires that are repressed from consciousness due to their cultural unacceptability or spiritual traumaticity, undesirability for a person. The unconscious part of the human psyche is energetically charged. Instincts and desires, expelled from consciousness, strive for satisfaction. Their energy is the driving force behind human behavior.
The desire of the unconscious is contrary to society
nal and cultural norms. So, 3. Freud believed that
human instincts are by nature asocial,
base and selfish. Social, moral,
cultural norms that a person has learned in the process
education are a deterrent for
phenomena of unconscious desires and instincts.
Psychological development person carries out
through establishing a balance between instincts and
cultural norms. In other words, in the process
the inner "I" (ego) of a person is forced to constantly
clearly seek a compromise between the rushing energy
gy of the unconscious and what is generally allowed
stvom. This leads to mental, psychological
balance.
Possibility of establishing mental balance
This is achieved through the action of protective fur
mental disorders. Thus, psychological defense
It is a mechanism aimed at preventing
prevention of behavioral disorders within the framework of conferences
conflict between consciousness and the unconscious.
Let's consider some of the psychological defense mechanisms:
- forgetting as a psychological defense mechanism
prevents traumatic thoughts from entering your mind
knowledge;
- denial - information that is disturbing and may
can lead to intrapersonal conflict, not
is accepted, resulting in distortion
perception of reality;
- crowding out - represents an active switch
removal of unpleasant information from consciousness;
- projection - transfer, attribution of one's own
feelings, desires that a person does not want to be aware of
to another person. For example, if a person himself is ag
he is reactive, he considers others as such;
- identification- transference of feelings or qualities to oneself,
inherent in another person, but inaccessible, although
beneficial for yourself;
-rationalization - a pseudo-reasonable explanation by a person of his desires and actions, actually caused by reasons, the recognition of which would threaten the loss of self-esteem. For example, having not achieved the desired goal, a person convinces himself that it is not very significant for him;
- catharsis(turning on) - if a person watches and
experiences other people's dramatic situations,
more painful and traumatic than those that are alarming
reaped of himself, he begins to look at his troubles in a
to another. Thus, empathizing, helping others,
a person thereby strengthens his psyche;
- substitution- translation of real activity into the world of fun
tazii, transfer of action aimed at an inaccessible
object, to act on an available object. For example,
©2015-2019 site
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Page creation date: 2017-06-30