The main tasks in the field of Russian foreign policy in the 16th century. were: in the west - the need to have access to the Baltic Sea, in the southeast and east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia, in the south - protecting the country from the raids of the Crimean Khan.

The Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde, constantly threatened Russian lands. They controlled the Volga trade route. Finally, these were areas of fertile land (Ivan Peresvetov called them “sub-heaven”), which the Russian nobility had long dreamed of. The peoples of the Volga region - the Mari, Mordovians, Chuvash - sought liberation. The solution to the problem of subjugating the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates was possible in two ways: either plant your proteges in these states, or conquer them.

After a number of unsuccessful diplomatic attempts to subjugate the Kazan Khanate in 1552, the 150,000-strong army of Ivan IV besieged Kazan, which at that time was a first-class military fortress. To facilitate the task of taking Kazan, a wooden fortress was built in the upper reaches of the Volga (in the Uglich area), which, disassembled, was floated down the Volga until the Sviyaga River flows into it. The city of Sviyazhsk was built here, which became a stronghold in the struggle for Kazan. The work on the construction of this fortress was headed by the talented master Ivan Vyrodkov. He also supervised the construction of mine tunnels and siege devices.

Kazan was taken by storm October 2, 1552 As a result of the explosion of 48 barrels of gunpowder placed in the tunnels, part of the wall of the Kazan Kremlin was destroyed. Russian troops broke into the city through breaks in the wall. Khan Yadigir-Magmet was captured. Subsequently, he was baptized, received the name Simeon Kasaevich, became the owner of Zvenigorod and an active ally of the tsar.

Four years after the capture of Kazan in 1556 G. was annexed Astrakhan. Chuvashia and most of Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. The Nogai Horde recognized its dependence on Russia. Thus, new fertile lands and the entire Volga trade route became part of Russia. The Russian lands were freed from the invasions of the Khan's troops. Russia's ties with the peoples of the North Caucasus and Central Asia have expanded.

The annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of advancing into Siberia. Rich merchant-industrialists the Stroganovs received charters from Ivan the Terrible to own lands along the Tobol River. Using their own funds, they formed a detachment of 840 (according to other sources 600) people from free Cossacks, led by Ermak Timofeevich. In 1581, Ermak and his army penetrated the territory of the Siberian Khanate, and a year later defeated the troops of Khan Kuchum and took his capital Kashlyk (Isker).

The annexation of the Volga region and Siberia had a generally positive meaning for the peoples of this region: they became part of a state that was at a higher level of economic and cultural development. The local ruling class eventually became part of the Russian one.

In connection with the beginning of development in the 16th century. territory of the Wild Field (fertile lands south of Tula), the Russian government was faced with the task of strengthening the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Khan. For this purpose, the Tula (from the middle of the 16th century) and Belgorod (in the 30s - 40s of the 17th century) abatis lines were built - defensive lines consisting of forest rubble - notches, in the intervals between which wooden fortresses were placed - forts that closed the passages in the abatis for the Tatar cavalry.

Description:

Formation of the territory of Russia

How did the development of new lands begin?

The territory of Russia historically began to take shape due to the expansion of the Moscow principality: first by annexing other Russian principalities, and then annexing lands inhabited by other peoples or very sparsely populated. The annexation of new lands to the Moscow Principality, and subsequently to the Russian state, entailed their settlement by Russians, the construction of new cities - fortified centers, and the organization of the collection of tribute from the local population.

For almost six centuries - from the 14th to the 20th - the history of Russia consisted of a constant expansion of its territory. According to the famous Russian historian Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky, the history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized.

Only the directions and forms of colonization changed. Since the 12th century. First, Novgorodians, and then Muscovites, actively developed the north European Russia, mixing with the local Finno-Ugric tribes, who, gradually adopting the Russian language and the more developed culture of the settlers, became Slavic and dissolved among them. On the other hand, the Russians also learned from the indigenous peoples the skills of environmental management, the ability to survive in the harsh conditions of the North.

On the coast White Sea Gradually, a specific group of Russian people, the Pomors, emerged, engaged in fishing, hunting sea animals and making long sea crossings. The Pomors were the first explorers of the seas of the Arctic Ocean (which they called the Icy Sea), they discovered Spitsbergen (Grumant) and many other islands.

How did the annexation of the eastern territories take place?

In the 16th century, after the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, Russia ceased to be an almost purely Russian and Orthodox state: it included numerous peoples professing Islam. The annexation of both khanates allowed Russia to rapidly expand eastward.

In 1581, the famous campaign of Ermak began, and already in 1639, the Russian detachment of Ivan Moskvitin reached the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. A huge territory was covered by Russian explorers and assigned to Russia in just 58 years!

The Siberian peoples paid tribute (yasak) to the Russian government in furs, which constituted one of the main Russian exports and sources of income for the treasury. Therefore, first of all, explorers sought to gain a foothold in the forest zone. The development of forest-steppe and steppe regions of Siberia suitable for agriculture began much later - in the 18th-19th centuries, and was especially active after the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

On South Far East, on the banks of the Amur, in the middle of the 17th century. The Russians encountered the Chinese Empire, which was then ruled by the Manchu dynasty, and as a result of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, the border of Russian possessions was pushed north (approximately along the Stanovoy Range to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk).

The expansion of Russian territory continued in northeastern Eurasia. In 1741, the expedition of Vitus Bering and Alexander Chirikov discovered Alaska, and in 1784 the first Russian settlement was created there.

How did the annexation of the southern territories take place?

Simultaneously with the rapid advance to the east, the Moscow state slowly but steadily expanded its borders to the south - into the zone of forest-steppes and steppes, where Russian cities and villages existed before the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Subsequently, the vast majority of them were destroyed, and this territory became known as the Wild Field, which was used almost exclusively for pastures of nomads. Wild field at the end of the 15th century. began almost immediately beyond the Oka, and the Moscow princes began to strengthen the Oka border - they built fortresses in Serpukhov, Kolomna, then in Zaraisk, Tula, etc. Fortified chains of fortresses and fences (blockages in the forest, impassable for cavalry), and in open areas earthen ramparts and wooden walls were gradually built further south. The southern part of European Russia was finally protected from raids at the end of the 18th century, when, after several Russian-Turkish wars Russia reached the Black Sea coast from the Dniester to the Caucasus Mountains.

The newly annexed fertile lands of Novorossiya (the modern south of Ukraine and the North Caucasus) were flooded with peasants who suffered from land shortages - immigrants from the central provinces. This flow especially intensified after the abolition of serfdom (1861).

According to rough estimates, for the 19th - early 20th centuries. (before 1917) about 8 million people moved to Novorossiya, and about 5 million people moved to Siberia and the Far East. The population of Siberia, which was at the beginning of the 19th century. about 1 million people, by 1916 it increased to 11 million people.

How did Russia gain a foothold in the Far East?

In the south of the Far East, Russia in 1858-1860. annexed the sparsely populated lands of the Amur and Primorye, and the border acquired its modern shape.

In 1898, Russia received a lease on the Kwantung Peninsula in the south of Manchuria (where the Port Arthur naval base and the Dalniy commercial port began to be built at a rapid pace on the shores of the Yellow Sea) and the right to build railways across the territory of Manchuria. A powerful military squadron was created in Port Arthur, which became (instead of Vladivostok) the main base of the Pacific Fleet.

But defeat in the Russo-Japanese War limited the Russian presence in Manchuria only to the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), which connected Chita and Vladivostok along the shortest route.

How did the period of expansion of the state's territory end?

In the second half of the 19th century. Russia continued to expand southward. The end of the Caucasian wars with the highlanders (in 1864) made it possible to secure the Caucasus and the Black Sea coast for Russia. In Central Asia, Russia's borders were expanded to Persia and Afghanistan.

The shocks of World War I and the Russian revolutions led first to the collapse of the Russian Empire and then to its rebirth in the form of the USSR.

The collapse of the USSR in 1991 led to the fact that the borders of the former union republics, which at one time (1920-1930s) were established as purely administrative, suddenly became state borders, dividing many peoples who had been accustomed for a long time to living in one state.

In the first decades of Soviet power, the process of settling the national outskirts of the USSR by Russians continued. But in the 1970s. There has been a return migration of Russians from the Union republics of the USSR. The collapse of the USSR sharply intensified these processes - the reduction of the territory inhabited by the Russian people began.

Enkelman Maxim, 4"B"

During this project, the main stages of development of the territories of the eastern part of the Eurasian continent were examined: from Ermak’s first campaign beyond the Urals to the massive movement of industry and population to Siberia after the start of the Great Patriotic War.

The project also highlights the factors that prevented the development of eastern Eurasia by the Russian Cossacks and the factors that forced courageous and courageous Russian people to go to the north and east of Asia, explore new territories and put their names on the map of Russia.

Download:

Preview:

PROJECT

"Development of Russian territories"

GBOU secondary school No. 1386

Maxim Enkelman

4 "B" class

Classroom teacher:

Zakharyan T.R.

annotation

Our country is the largest country in the world. At the same time, the population density of Russia is significantly less than in other countries, and only Canada, second in size only to our homeland, is even less populated.

The territory of Russia has been developed for centuries at the cost of many lives of both Russian and Soviet people. At the same time, even now about half of the entire territory of Russia remains undeveloped, despite the unprecedented progress of mankind, the development of transport and other technologies that provide truly limitless opportunities for travelers.

During this project, the main stages of development of the territories of the eastern part of the Eurasian continent were examined: from Ermak’s first campaign beyond the Urals to the massive movement of industry and population to Siberia after the start of the Great Patriotic War.

The project also highlights the factors that prevented the development of eastern Eurasia by the Russian Cossacks and the factors that forced courageous and courageous Russian people to go to the north and east of Asia, explore new territories and put their names on the map of Russia.

Main part

Introduction

Russia is the largest country on Earth. In area it is significantly larger than Australia and almost equal to South America. Russia occupies a third of the giant continent of Eurasia. However, in two countries located in Asia - China and India - the population is 10 times larger than in Russia, and the area is much smaller.

There is another example: Canada. In size it is second only to Russia, while its inhabitants are almost 10 times smaller.

This sharp discrepancy between the size of the country and its population is explained by its geographical location and natural conditions. The climate in a large part of Russia and Canada is very harsh and unfavorable for human life.

Despite this, Russian people for many centuries developed these vast territories and sought to go where no man had gone before. But also in this moment about half of the entire territory of Russia remains undeveloped, although modern vehicles and technologies give humanity truly enormous opportunities in studying the Earth.

In the course of this project, we will consider the main stages of the development of Russian territory, the factors that hindered its development, as well as the factors that favored this development.

“Where did the Russian land come from?”

The territory that is now part of Russian Federation, was inhabited by people approximately 10-12 thousand years ago. The lands located between the Volga and Oka began to be developed by the Slavs back in the 8th century, although for a long time they remained in the far northeastern periphery Kievan Rus. After the Mongol-Tatar conquests of the 13th century, a new center of Russian lands was formed in this area, headed by Moscow. It is around this center that the territorial expansion of the Russian state begins.

The period from the end of the 15th to the half of the 17th century is usually called the era of great geographical discoveries. The boom of discoveries has covered almost all countries. Including Russia. But if the Europeans had to overcome the oceans to discover new lands, then for the Russian discoverers the unexplored territories lay almost nearby: beyond the Ural ridge. But unlike the oceans, which could be crossed quite quickly on sea vessels, covering distances on land was much more difficult.

Initial directions of development Russian territories were north and northeast. In 1581, the first Russian detachment crossed the Ural ridge, and in 1639 the Russians appeared on the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

Development of the Urals

Russian merchants began to penetrate the other side of the Ural Mountains already in the 12th century. They conducted active trade with local tribes: “Yugra” and “Samoyad”. However, until the middle of the 16th century, this matter was difficult and dangerous. On the way from Moscow to Yugra Land lay the Kazan and Astrakhan Tatar kingdoms, hostile to the Russian state.

Only when Ivan the Terrible managed to conquer Kazan and Astrakhan did the path beyond the Urals open, and the Volga and Kama became completely Russian rivers.

In the 17th century The development of the Urals continued. However, the advance of the Russian population to the northern regions of the Urals was hampered by unfavorable conditions for the development of agriculture. In the southern regions of the Urals, the Russians met resistance from the Bashkir population.

Therefore, the main areas of development are the undeveloped or poorly developed fertile lands of the Middle Urals. The local agricultural population treated Russian peasants kindly and together with them developed new arable land.

In the second half of the 17th century. the southern border of Russian lands advanced to the Iset and Miass rivers. At the end of the 17th century. the total population in the Urals was at least 200 thousand people. The main routes of migration were rivers. The population grew fastest in the rich natural resources areas. Despite repeated devastation from Bashkir raids, the population of the Ural cities grew, including due to exiles, and due to the influx of non-Russian population: Komi-Zyryans, Karelians, Mari, Tatars, Lithuanians, as well as captured Poles and Mansi who switched to Russian service (Vogulov).

Development of Western Siberia

In the middle of the 16th century, the merchants the Stroganov brothers, to whom Tsar Ivan the Terrible transferred the eastern territories in the Perm region to rule, began to think about moving further east in developing the lands. But for this they needed a brave and skillful leader, who became the Cossack ataman Ermak, who had served in the service of the Stroganov merchants for several years.

Little is known about the origins of this legendary man. In the chronicles there are different versions of his name: Ermak, Ermolai, German, Ermil, Vasily, Timofey, Eremey.

In 1581, Ermak, at the head of an army of 500 people, crossed the Ural ridge and on October 26 took the city of Isker, the capital of the Siberian kingdom. But such an army could not hold back the Tatar raids for long and in 1584 it surrendered, and the entire army of Ermak was killed. Ermak himself died by drowning during the battle in the Irtysh.

But in 1587, reinforcements arrived from Moscow, and the capital Isker was again taken by the Russians, and several cities with fortified garrisons were built in its vicinity. This is how Tobolsk, Tara and other cities appeared on the map.

Along the way opened by Ermak, numerous discoverers rushed in, attracted by the richest spaces of Siberia. By the middle of the 17th century, they crossed all of Northeast Asia and reached the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

In 1604, the city of Tomsk was founded on the Ob River, and in 1610 travelers reached the mouth of the Yenisei. In 1618, Russian Cossacks founded a fortified fortress at the mouth of the Yenisei River, which later became the city of Yenisei.

Development of Eastern Siberia and the Far East

Local residents on the Yenisei River told the Russian Cossacks that further to the east there was a deep Lena River, on the banks of which sables and other animals with valuable fur were found.

A small group of 10 people went in search of this river. It was headed by the Cossack Vasily Bugor. Despite the fact that the journey was long and grueling, Vasily and his comrades reached the Lena, and in 1632 the city of Yakutsk was built on its banks. Returning to Yeniseisk, Vasily Bugor spoke about the riches of the Lena, and merchants, industrialists, and trappers flocked to the great river. Russian villages began to appear on its banks one after another.

It was from the banks of the Lena that the development of Siberia began. Having learned from local residents (Yakuts) about a new rich region in the south, the Yakut governor Pyotr Golovin equipped an expedition to search for it. The detachment consisted of almost 150 people, armed with rifles and even a cannon. Heavy boats were built for the trip. On July 15, 1643, a detachment led by Cossack Vasily Poyarkov set off on their journey.

Poyarkov's boats first sailed along the Lena, and then south along the Aldan River. Then they sailed for 10 days along the Uchur River until they found themselves at the mouth of the Gonam River. Then winter came and the boats froze in the ice. Poyarkov's detachment dragged the boats to the Branta River and, waiting for spring, sailed further along the Zeya River until they reached the great Amur River, which they discovered in the summer of 1644. The Cossacks reached the mouth of the Amur only in the fall. Only 60 people remained in the expedition. Poyarkov did not dare to sail by boat on the sea, so an awkward and slow-moving ship was built, on which in the spring of 1645 the detachment went out into the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. Poyarkov returned with the remaining 20 Cossacks to Yakutsk on June 12, 1646. Having neither a map nor a compass, through the impassable taiga and unknown rivers, enduring poverty and deprivation, the Cossacks made many discoveries. Subsequently, Vasily Poyarkov compiled a detailed description of the Amur region and handed over to the Yakut governor a project for its development, which became a new significant milestone in the history of geographical discoveries.

The next expedition to the Amur from Yakutsk was made by Erofei Pavlovich Khabarov, who in the summer of 1649, together with 80 Cossacks, set off along the Lena River. But Khabarov was met first by unfriendly Daurs, and then by hostile Achans, who, with the support of the Manchurian army, forced Khabarov to return to Yakutsk.

In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev set out on an expedition from the Kalyma River to the ocean on seven ships. Only three ships out of seven sailed to the most northeastern point of the continent, now called Cape Dezhnev, and sailed south through the strait separating Asia from America. Through storms and storms, Dezhnev's ships were carried along the Pacific Ocean almost to the Kamchatka Peninsula and thrown ashore beyond the Anadyr River. This is how the Chukotka Peninsula was discovered.

Another great discovery was the discovery of Alaska by the Russian navigator of Danish origin Vitus Bering in 1741. In the same 18th century there were many discoveries in the coastal areas of the Arctic Ocean.

New discoveries and developments

The agricultural development of Siberia began in the 19th century. In 1850, the territories of the Amur and Primorye regions were annexed to the Russian Empire.

At the beginning of the 20th century (in 1916), the Trans-Siberian Railway was built. This allowed the Asian part of Russia to develop and settle even faster, because the route from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok could be covered in weeks, and many settlements were built along the train route.

This led to an even greater influx of population into the eastern regions of the country. In the western direction, the spread of Russians occurred on a smaller scale, since these territories were already densely populated.

In the 1920-1930s, the coal industry developed in Siberia. Construction and new factories require new workers. By 1939, the proportion of Siberia's urban population had grown significantly.

During the Great Patriotic War, the population of large cities in Siberia grew sharply due to the evacuation of industry and people from the European part of the USSR.

Conclusion

Once upon a time, the capital of the Russian state was Kyiv, then our country began to expand both to the north and to the south. But the greatest discoveries and conquests of lands were made, of course, in the direction of the eastern coast of Eurasia.

However, the development of the territory of the eastern part of our continent came at the cost of many lives of both Russian Cossacks and Soviet people.

Vast territories of Russia are located in the domains of permafrost, where the most low temperatures, where there are the longest winters and the most persistent cold in the entire Northern Hemisphere. In the village of Oymyakon (Yakutia), a temperature of -71 degrees Celsius was recorded in 1926. It gets colder only in Antarctica (in 1983 a temperature of almost -90 degrees Celsius was recorded there).

In addition, in the territories that the Russian people developed, there lived both isolated tribes and united peoples (Tatars, Bashkirs, Daurs, Achans, Manchus and others).

These factors (huge territory, harsh climate and hostile natives)greatly hampered the development of Russian lands.

At the same time, the territory of Russia has always been very rich in various natural resources. In the old days, salt, furs, and commercial fish were valued. Currently, oil and natural gas. And gold and diamonds, with which the Russian land has always been very rich, have always been valued.

The presence of such resources forced and is now forcing people to develop the territory of Russia, despite its harsh climate.

But in addition to the richest resources, Russian people were driven by the desire to learn the unknown, to leave their names in the history of our great country for centuries, as well as by the very beautiful Russian nature.

List of resources used

1. Balandin, R.K. I'm exploring the world. Geography of Russia: children. encycl. / R.K. Balandin - M.: AST: Astrel: Transitbook, 2006 - 398 p.
2. Markin, V.A. I'm exploring the world. Geography: children. encycl. / V.A. Markin – M.: AST, 1995 – 560 p.
3. Petrova, N.N. Geography of Russia. Complete encyclopedia / N.N. Petrova – M.: Eksmo, 2014 – 256 p.
4. Children's encyclopedia. Russian names on the world map / No. 5 – 2010 / Ed. V.Polyakov – M., 2010 – 56 p.
5. Wikipedia is a free encyclopedia [Electronic resource]. -http://wikipedia.org

Detailed solution paragraph § 24 on history for 7th grade students, authors N.M. Arsentiev, A.A. Danilov, I.V. Kurukin. 2016

Page 75

What were the causes and consequences of the church schism?

The Russian Orthodox Church became involved in the political struggle of the Time of Troubles. After her, the position of the church in the state strengthened; Patriarch Filaret made a significant contribution to church and state affairs. By the middle of the 17th century. conditions developed for church reform, which was carried out by Patriarch Nikon. The reform changed the ritual side of Orthodoxy, but caused a split of believers into Nikonians and Old Believers. The schismatics’ struggle for the old faith became one of the forms of people’s protest against the oppression of the authorities.

Page 77

What do you see as the reasons for Alexei Mikhailovich’s quarrel with Nikon?

Page 28. Questions and tasks for the text of the paragraph

1. What was the position of the Russian Orthodox Church after the Time of Troubles? Why did the position of the church strengthen?

The Russian Orthodox Church became involved in the political struggle of the Time of Troubles. After her, the position of the church in the state strengthened; Patriarch Filaret made a significant contribution to church and state affairs. The position of the church was strengthened because Patriarch Filaret was the de facto ruler of Russia.

2. What were the reasons for church reform? Why do you think it was held in the middle of the 17th century?

Reason for church reform: the need to restore order in church rituals. The church reform took place precisely in the middle of the 17th century. because by this time the position of the church was strong. In addition, an autocratic form of power for the tsar was also being formed.

3. Why did the conflict break out between Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon?

The reasons for Alexei Mikhailovich’s quarrel with Nikon are that he suggested that the tsar share power following the example of Mikhail Fedorovich and Filaret. Alexey Mikhailovich did not want to share his power with anyone.

4. How do you understand the essence and significance of church schism?

The essence of church schism: the struggle between old and new in the life of the state and society

The significance of the church schism: it showed the strength of royal power and the inevitability of change.

5. Express your opinion about Archpriest Avvakum.

Archpriest Avvakum is an example of heroic stoism, loyalty to one’s convictions, and devotion to the historical roots of the Motherland.

6. Which figures of the Russian Orthodox Church made a significant contribution to the strengthening of the Russian state in the 17th century?

Significant contribution to the strengthening of the Russian state in the 17th century. contributed by figures of the Russian Orthodox Church: Patriarchs Filaret, Joseph I, Joseph and even Nikon.

Page 36. Studying the document

1. How does Avvakum assess the essence of Nikon’s reform?

Avvakum evaluates Nikon's reform as heretical, destroying true Orthodoxy.

2. Which words in this passage do you approve of and which do you disapprove of?

From this passage one can applaud the words: “Speak in your natural language; do not disparage him in church, in home, or in proverbs.”

Words that do not deserve approval: “Take those heretics who destroyed your soul and burn them, nasty dogs...”

1. Both Patriarch Nikon and Archpriest Avvakum spoke about the need to correct church books. The first proposed editing books according to Greek originals, the second - according to Old Church Slavonic translations. Why do you think the position of Patriarch Nikon won?

The position of Patriarch Nikon won because Russia and the tsar sought to build relations with European countries, and the Greek version (read European) was more correct in this sense.

2. Using additional literature and the Internet, collect material about the Old Believers. Determine the main ideas of the Old Believers. Find out whether the Old Believers exist today.

Review of the history of the Old Believers

Followers of the Old Believers begin their history with the Baptism of Rus' by Prince Vladimir, Equal-to-the-Apostles, who adopted Orthodoxy from the Greeks. The Union of Florence (1439) with the Latins served main reason for the separation of the Russian local church from the Uniate Patriarch of Constantinople and the creation of an autonomous Russian local church in 1448, when the council of Russian bishops appointed a metropolitan without the participation of the Greeks. The Local Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 in Moscow enjoys great authority among the Old Believers. Since 1589, the Russian Church began to be headed by a patriarch.

Nikon's reforms, begun in 1653 to unify Russian rites and worship according to contemporary Greek models, met strong opposition from supporters of the old rituals. In 1656, at a local council of the Russian Church, all those who crossed themselves with two fingers were declared heretics, excommunicated from the Trinity and cursed. In 1667, the Great Moscow Council took place. The Council approved the books of the new press, approved new rituals and rites, and imposed oaths and anathemas on the old books and rituals. Supporters of the old rituals were again declared heretics. The country found itself on the brink of a religious war. The first to rise was the Solovetsky Monastery, which was devastated by the Streltsy in 1676. In 1681, a local council of the Russian Church was held; The cathedral persistently asks the tsar for executions, for decisive physical reprisals against Old Believer books, churches, monasteries, monasteries, and against the Old Believers themselves. Immediately after the cathedral, active physical violence will begin. In 1682, a mass execution of Old Believers took place. Ruler Sophia, precisely at the request of the clergy, the council of 1681-82, will publish in 1685 the famous “12 Articles” - universal state laws, on the basis of which thousands of Old Believers will be subjected to various executions: expulsion, prison, torture, burning alive in log cabins. . During the struggle against the old rite, a variety of means were used throughout the entire post-reform period by New Believer councils and synods, such as slander, lies, and forgery. Particularly famous and widespread are such forgeries as the Council Act against the heretic Armenin, against the deceiver Martin and the Theognost Trebnik. To combat the old ritual, the decanonization of Anna Kashinskaya was carried out in 1677.

Under Peter I in 1716, the “Twelve Articles” of Princess Sophia were abolished and, to facilitate their accounting, the Old Believers were given the opportunity to live semi-legally, subject to paying “double all payments for this split.” At the same time, control and punishment of those who evaded registration and payment of double tax were strengthened. Those who did not confess and did not pay double tax were ordered to be fined, each time increasing the fine rate, and even sent to hard labor. For seduction into schism (any Old Believer divine service or performance of religious services was considered seduction), as before Peter I, the death penalty was imposed, which was confirmed in 1722. Old Believer priests were declared either schism teachers, if they were Old Believer mentors, or traitors to Orthodoxy, if they had previously been priests, and were punished for both.

However, the repressions of the tsarist government against the Old Believers did not destroy this movement in Russian Christianity. In the 19th century, according to some opinions, up to a third of the Russian population were Old Believers. The Old Believer merchants grew rich and even partly became the main support of entrepreneurship in the 19th century. Socio-economic prosperity was a consequence of changes in state policy towards the Old Believers. The authorities made a certain compromise by introducing unity of faith. In 1846, thanks to the efforts of the Greek Metropolitan Ambrose, expelled by the Turks from the Bosno-Sarajevo see, the Old Believers-Beglopopovs managed to restore the church hierarchy in the territory of Austria-Hungary among refugees. The Belokrinitsky consent appeared. However, not all Old Believers accepted the new metropolitan, partly due to doubts about the authenticity of his baptism (in Greek Orthodoxy, “pouring” rather than full baptism was practiced). Ambrose elevated 10 people to various degrees of priesthood. Initially, the Belokrinitsa agreement was in force among emigrants. They managed to attract the Don Cossacks-Nekrasovites into their ranks. In 1849, the Belokrinitsky agreement spread to Russia, when the first bishop of the Belokrinitsky hierarchy in Russia, Sophrony, was elevated to the rank. In 1859, Archbishop Anthony of Moscow and All Rus' was ordained, and in 1863 he became metropolitan. At the same time, the reconstruction of the hierarchy was complicated by internal conflicts between Bishop Sophrony and Archbishop Anthony. In 1862, great discussions among the Old Believers were caused by the District Epistle, which took a step towards New Believer Orthodoxy. The oppositionists of this document made up the minds of the neo-circulators.

Article 60 of the Charter on the prevention and suppression of crimes stated: “Schismatics are not persecuted for their opinions about the faith; but they are forbidden to seduce and persuade anyone into their schism under any guise.” They were forbidden to build churches, establish monasteries, or even repair existing ones, as well as publish any books according to which their rituals were performed. Old Believers were limited in holding public positions. The religious marriage of the Old Believers, unlike religious marriages of other faiths, was not recognized by the state. Until 1874, all children of Old Believers were considered illegitimate. Since 1874, civil marriage was introduced for Old Believers: “Marriages of schismatics acquire in a civil sense, through recording in the special metric books established for this purpose, the power and consequences of a legal marriage.”

Some restrictions for Old Believers (in particular, the ban on holding public positions) were abolished in 1883.

On April 17, 1905, the Highest Decree “On strengthening the principles of religious tolerance” was given, which, among other things, abolished legislative restrictions on Old Believers and in particular read: “To assign the name Old Believers, instead of the currently used name of schismatics, to all followers of interpretations and agreements that they accept the basic dogmas of the Orthodox Church, but do not recognize some of the rituals accepted by it and conduct their worship according to old printed books.” He gave the Old Believers the opportunity to openly organize religious processions, have bells ringing, organize communities; Belokrinitsky consent was legalized. Among the Old Believers of the non-priest persuasion, a Pomeranian agreement took shape.

The Soviet government in the RSFSR and later the USSR treated the Old Believers relatively favorably until the end of the 1920s, in line with its policy of supporting currents opposed to “Tikhonovism.” The Great Patriotic War was met with ambiguity: most Old Believers called for defending the Motherland, but there were exceptions, for example, the Republic of Zueva or the Old Believers of the village of Lampovo.

Modernity

Currently, in addition to Russia, Old Believer communities exist in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Poland, Belarus, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, the USA, Canada and a number of countries Latin America, as well as in Australia.

The largest modern Orthodox Old Believer religious organization in Russia and beyond its borders is the Russian Orthodox Old Believer Church (Belokrinitsky hierarchy, founded in 1846), numbering about a million parishioners; has two centers - in Moscow and Braila, Romania.

The Old Orthodox Pomeranian Church (DOC) has more than 200 communities in Russia, and a significant part of the communities are not registered. The centralized, advisory and coordinating body in modern Russia is the Russian Council of the DOC.

The spiritual and administrative center of the Russian Ancient Orthodox Church until 2002 was located in Novozybkov, Bryansk region; since then - in Moscow.

The total number of Old Believers in Russia, according to a rough estimate, is over 2 million people. Russians predominate among them, but there are also Ukrainians, Belarusians, Karelians, Finns, Komi, Udmurts, Chuvash and others.

In 2000, at the Council of Bishops, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia repented to the Old Believers:

On March 3, 2016, a round table was held at the Moscow House of Nationalities on the topic “Current problems of the Old Believers,” which was attended by representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church Old Believer Church, Russian Ancient Orthodox Church and Ancient Orthodox Pomeranian Church. The representation was the highest - Moscow Metropolitan Korniliy (Titov), ​​Ancient Orthodox Patriarch Alexander (Kalinin) and Pomeranian spiritual mentor Oleg Rozanov. It was the first time that a meeting at such a high level between different branches of Orthodoxy took place.

3. What issues were resolved at Church Cathedral 1666-1667?

At the Church Council of 1666-1667. Issues were being resolved: the trial of Patriarch Nikon and the reprisal (anathema) of schismatics, recognition of the reform.

4. How did the reform of Patriarch Nikon influence the development of church life?

The reform of Patriarch Nikon had a negative impact on the development of church life and led to a split in the church. At the same time, the country began to serve according to uniform church rituals.

5. Why do you think in the 17th century. in Russia did secular power manage to take a primacy position in relation to church power?

In the 17th century in Russia, secular power managed to take a leading position in relation to the church because the tsarist power had already gained enough strength, the apparatus of the tsarist power was formed, a regular army, autocratic power was recognized in society.

Page 81

Peoples of Russia in the 17th century.

Material for independent work and project activities of students

Like in the 17th century. did the further formation of the multinational Russian state take place? What peoples became part of Russia in the 17th century?

In the 17th century Russia continued to develop as a multinational state. The peoples inhabiting Ukraine, Siberia and the Far East became its subjects. These peoples spoke different languages, had different customs, professed different religions and cults, but from now on they had a common Fatherland - Russia.

Page 81

When did Left Bank Ukraine become part of Russia?

Left-bank Ukraine became part of Russia in 1686.

Page 82

When was the Ukrainian Orthodox Church subordinated to the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'?

The Ukrainian Orthodox Church was subordinated to the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' in 1687.

Page 82

What was the name of the government agency located in Moscow and in charge of managing the Ukrainian lands that became part of Russia?

The government agency located in Moscow and in charge of managing the Ukrainian lands that became part of Russia was called the “Little Russia” Order. It was established in the middle of the 17th century, after the reunification of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples into a single state. The order was in charge of Little Russia, Zaporozhian army, Cossacks and the cities of Kyiv and Chernigov.

Page 83

When was the first Orthodox diocese? Where was its center located? Who were called newly baptized?

In 1555, the Kazan diocese was formed, which began active work on the Christianization of the peoples of the Volga region. Its center is Kazan. Those who converted to Orthodoxy were called newly baptized.

Page 28. Questions and assignments to the text of the material for independent work and project activities of students

1. How did the Russians develop new lands? What positive and negative consequences did Russian colonization bring to the peoples of Siberia and the Far East?

The Russians' development of new lands occurred in different ways. Some territories were conquered (Khanate of Siberia), but mostly there was a peaceful annexation.

Positive and negative consequences of Russian colonization of the peoples of Siberia and the Far East:

The Russians founded many forts in Siberia, which then turned into cities. Siberia also became a springboard for further colonization of Asia and the northwest North America(Russian America).

Establishment of economic dependence (tax - yasak), forced Christianization

2. Describe the features of management of Ukrainian lands in the 17th century. Why did some Ukrainians oppose reunification with Russia?

Features of management of Ukrainian lands in the 17th century: self-government. The elected hetman ruled the Ukrainian lands together with the elders' council, which appointed ranks to positions. The territory is divided into 10 regiments, headed by colonels and a regimental sergeant major. Large cities retained self-government, but Moscow governors with military garrisons were appointed in all cities.

Some Ukrainians opposed reunification with Russia because property inequality had increased. The Cossack elite got large lands and subjugated the poor peasants. This caused discontent among the peasants. And the Cossack elite demanded more privileges.

3. What was the situation of the peoples of the Volga region?

The entry of the peoples of the Volga region into Russia occurred at the beginning of the 17th century. Cities and fortresses arose here. The composition of the population is multinational. The population paid taxes, the Tatar nobility went into the service of the Russian tsars. Christianization was actively carried out.

4. What steps were taken in the 17th century. to strengthen Russian influence in the Caucasus?

To strengthen Russian influence in the Caucasus in the 17th century. steps have been taken

Acceptance of Kakheti and the Imeretian kingdom into Russian citizenship.

Page 57. Working with a map

1. Show on the map the territory that became part of Russia in the 17th century. What peoples inhabited it?

Russia in the 17th century inhabited by peoples: Ukrainians, Tatars, Chuvash, Mari, Mordovians, Udmurts, Bashkirs, as well as the peoples of Siberia - Nenets, Evenks, Buryats, Yakuts, Chukchi, Daurs.

2. Using the map, list the states with which in the 17th century. bordered by Russia in the south and east.

States with which in the 17th century. bordered Russia in the south: the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate. To the east is China.

Page 87. Studying the document

What new did you learn from the document about the life of the Tungus (Evenks)?

We learned something new from the document about the life of the Tungus: they lived along the banks of rivers and stored dry fish for the year.

Page 87. Studying the document

1. How do Semyon Dezhnev and Nikita Semenov determine the purpose of their campaign?

Semyon Dezhnev and Nikita Semenov define the purpose of their campaign as follows: to find profit for the royal treasury.

2. What profitable trades do they talk about?

They talk about a profitable business - hunting walruses and obtaining valuable walrus tusks.

Page 36. We think, compare, reflect

1. How ours was formed multinational state in the 17th century? At what level of development were the peoples who became part of Russia in the 17th century? How did they influence each other?

Our multinational state was formed in the 17th century. very active, but not easy. The annexed territories had to be defended in the struggle in European countries. In the process of peaceful colonization, territories were also annexed.

Peoples who became part of Russia in the 17th century. were on at different levels development: Ukraine has its own statehood with self-government bodies, and the peoples of Siberia – even at the level of primitive communal, tribal relations. The peoples that became part of Russia influenced each other fruitfully, exchanging economic and cultural achievements.

2. Using additional literature and the Internet, collect information about one of the peoples (about the territory of residence, main occupations, way of life, cultural and religious traditions, clothing, etc.) that became part of Russia in the 17th century. Based on the collected material, prepare an electronic presentation.

By the time Yakutia joined the Moscow state, at the beginning of the 17th century, the Yakuts inhabited the Lena-Amga and Lena-Vilyui interfluves and part of the river basin. Vilyuya. The main occupation of the Yakuts was breeding cattle and horses. Cattle breeding was primitive, predominantly meat and dairy.

By the beginning of the 17th century. livestock was no longer tribal, but private family property, with individual families owning several hundred heads of livestock. The majority of the Yakuts had 10 or even fewer heads of livestock, which, in the conditions of a cattle-breeding economy, did not provide a family subsistence level. There were also completely cattleless Yakuts.

Following private ownership of livestock, private ownership of hayfields was established. This happened no later than the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. Mowing was highly valued and was the subject of all kinds of transactions. Mowing fields were sold and passed on by inheritance, rented from the owners for a year or more, and payment was made in furs. The Yakuts waged a constant struggle for meadows and flooded meadows (alas). Let us only clarify that this was not land at all, which was still in communal tribal ownership, but meadows.

Hunting and fishing in the area of ​​the Amgino-Lena Plateau, where the Russians first met the compact mass of Yakuts, played only a supporting role. Only in the northern taiga regions were these industries, along with reindeer herding, the main ones. The Yakuts hunted fur-bearing animals - sables and foxes - and game - hares, migratory birds, etc. The fur was used for their own use - for clothing - and also for exchange. Sable lands were usually located away from the main housing of the Yakuts; the Yakuts rode horses there in the fall, so the poor people who did not have horses could not hunt sables.

Fishing was widespread among the poorest part of the population in both pastoral and hunting areas. The word "balykhsyt" (fisherman) was often synonymous with the word "poor". “I am a thin man, a fisherman,” said Oilga, a Yakut without cattle.

Exchange relations among the Yakuts at that time were already quite developed. Since the main wealth was concentrated in the hands of the top of society - the toyons (Yakut semi-feudal aristocracy). This elite also conducted barter relations. Moscow service people exchanged horses and cows, hay, utensils and food with the princes.

The exchange also took place among the Yakuts themselves, between the population of different regions. Thus, pastoralists exchanged livestock for furs with the Yakuts and Tungus of the taiga strip. The Namsky, Baturussky and other Yakuts sold “their cattle for sable to the distant Yakuts and Tungus.”

By the time of their conquest by the Moscow state, in the 17th century, the Yakuts had already emerged as a people with a common language, territory and a common pastoral culture, opposing themselves as a single whole to the Tungus, Yukagirs and other neighboring peoples and tribes with which they had to come into contact.

The Yakut people consisted of a number of tribes, each of which in turn consisted of several related groups. The tribal system of the Yakuts by the beginning of the 17th century. was in a state of decomposition.

At the head of the clan, numbering several hundred people, was a toyon, called a prince in Russian documents. His power was inherited by one of his sons. The remaining sons, although they belonged to a privileged class, did not have the power of the ancestor. The prince's closest relatives made up the tribal aristocracy. Members of the clan were in a dependent position on the ancestor, they accompanied him on campaigns, robberies, migrated after him, etc., but each of them remained independent economically and lived in their own yurt.

Features of tribal life preserved among the Yakuts of the 17th century. , manifested themselves in the presence of tribal councils, at which military affairs and issues relating to one or more tribes were decided. Such councils met repeatedly during the Yakuts’ struggle against colonial oppression. All questions at the council were raised and resolved by the princes, while the ulus masses were only mute witnesses.

Councils of the Yakuts of the 17th century. were not similar to the democratic meetings characteristic of the Iroquois family and which were their supreme power. However, the presence of tribal, as well as clan councils (for example, the council convened by Baltuga Timereev “Amanats - to give or not”) speaks of strong remnants of the clan system. Remnants of the tribal system were also preserved in the legal structure.

Livestock theft or other offense caused family revenge that lasted for many years. To stop revenge, it was necessary to give a ransom - "golovshchina" - in cattle or a slave. Yardan Oduneev of the Kangalas volost came to rob Okunka Odukeev of the same volost, beat him and for this he had to first give him “his glass”, and then replaced him - he gave him “5 cattle”.

Intertribal and interclan wars, accompanied by the robbery of livestock and the abduction of people, did not stop throughout the 17th century. During the uprising of 1636, the Kangalas tribe “under the prison, the uluses crushed and beat, and drove away about twenty people in a crowd of yasak people and drove away a lot of cattle.” Most of the military booty and prisoners of war were captured by military leaders, who were also clan foremen. Predatory wars were of great importance during the decomposition of the clan; they provided slaves, and slavery was a factor contributing to the further social differentiation of the clan.

The clan also formalized relations of disguised slavery under the guise of “nurturing,” that is, raising orphans and children of poor parents. Having become adults, the fosterlings had to pay for their upbringing with their labor. The owner could sell his nurse - in a word, dispose of it as his own property. Thus, the Yakut Kurzhega gave the following explanation about his nurse: “After his father Toe Bychikai, he took mala, gave her drink and fed her, and fed her for 10 years, and after nursing her, he sold Kurzhega to the Russian people.”

Under the guise of help and support, the rich exploited their poor relatives, oppressed them, and put them in a position of slavish dependence on themselves. The head of the family sold children, wives and other relatives into slavery, mainly for livestock. So, in the deed of sale for Minakaya, Selbezinov’s daughter, it is said: “I am the Yasash Yakut of the Atamaisky volost, Nonya Ivakov, who sold you to the Yasash Yakut Kurdyaga Totrev on the Vilyuya of the Seredny Vyalyuisky winter quarters of the Meginskaya Volost to the Yasash Yakut Kurdyaga Totrev, his wife named Minakaya Selbezinov’s daughter, and for that he took his wife a good horse Yes, 2 pregnant cows."

The Yakuts, who had no livestock, also fell into slavery; they “became impoverished and impoverished and were sold from house to house into servitude.”

Slaves performed household chores, went hunting, fished, herded livestock, mowed hay, earning a living for both themselves and the owner. Often slaves took part in military campaigns with their masters. A female slave could move to a new house as a dowry: “His mother Kustyakova was given a dowry for his mother Nuktueva.”

We can outline the following social groupings among the Yakuts of the 17th century: 1) toyons (princes and best people) - semi-feudal aristocracy, 2) ulus people - members of the clan community, constituting the bulk of the population, 3) dependent part of the ulus population (living “near”, “ zahrebetniki", teenagers, partially bokans, sucklers), 4) slaves (bokans).

A few words regarding the top of Yakut society. By the time the Russians arrived, the Toyons had already ceased to be representatives only of their clans, defending the interests of their relatives. Nevertheless, in appearance they still retained the appearance of clan leaders and used to their advantage certain features of clan life, such as: the former authority of the ancestors, the role of a judge, etc. The position of the toyons was unequal and depended on the strength and power of the clan of which they were representatives. were. A numerous clan was naturally stronger economically.

His boss led other communities related to him, becoming the leader of the tribe. The Cossacks well noticed the difference in the position of toyons and recorded this in various terms, depending on the significance of a particular toyon. The largest toyons, who headed large clans or entire tribes, were called “princes.” Such was, for example, the leader of the Borogonians, Prince Logui. The descendants of Tynan were often called Kangalas princes. At the same time, the founders of small and economically weak clans were simply called: “Chicha with the springs”, “Kureyak with the clan”, “Muzekai Omuptuev with his brothers and with the springs”, etc. The springs of the princes, as well as the heads of the clans, were called Russian non-princes, but "the best people".

Traditional men's and women's clothing- short leather trousers, fur belly, leather leggings, single-breasted caftan (sleep), in winter - fur, in summer - from horse or cow skin with the hair inside, for the rich - from fabric. Later, fabric shirts with a turn-down collar (yrbakhy) appeared. Men girded themselves with a leather belt with a knife and a flint; for the rich, with silver and copper plaques. A typical women's wedding fur caftan (sangiyakh), embroidered with red and green cloth and gold braid; elegant women's fur hat made of expensive fur, hanging down the back and shoulders, with a high cloth, velvet or brocade top with a silver plaque (tuosakhta) and other decorations sewn onto it. Women's silver and gold jewelry is common. Shoes - winter high boots made of deer or horse skins with the hair facing out (eterbes), summer boots made of soft leather (saars) with a boot covered with cloth, for women - with appliqué, long fur stockings.

The main food is dairy, especially in summer: from mare's milk - kumiss, from cow's milk - yogurt (suorat, sora), cream (kuerchekh), butter; they drank butter melted or with kumiss; suorat was prepared frozen for the winter (tar) with the addition of berries, roots, etc.; from it, with the addition of water, flour, roots, pine sapwood, etc., a stew (butugas) was prepared. Fish food played a major role for the poor, and in the northern regions, where there were no livestock, meat was consumed mainly by the rich. Horsemeat was especially prized. In the 19th century, barley flour came into use: unleavened flatbreads, pancakes, and salamat stew were made from it. Vegetables were known in the Olekminsky district.

Orthodoxy spread in the 18th - 19th centuries. The Christian cult was combined with belief in good and evil spirits, the spirits of deceased shamans, master spirits, etc. Elements of totemism were preserved: the clan had a patron animal, which was forbidden to kill, call by name, etc. The world consisted of several tiers, the head of the upper one was considered Yuryung ayi toyon, the lower one - Ala buurai toyon, etc. The cult of the female fertility deity Aiyysyt was important. Horses were sacrificed to the spirits living in the upper world, and cows in the lower world. The main holiday is the spring-summer koumiss festival (Ysyakh), accompanied by libations of koumiss from large wooden cups (choroon), games, sports competitions, etc. Shamanism was developed. Shamanic drums (dyungyur) are close to Evenki ones. In folklore, the heroic epic (olonkho) was developed, performed in recitative by special storytellers (olonkhosut) in front of a large crowd of people; historical legends, fairy tales, especially tales about animals, proverbs, songs. Traditional musical instruments– Jew's harp (khomus), violin (kyryimpa), drums. Among the dances, round dance osuokhai, play dances, etc. are common.

3. Using additional literature and the Internet, write (in a notebook) an essay on the topic “The Peoples of Russia: Our Common History”

The peoples of Russia: our common history

How, from the height of today's knowledge about the fate of our country and the world, can we evaluate the territorial expansion of Russia, accompanied by the inclusion of a whole conglomerate of lands and peoples? There is no shortage of assessments here, but they are often diametrically opposed.

IN last years Particularly active are those analysts who see in the territorial expansion of the Russian state, first and foremost, negative consequences - both for the Russian people themselves, and especially for “other peoples.” The once very popular, but seemingly long-discarded by science, openly politicized ideas about Russia as a “prison of nations” and an “agglomerate of stolen provinces” are being revived (the wording of the editorials of one of the social-democratic Polish newspapers of the early 20th century). Or, on the contrary, the past is idealized as the best in the general history of the peoples of Russia.

One can argue endlessly on this topic, but the facts speak for themselves. Having formed as a single state, Russia actually different ways expanded the space of the state: both peaceful and military. However, the annexed territories were not subjected to severe exploitation and plunder of wealth, as happened with the colonies owned by European powers. On the newly annexed lands, traditions, religion, customs, and way of life were preserved, with rare exceptions.

Of course, one cannot help but notice the sad pages of our common history - the Christianization of the peoples of Siberia, not always voluntary, the tragic events of the beginning of the 20th century. – Civil War, preservation of the territories of the Russian Empire with the help military force, repressions of some Soviet leaders against entire peoples. However, one can and should remember and know other historical realities. Trials that the peoples of Russia experienced in the 19th (Patriotic War of 1812) and 20th centuries. (First World War, Great Patriotic War) together and together we defeated the enemies who threatened the independence of our common Motherland - Russia, its revival after great trials. Peaceful and friendly coexistence until the end of the 20th century. and many, many achievements of this period were ensured by all the peoples of Russia, then the Soviet Union.

The gap between the peoples of Russia in modern history, which did not add happiness to anyone, occurred at the end of the 20th century, today is already perceived as a big historical mistake. In addition, friendly, mutually beneficial economic, trade and cultural relations have actually been preserved and, moreover, are successfully developing. An example is relations with Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Armenia, and Abkhazia.

Complex relations from a political point of view at the moment with Ukraine and the Baltic countries do not exclude, however, cultural and historical ties between peoples.

Over the centuries, the Russian state has been formed not only by repelling external military threats and participating in wars and conflicts, but also by developing new lands and involving the peoples living on their territories into a single all-Russian socio-political space.

These processes have the starting point of their development precisely at the time when a state entity appeared in the east of the European continent - Ancient Rus', which declared its rights to resolve the most important issues of international politics, and based state building on the integration of various ethno-confessional communities inhabiting the territorial space included into its composition.

For centuries, the main dominant development Russian statehood was thus the practice of “gathering lands.” This determined the specifics of the formation of Russian statehood, which consisted in its multinational character.

At the same time, the peoples and tribes that were part of Ancient Rus', retained not only their identity, but also autonomy in organizing their life activities. This is the fundamental difference between the domestic practice of annexing new territories from the European one, which was carried out through conquest and the forcible imposition of one’s ethnocultural (primarily religious) principles and, thus, the subjugation of conquered peoples or their extermination.

Another important feature of the domestic practice of developing new lands was the predominantly voluntary nature of joining Rus' - Russia. With the exception of certain regions ( state entities, formed on the basis of the remnants of the Golden Horde: Kazan, Astrakhan, Nogai and Crimean khanates), most of the ethno-territorial entities annexed to Russia were part of Russia voluntarily or under the terms of treaties with states with which Russia waged wars, as compensation for military costs1.

This predetermined the strength of the national-state structure of Russia. While the great colonial powers - Belgium, Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, France - ultimately lost their colonial status and returned to the borders of the metropolises. Russia was steadily expanding in territory.

Finally, the third most important feature of Russia’s territorial expansion was that it was initially carried out not under the auspices of the state, but by volunteers called explorers.

Due to a number of circumstances, the processes of developing new lands initially took place in the north and northeast of Ancient Rus'. This was due to the fact that the southern Russian principalities at that time repelled the raids of nomads, and could not participate in territorial expansion to the fullest. In the north of the country, during this period (XI - XII centuries) the situation was less tense, since the warlike tribes of the Norman Vikings, living in adjacent territories, actively developed the coasts Western Europe(England and France).

This predetermined that the initiator of the development of new lands in Ancient Rus' was the Principality of Novgorod, whose elite was distinguished by increased entrepreneurship, and the population - by passion2.

Directly, the very development of new territories began from the Trans-Urals - Northwestern Siberia or, according to sources of that time, the Yugra land. At the forefront of the development of new territories were detachments of Novgorod ukshuiniks, who were attracted by this territory with furs and other riches of the region; the pioneers hunted here, extracted furs, and also exchanged with the local population: they exchanged furs for iron products. Novgorod military detachments were often equipped for campaigns in the Ugra land, collecting tribute (mainly furs) from local tribes, since this process did not always occur without resistance from its indigenous inhabitants.

Thus, already in that period the entire Russian north, Subpolar Urals and the lower reaches of the Ob were considered the Novgorod fiefdom, and the local peoples were formally considered Novgorod vassals.

The civil strife of the Russian principalities, which manifested itself most acutely in the second half of the 12th century, followed by their defeat and subordination to the Golden Horde, suspended the processes of territorial expansion for almost two centuries. But, as soon as Rus' was finally freed from the Mongol- Tatar yoke in the second half of the 15th century, the processes of development of new territories and their annexation to the growing Moscow principality resumed.

Apparently, it was the desire to establish control over the untold riches of the northern territories that was the economic background for the military seizure of Novgorod by Moscow. After its conquest by Ivan III in 1477, not only the entire North, but also the so-called Ugra land went to the Moscow Principality. And already during the reign of Ivan III, expeditions to the Urals and further to the east began to be organized.

The first such expedition was the campaign of a detachment led by Prince Fyodor Kurbsky, who in the spring of 1483 (almost 100 years before Ermak) crossed the Stone Belt - the Ural Mountains and conquered the Pelym Principality, one of the largest Khanty-Mansi tribal associations in the Tavda basin. Having walked further to Tobol, Kurbsky found himself in the “Siberian Land” - that was the name then of a small territory in the lower reaches of Tobol, where the Ugric tribe “Sypyr” had long lived3. From here the Russian army marched along the Irtysh to the middle Ob, where the Ugric princes successfully “fought”. Having collected a large yasak, the Moscow detachment turned back, and on October 1, 1483, Kurbsky’s squad returned to their homeland, having covered about 4.5 thousand kilometers during the campaign.

The results of the campaign were the recognition in 1484 by the princes of Western Siberia of dependence on the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the annual payment of tribute. Therefore, starting from Ivan III, the titles of the Grand Dukes of Moscow (later transferred to the royal title) included the words “ Grand Duke Yugorsky, Prince Udorsky, Obdorsky and Kondinsky.

16 years later, in the winter of 1499-1500, a detachment of four thousand, led by princes Semyon Kurbsky and Peter Ushaty, made a second trip to the lower reaches of the Ob. This campaign led to the fact that the Ugric princes Once again recognized themselves as vassals of the Russian sovereign and pledged to pay tribute to the Moscow principality, which they themselves collected from the population under their control.

Thus, already in the second half of the 15th – early 16th centuries, attempts were made to expand the emerging Russian state to the east – to Siberia. However, the absence of Russian cities and fortresses, permanent representatives of the tsarist administration and the Russian population in this territory made their dependence on Russia weak.

In reality, the discovery of Siberia and its annexation to Russia began after the destruction of the Kazan Khanate. Its annexation to Rus' in the middle of the 16th century opened up a shorter and faster route to Siberia: through the Kama and its tributaries. Now not only the northern route through the Trans-Urals, but also the Volga region has become the main direction of Russia’s advance to the Urals and further to Siberia.

To solve this problem, Ivan the Terrible, due to the Livonian War, not being able to send troops to this region, used the potential, on the one hand, of the emerging entrepreneurial class - merchants-industrialists, and on the other - the Cossack freemen, who had already established themselves by that time in protection of state borders.

In accordance with this, in 1558, the lands in the Urals in the Kama basin were farmed out to the industrialists Stroganovs (whose ancestors had traded in these areas since the time of the Novgorod Republic). The king gave them the broadest powers. They had the right to collect yasak (tribute), extract minerals, and build fortresses. To protect their territories and industries, the Stroganovs also had the right to create armed formations.

It should be noted that by this time the situation in the region had changed radically. This was due to the fact that power in the Siberian principalities was seized by Khan Kuchum, the son of one of the last khans of the Golden Horde, Murtaza. Relying on his relative, the Bukhara khan Abdullah Khan II and using an army consisting of Uzbek, Nogai, and Kazakh detachments, Kuchum in 1563 overthrew and killed the Siberian khan Ediger and became the sovereign khan over all the lands along the Irtysh and Tobol. The very population of the Siberian Khanate, which was based on the Tatars and their subordinate Mansi and Khanty, perceived Kuchum as a usurper.

After seizing power in the Siberian Khanate, Kuchum initially continued to pay yasak and even sent his ambassador to Moscow with 1000 sables in 1571. But when his wars with local competitors ended, he organized several campaigns into the Stroganovs’ possessions.

The presence of a source of threat forced industrialists to intensify the search for volunteers capable of not only resisting the raids of Kuchum’s troops, but also defeating him on his territory - in the Siberian Khanate. Such volunteers were found in the Volga-Yaik Cossacks, who were hiding in the Urals from the tsar’s wrath for systematically robbing merchant ships on the Volga. The squad of free hunters - Cossacks - was led by the most authoritative participant among them in the Livonian Don War (according to other sources - Yaitsky) Cossack Ermak Timofeevich Alenin - Ermak4.

In 1582, Ermak formed a squad of 600 Cossacks and 300 warriors allocated by the Stroganovs for a campaign in Siberia, and already in the summer of the same year his famous campaign was launched, which marked the beginning of the annexation of this rich region to Russia.

For almost 100 days, the Cossacks traveled along the rivers of the Urals and Siberia to Kuchum’s possessions. In October the first battles with his troops took place. Despite the superiority in numbers, Kuchum's troops were defeated, and in November of the same year, Ermak took the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Isker. This was largely facilitated by the fact that the free Cossacks had long-term wars with nomads in the “wild field” and they learned to defeat them, despite their numerical superiority.

An important reason for the success of Ermak’s expedition was also the internal fragility of the Siberian Khanate. Military failures led to the resumption of internecine struggle among the Tatar nobility. The power of Kuchum was no longer recognized by many local Mansi and Khanty princes and elders. Some of them began to help Ermak with food.

Nothing prevented Ermak from establishing his own order in Siberia... Instead, the Cossacks, having become power, began to rule in the name of the king, brought the local population to swear an oath in the sovereign name and invested it state tax– Yasakom5. With the onset of spring 1583, the Cossack circle sent messengers to Moscow with the news of the conquest of the Siberian Khanate. And thus, it was actually presented to Ivan the Terrible, who appreciated this gift and sent detachments of archers of up to 300 people under the command of governors S. Bolkhovsky and I. Glukhov to help Ermak.

For two years, Ermak’s expedition established Russian jurisdiction in the Ob left bank of Siberia. The pioneers, as almost always happens in history, paid with their lives. But the Russian claims to Siberia were first outlined precisely by the warriors of Ataman Ermak. Other conquerors came after them. Soon enough, all of Western Siberia “almost voluntarily” became a vassal, and then administratively dependent on Moscow.

The death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, and then the death of Ermak in 1585, stopped expansion to the East for some time, but by the end of the 16th century, the basins of the Ob and Taz rivers were completely developed by merchant-industrialists, who built a number of fortifications here, which later became fishing and shopping centers. Thus, in 1586, Tyumen was founded - the first Russian city in Siberia; in 1587 - Tobolsk; in 1594 - Surgut; in 1595 - Obdorsk (since 1933 - Salekhard). In 1601, Mangazeya became the main administrative center of the Urals, and for a long time served as a transit point for further advancement to the east.

The 17th century is rightly called the golden age of Russian volunteer pioneers in the development of Siberia and the Far East. This process was started by the discoverer of the Lena River, the legendary Cossack personality Demid Safonov, nicknamed Pyanda. This man made an unprecedented trek of thousands of miles through completely wild places in terms of his determination. In 1620, with a detachment of 40 people, he set out from Mangazeya and climbed the Yenisei from Turukhansk to Nizhnyaya Tunguska. In 3.5 years, Pyanda sailed along the rivers about 8 thousand km, found portages from the Lower Tunguska to the Lena and from the Lena to the Angara and met two new peoples for the Russians - the Yakuts and Buryats.

The founder of a number of Siberian cities (Yakutsk, Chita, Nerchinsk, etc.) Pyotr Beketov made a significant contribution to the development of Eastern Siberia. Arriving in Siberia voluntarily, he asked to go to the Yenisei prison, where in 1627 he was appointed a rifle centurion.

In 1628 - 1629 he took part in campaigns up the Angara. And in 1632, P. Beketov founded the Lensky fort, from which Yakutsk originates, and within two years he swore an oath of allegiance to Russia to the inhabitants of almost all of central Yakutia.

Yakutsk, founded by P. Beketov, subsequently became one of the main starting points for Russian explorers. It was from here, in particular, that the expedition began in the spring of 1639 under the leadership of the Tomsk Cossack Ivan Moskvitin, exploring the lower reaches of the Lena River and the coast of the Arctic Ocean. The expedition consisted of only 39 people. First they walked up the Mae River and its tributary Nudym, and then went deeper into the mountains. In the fall of 1639, the Cossacks reached the shore of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. On Ulye, where the Lamuts (Evens), related to the Evenks, lived, I. Moskvitin set up a winter hut, which became the first known Russian settlement on the Pacific coast. Here, at the mouth of the Ulya River, I. Moskvitin built two ships, from which the history of the Russian Pacific Fleet actually began.

In general, the results of the campaign were the discovery and exploration of the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk for 1300 km, the Udskaya Bay, Sakhalin Island and the Sakhalin Bay, as well as the mouth of the Amur and the Amur Estuary.

The expedition turned out to be so successful that already in July 1643, 4 years after I. Moskvitin’s campaign, the first Yakut governor P. Golovin equipped a detachment of 133 Cossacks under the command of the explorer Vasily Danilovich Poyarkov for further exploration of the Amur region. In the same year, the expedition climbed the Aldan and its tributaries, to the portage to the tributaries of the Zeya. After wintering on its banks in May 1644, the detachment descended to the Amur to its mouth, and in early September to the mouth of the Ulya River.

Over the 3 years of this expedition, V. Poyarkov covered about 8 thousand km, collecting valuable information about the peoples living along the Amur River, as well as about the island of Sakhalin. Only in the summer of 1646 did the expedition return to Yakutsk, having lost two-thirds of its members during the campaign. This was the price that explorers paid for the first detailed information about the Amur region.

News of the discovery of the Amur River extremely interested another famous Russian explorer, Erofei Pavlovich Khabarov, a man of extraordinary destiny, energy and desire to explore new lands.

Born in the European part of the country near Veliky Ustyug, E.P. Khabarov in his youth served in the Khetsky winter quarters in Taimyr. Having then moved to the upper reaches of the Lena, from 1632 he was engaged in buying furs. In 1639 he discovered the Ust-Kutskoe salt deposit6, which subsequently, along with the Irkutsk Usolie, supplied the entire Eastern Siberia with salt. At the same time, he was engaged in sable and fishing, as well as arable farming, becoming one of the largest grain merchants in the Yakutsk district7. In addition to the “commercial vein” at this time, which the biographers of E.P. Khabarov is called the Lena period, according to F. Safonov, Erofey Pavlovich, “looking for profit for the sovereigns” and “profit for himself,” collected information about the Lena basin, the possibilities and time of sailing along the Lena and rowing to the mouth, “what kind of people are on those rivers live,” tried to obtain and double-check data about the various peoples of this basin8.

The income received by E.P. Khabarov, from his crafts and trade in grain, could not leave indifferent the Siberian officials of that time in the person of the Yakut governors P. Golovin and M. Glebov. First, they borrowed 3,000 pounds of grain from him, then they “signed off” his salt production to the treasury without any remuneration. In 1643, for refusing to “lend money” to the voivodeship treasury, all his possessions were illegally taken away from him, and he was thrown into a Yakut prison, where he spent 2.5 years, apparently because he put the interests of the state above personal ones, and especially the needs of officials.

Released from prison in 1645, E.P. For several years, Khabarov collected information about the results of expeditions to the Amur. In 1649 E.P. Khabarov recruited 70 volunteers at his own expense and, having received permission from the new governor of Yakutsk D.A. Franzbekov (Fahrensbach), went on his famous campaign to Dauria.

Unlike V. Poyarkov, E. Khabarov chose a different route. Leaving Yakutsk in the fall of 1649, he climbed up the Lena to the mouth of the Olekma River and reached its tributary, the Tugir River. From the upper reaches of the Tugir, the Cossacks crossed the watershed and descended into the valley of the Urka River. Soon, in February 1650, they were on the Amur.

Being amazed by the untold riches that opened before him, in one of his reports to the Yakut governor he wrote: “and along those rivers live many Tungus, and down the glorious great Amur River live Daurian people, arable and livestock meadows, and in that great Amur River there are fish - Kaluga, sturgeon, and all kinds of fish are plentiful against the Volga, and in the mountains and uluses there are great meadows and arable lands, and the forests along that great Amur River are dark, large, there are a lot of sables and all kinds of animals... And in the land you can see gold and silver”9.

In September 1651, on the left bank of the Amur, in the area of ​​Lake Bolon, Khabarovsk residents built a small fortress and called it Ochansky town. To establish Russia’s position in the Amur region, E. Khabarov needed help. For this purpose, nobleman D. Zinoviev was sent from Moscow to the Amur, who, without understanding the situation, removed Khabarov from his post and took him under escort to the capital. Thus, once again the activities of the brave explorer were influenced by bureaucratic arbitrariness. And although he was later acquitted, nevertheless, he was no longer allowed onto the Amur.

The most important contribution to the development of the Far Eastern territories was made by the traveler who was the first to walk along the sea coast of the modern Magadan region, Mikhail Vasilyevich Stadukhin. He is also one of the discoverers of the Kolyma River. Being a merchant by birth, he entered the Cossack service and served for 10 years on the banks of the Yenisei, then on the Lena.

In the winter of 1641, at the head of a detachment of volunteers, having crossed the northern part of the Suntar-Khayata ridge, he ended up in the Indigirka basin. In the summer of 1643, he was the first to reach the delta of the “big Kovami River” (Kolyma) by sea and founded a fort at its mouth, called Nizhnekolymsky. Along the Kolyma, M. Stadukhin climbed to its middle course (having discovered the eastern outskirts of the Kolyma Lowland), set up the first Russian winter hut on the shore by the fall, and in the spring of 1644 - the second, in the lower reaches of the river, where the Yukaghirs lived. Founded by the explorer, Nizhnekolymsk became the starting point for further great geographical discoveries in Northeast Asia.

In the fall of 1645, M. Stadukhin returned to the Lena, but in 1648 he returned to Kolyma again. In 1649, he sailed east from Kolyma, and in 1650, with a detachment, he went overland to the Anadyr River to the Anadyr winter quarters founded by the discoverer of the Bering Strait, Semyon Dezhnev. There he spent the winter, and in February 1651 he set off from Anadyr to the Penzhina River and descended along it to the Okhotsk coast. Here the Cossacks built ships and explored the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, and in the fall of the same year they founded a winter quarters at the mouth of the Gizhiga River. In the summer of 1652, M. Stadukhin and his companions set off on a journey to the west along the Okhotsk coast, along the way they built the Yamskoye winter hut, and later a fort on the Tauy River10. In the summer of 1657, M. Stadukhin’s expedition reached the mouth of the Okhota River, and in 1659, through Oymyakon and Aldan, it returned to Yakutsk, completing a giant circular route through Northeast Asia.

In total, in 12 years, M. Stadukhin walked over 13 thousand kilometers - more than any other explorer of the 17th century. The total length of the northern shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk that he discovered was at least 1,500 kilometers.

Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev, a Cossack ataman, explorer, traveler, sailor, explorer of Northern and Eastern Siberia, was also on M. Stadukhin’s expedition. Service S.I. Dezhnev began in Tobolsk as an ordinary Cossack. In 1638 he was sent as part of the detachment of P.I. Beketov to the Yakutsk prison. He was a participant in the first campaigns in the Far Asian North. Later he served on the Kolyma River.

In 1648, S. Dezhnev undertook a voyage along the coast of Chukotka and for the first time in the world passed the Icy and Anadyr Seas (the Arctic Ocean and the Bering Sea) from the mouth of the Kolyma to the northern tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula. This campaign proved the existence of a strait separating the Asian continent from the American one.

The following year, 1649, he explored and mapped the banks of the Anadyr River, and in the period from 1659 to 1669, he made trips along the Anyui River, the lower reaches of the Lena and Olenek rivers, and along the Vilyuyu River. All this testified to the great contribution of S. Dezhnev to the history of the development of the Far East.

But at the same time, his most significant discovery was the strait separating Eurasia from America. The paradox of history is that it was his most significant discovery that remained little known for a long time.

As a result, this strait discovered by him by J. Cook, who did not know about the feat of S. Dezhnev, received the name of V. Bering, who visited these places almost a century later than him and did not pass through the strait from the Pacific Ocean to the Arctic Ocean, but only approached him.

S. Dezhnev’s geographical merits were appreciated only in the 19th century, when in 1898, in honor of the 250th anniversary of the campaign from Kolyma to Anadyr, at the suggestion of the Russian Geographical Society the extreme eastern point of Eurasia was named after him - the name of the man who proved that the Far East is an integral part of our country.

One of the last explorations of Siberia and the Far East in the 17th century was the expedition of the Cossack Pentecostal Vladimir Vasilyevich Atlasov to Kamchatka in 1697. And, although he was not the discoverer of Kamchatka, he was the first to walk almost the entire peninsula from north to south and from west to east. V. Atlasov's expedition to explore Kamchatka actually completed the so-called volunteer stage of the development of new lands in Russia.

The significance of this stage in the history of Russia was perhaps most imaginatively expressed by one of the last classics of Russian literature, V.G. Rasputin, in the words “After the overthrow of the Tatar yoke and before Peter the Great, there was nothing more enormous and important, more happy and historical in the fate of Russia than the annexation of Siberia, in the vastness of which old Rus' could have been laid down several times.”

It is noteworthy that around the same time, active colonization of African and American lands by Spain, Portugal and England was underway. But it was carried out under the auspices of the leadership and governments of these countries, that is, in essence it was of an administrative nature.

In Siberia and the Far East, everything was exactly the opposite. At first, these lands were discovered and developed by volunteers, who flocked here mainly for furs, valuable metals and simply for a better life. And the administration followed them. In essence, Siberia and the Far East went to To the Russian state thanks to the dedication and energy of volunteer pioneers.

Another fundamental difference between the development of Siberia and the Far East from European colonization was the attitude towards the population living in the annexed territories. Of course, development was not always of an exploratory nature. There were also armed clashes, especially in the south of Siberia11, but in general the development of the territories was not of a destructive nature, as was the case during the colonization of the North American continent by the British and French, and then by the Americans themselves.

This was largely due to the fact that from the very beginning of Russian expansion into Siberia, the tsarist government not only supported the pioneers, but also carefully ensured that they did not offend the native population. So, for example, in one of the Decrees of Alexei Mikhailovich, a direct order was given to the governors: “The governors were ordered to treat the yasaks kindly, and not with bondage or cruelty”12.

All this allows us to talk about the development or annexation of Siberia, and not its conquest.

From the beginning of the 18th century, not only the modernization of Russia began, the result of which was its transformation into a leading state in the world community, but also the further development of new lands, which expanded the expanses of Russia all the way to Alaska and California. Russia was firmly established on both sides of the Pacific Ocean in the northeast, which allowed already in the second half of M.V. Lomonosov to utter a historical phrase that has accompanied the development of Russian statehood to this day: “the power of Russia will increase with the riches of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean.”

But this was already another stage of “gathering lands”; it was no longer volunteer Cossacks, industrialists-merchants and other “willing” people who were exploring new lands, but expeditions organized under the auspices of the state with subsequent approval in the annexed territories of the Russian administration.

Bocharnikov Igor Valentinovich