Empirical research methods

1. Empirical methods (methods-operations).

Study of literature, documents and results of activities. Issues of working with scientific literature will be discussed separately below, since this is not only a research method, but also a mandatory procedural component of any scientific work.

The source of factual material for the research is also a variety of documentation: archival materials in historical research; documentation of enterprises, organizations and institutions in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other studies, etc. The study of performance results plays an important role in pedagogy, especially when studying the problems of professional training of students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology of labor; and, for example, in archeology, during excavations, the analysis of the results of human activity: by the remains of tools, dishes, dwellings, etc. allows us to restore the way of their life in a particular era.

Observation is, in principle, the most informative research method. This is the only method that allows you to see all aspects of the phenomena and processes being studied that are accessible to the perception of the observer - both directly and with the help of various instruments.

Depending on the goals pursued in the process of observation, the latter can be scientific or non-scientific. Purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena outside world, associated with the solution of a specific scientific problem or task, is usually called scientific observation. Scientific observations involve obtaining certain information for further theoretical understanding and interpretation, for affirming or refuting a hypothesis, etc. Scientific observation consists of the following procedures:

• · determination of the purpose of observation (for what, for what purpose?);
• · selection of an object, process, situation (what to observe?);
• · choice of method and frequency of observations (how to observe?);
• · choice of methods for recording the observed object, phenomenon (how to record the information received?);
• · processing and interpretation of received information (what is the result?).

The observed situations are divided into:

• · natural and artificial;
• · controlled and not controlled by the subject of observation;
• · spontaneous and organized;
• · standard and non-standard;
• · normal and extreme, etc.

In addition, depending on the organization of observation, it can be open and hidden, field and laboratory, and depending on the nature of the recording - ascertaining, evaluative and mixed. Based on the method of obtaining information, observations are divided into direct and instrumental. Based on the scope of coverage of the objects under study, continuous and selective observations are distinguished; by frequency – constant, periodic and single. A special case of observation is self-observation, which is quite widely used, for example, in psychology.

Observation is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to obtain initial information, would not have scientific facts and empirical data, and therefore the theoretical construction of knowledge would be impossible.

However, observation as a method of cognition has a number of significant disadvantages. The personal characteristics of the researcher, his interests, and finally, his psychological state can significantly influence the results of the observation. Objective observation results are even more susceptible to distortion in cases where the researcher is focused on obtaining a certain result, on confirming his existing hypothesis.

To obtain objective observation results, it is necessary to comply with the requirements of intersubjectivity, that is, observation data must (and/or can) be obtained and recorded, if possible, by other observers.

Replacing direct observation with instruments unlimitedly expands the possibilities of observation, but also does not exclude subjectivity; the evaluation and interpretation of such indirect observation is carried out by the subject, and therefore the subject influence of the researcher can still occur.

Observation is most often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.

Measurement. Measurement is used everywhere, in any human activity. Thus, almost every person takes measurements dozens of times during the day, looking at his watch. The general definition of measurement is as follows: “Measurement is a cognitive process consisting of comparing... a given quantity with some of its values, accepted as a standard of comparison” (see, for example,).

Including, measurement is an empirical method (method-operation) of scientific research.

A specific measurement structure can be distinguished, including the following elements:

1) a cognizing subject who carries out measurements for certain cognitive purposes;

2) measuring instruments, among which there can be both devices and tools designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;

3) the object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;

4) a method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;

5) the result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using appropriate names or signs.

The epistemological justification of the measurement method is inextricably linked with the scientific understanding of the relationship between the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the object (phenomenon) being studied. Although this method only records quantitative characteristics, these characteristics are inextricably linked with the qualitative certainty of the object being studied. It is thanks to qualitative certainty that quantitative characteristics to be measured can be identified. The unity of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the object being studied means both the relative independence of these aspects and their deep interconnection. The relative independence of quantitative characteristics makes it possible to study them during the measurement process, and use the measurement results to analyze the qualitative aspects of the object.

The problem of measurement accuracy also relates to the epistemological foundations of measurement as a method of empirical knowledge. The accuracy of the measurement depends on the ratio of objective and subjective factors in the measurement process.

Such objective factors include:

the possibility of identifying certain stable quantitative characteristics in the object under study, which in many cases of research, in particular, social and humanitarian phenomena and processes, is difficult, and sometimes even impossible;

– the capabilities of measuring instruments (their degree of perfection) and the conditions in which the measurement process takes place. In some cases, finding the exact value of a quantity is fundamentally impossible. It is impossible, for example, to determine the trajectory of an electron in an atom, etc.

Subjective measurement factors include the choice of measurement methods, the organization of this process and a whole range of cognitive capabilities of the subject - from the qualifications of the experimenter to his ability to correctly and competently interpret the results obtained.

Along with direct measurements, the method of indirect measurement is widely used in the process of scientific experimentation. With indirect measurement, the desired quantity is determined on the basis of direct measurements of other quantities associated with the first functional dependence. Based on the measured values ​​of mass and volume of a body, its density is determined; The resistivity of a conductor can be found from the measured values ​​of resistance, length and cross-sectional area of ​​the conductor, etc. The role of indirect measurements is especially great in cases where direct measurement in conditions of objective reality is impossible. For example, the mass of any space object (natural) is determined using mathematical calculations based on the use of measurement data of other physical quantities.

The measurement results need to be analyzed, and for this it is often necessary to build derivative (secondary) indicators on their basis, that is, apply one or another transformation to the experimental data. The most common derived indicator is the averaging of quantities - for example, average weight people, average height, average per capita income, etc.

Survey. This empirical method is used only in the social sciences and humanities. The survey method is divided into oral survey and written survey.

Oral survey (conversation, interview). The essence of the method is clear from its name. During the interview, the questioner has personal contact with the answerer, that is, he has the opportunity to see how the answerer reacts to a particular question. The observer can, if necessary, ask various additional questions and thus obtain additional data on some unanswered questions.

Oral surveys provide concrete results, and with their help it is possible to obtain comprehensive answers to complex questions of interest to the researcher. However, to questions

respondents of a “sensitive” nature answer in writing much more frankly and give more detailed and thorough answers.

The respondent spends less time and energy on an oral response than on a written one. However, this method also has its own negative sides. All respondents are in different conditions, some of them can receive additional information through the researcher’s leading questions; the facial expression or some gesture of the researcher has some effect on the respondent.

The questions used for the interview are planned in advance and a questionnaire is drawn up, where space should be left for recording (logging) the answer.

Basic requirements when writing questions:

the survey should not be random, but systematic; at the same time, questions that are more understandable to the respondent are asked earlier, more difficult ones - later;

questions should be concise, specific and understandable to all respondents;

questions should not contradict ethical standards. Survey rules:

1) during the interview, the researcher must be alone with the respondent, without outside witnesses;

2) each oral question is read from the question sheet (questionnaire) verbatim, unchanged;

3) the order of the questions is strictly followed; the respondent should not see the questionnaire or be able to read subsequent questions;

4) the interview should be short - from 15 to 30 minutes, depending on age and intellectual level respondents;

5) the interviewer should not influence the respondent in any way (indirectly suggest an answer, shake his head as a sign of disapproval, nod his head, etc.);

6) the interviewer can, if necessary, if the given answer is unclear, ask additionally only neutral questions (for example: “What did you want to say by this?”, “Explain in a little more detail!”).

7) answers are recorded in the questionnaire only during the survey.

The responses are subsequently analyzed and interpreted.

Written survey – questionnaire. It is based on a pre-developed questionnaire (questionnaire), and the responses of respondents (interviewees) to all items of the questionnaire constitute the required empirical information.

The quality of empirical information obtained as a result of a survey depends on factors such as the wording of the survey questions, which should be understandable to the respondent; qualifications, experience, integrity, psychological characteristics researchers; the situation of the survey, its conditions; emotional condition respondents; customs and traditions, ideas, everyday situations; and also – attitude towards the survey. Therefore, when using such information, it is always necessary to make allowances for the inevitability of subjective distortions due to the specific individual “refraction” of it in the minds of the respondents. And where we're talking about on fundamentally important issues, along with the survey, they also turn to other methods - observation, expert assessments, document analysis.

Particular attention is paid to the development of a questionnaire - a questionnaire containing a series of questions necessary to obtain information in accordance with the objectives and hypothesis of the study. The questionnaire must meet the following requirements: be reasonable regarding the purposes of its use, that is, provide the required information; have stable criteria and reliable rating scales that adequately reflect the situation being studied; the wording of the questions must be clear to the respondent and consistent; Questionnaire questions should not cause negative emotions in the respondent (answer).

Questions can be closed or open-ended. A question is called closed if it has a full set of answer options in the questionnaire. The respondent only marks the option that coincides with his opinion. This form of the questionnaire significantly reduces the filling out time and at the same time makes the questionnaire suitable for processing on a computer. But sometimes there is a need to find out directly the opinion of the respondent on a question that excludes pre-prepared answer options. In this case, they resort to open questions.

When answering an open question, the respondent is guided only by his own ideas. Therefore, this response is more individualized.

Compliance with a number of other requirements also helps to increase the reliability of answers. One of them is to provide the respondent with the opportunity to evade the answer and express an uncertain opinion. To do this, the rating scale should include answer options: “it’s hard to say,” “difficult to answer,” “it varies,” “when and how,” etc. But the predominance of such options in the answers is evidence of either the incompetence of the respondent or the unsuitability of the wording of the question to obtain the necessary information.

In order to obtain reliable information about the phenomenon or process under study, it is not necessary to interview the entire contingent, since the object of study can be numerically very large. In cases where the object of study exceeds several hundred people, selective questioning is used.

Method of expert assessments. Essentially, this is a type of survey associated with the involvement of the most competent people in the assessment of the phenomena and processes being studied, whose opinions, complementing and cross-checking each other, allow a fairly objective assessment of what is being studied. Using this method requires a number of conditions. First of all, this is a careful selection of experts - people who know the area being assessed, the object being studied well, and are capable of an objective, unbiased assessment.

The choice of an accurate and convenient rating system and corresponding measurement scales is also essential, which organizes judgments and makes it possible to express them in certain quantities.

It is often necessary to train experts to use the proposed scales for unambiguous assessment in order to minimize errors and make assessments comparable.

If experts acting independently of each other consistently give coinciding or similar assessments or express similar opinions, there is reason to believe that they are approaching objectiveness. If the estimates differ greatly, then this indicates either an unsuccessful choice of the rating system and measurement scales, or the incompetence of the experts.

Varieties of the expert assessment method are: the commission method, the brainstorming method, the Delphi method, the heuristic forecasting method, etc.

Testing is an empirical method, a diagnostic procedure consisting in the use of tests (from English test - task, test). Tests are usually asked to subjects either in the form of a list of questions that require short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of tasks that do not take much time to solve and also require unambiguous decisions, or in the form of some short-term practical work subjects, for example, qualifying trial work in vocational education, labor economics, etc. Tests are divided into blank, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual and group use.

These are, perhaps, all the empirical methods and operations that the scientific community has at its disposal today. Next, we will consider empirical action methods, which are based on the use of operational methods and their combinations.

2. Empirical methods (methods-actions).

Empirical methods-actions should, first of all, be divided into two classes. The first class is methods of studying an object without transforming it, when the researcher does not make any changes or transformations to the object of study. More precisely, it does not make significant changes to the object - after all, according to the principle of complementarity (see above), the researcher (observer) cannot help but change the object. Let's call them object tracking methods. These include: the tracking method itself and its particular manifestations - examination, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.

Another class of methods is associated with the researcher’s active transformation of the object being studied - let’s call these methods transformative methods - this class will include methods such as experimental work and experiment.

Tracking, often in a number of sciences, is perhaps the only empirical method-action. For example, in astronomy. After all, astronomers cannot yet influence the space objects they study. The only way to monitor their condition is through operation methods: observation and measurement. The same, to a large extent, applies to such branches of scientific knowledge as geography, demography, etc., where the researcher cannot change anything in the object of research.

In addition, tracking is also used when the goal is to study the natural functioning of an object. For example, when studying certain features of radioactive radiation or when studying the reliability technical devices, which is verified by their long-term operation.

Examination - how special case The tracking method is the study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher. A synonym for the word “inspection” is “inspection,” which suggests that an inspection is basically an initial study of an object, carried out to familiarize itself with its condition, functions, structure, etc. Surveys are most often used in relation to organizational structures - enterprises, institutions, etc. – or in relation to public entities, for example, settlements, for which surveys can be external and internal.

External surveys: survey of the sociocultural and economic situation in the region, survey of the goods and services market and the labor market, survey of the state of employment of the population, etc. Internal surveys: surveys within an enterprise, institution - survey of the state of the production process, surveys of the workforce, etc.

The survey is carried out through methods-operations of empirical research: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written surveys, involvement of experts, etc.

Any survey is carried out according to a pre-developed detailed program, in which the content of the work, its tools (drawing up questionnaires, sets of tests, questionnaires, a list of documents to be studied, etc.) are planned in detail, as well as criteria for assessing the phenomena and processes to be studied. Then follow the stages: collecting information, summarizing materials, summing up results and preparing reporting materials. At each stage, it may be necessary to adjust the survey program when the researcher or group of researchers conducting it becomes convinced that the collected data is not enough to obtain the desired results, or the collected data does not reflect the picture of the object being studied, etc.

Based on the degree of depth, detail and systematization, surveys are divided into:

– aerobatic (reconnaissance) surveys carried out for preliminary, relatively superficial orientation in the object under study;

– specialized (partial) surveys conducted to study individual aspects and aspects of the object being studied;

modular (complex) surveys - for the study of entire blocks, sets of questions programmed by the researcher on the basis of a sufficiently detailed preliminary study of the object, its structure, functions, etc.;

systemic surveys – conducted as full-fledged independent studies based on the identification and formulation of their subject, purpose, hypothesis, etc., and implying a holistic consideration of the object and its system-forming factors.

The researcher or the research team decides at what level to carry out the survey in each specific case, depending on the goals and objectives of the scientific work.

Monitoring. This is constant supervision, regular monitoring of the condition of an object, the values ​​of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, and also prevent undesirable phenomena. For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.

Study and generalization of experience (activities). When conducting research, the study and generalization of experience (organizational, production, technological, medical, pedagogical, etc.) is used for various purposes: to determine the existing level of detail of enterprises, organizations, institutions, the functioning of the technological process, to identify shortcomings and bottlenecks in practice one or another field of activity, studying the effectiveness of applying scientific recommendations, identifying new models of activity that are born in the creative search of leading managers, specialists and entire teams. The object of study can be: mass experience - to identify the main trends in the development of a particular sector of the national economy; negative experience – to identify typical shortcomings and bottlenecks; advanced experience, in the process of which new positive discoveries are identified, generalized, and become the property of science and practice.

The study and generalization of advanced experience is one of the main sources for the development of science, since this method allows us to identify current scientific problems and creates the basis for studying the patterns of development of processes in a number of areas of scientific knowledge, primarily the so-called technological sciences.

The disadvantage of the tracking method and its variations is:

- survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience as empirical methods-actions - is the relatively passive role of the researcher - he can study, monitor and generalize only what has developed in the surrounding reality, without being able to actively influence the ongoing processes. Let us emphasize once again that this shortcoming is often due to objective circumstances. Methods for transforming an object do not have this drawback: experimental work and experiment.

Methods that transform the object of research include experimental work and experiment. The difference between them lies in the degree of arbitrariness of the researcher’s actions. If experimental work is a loose research procedure in which the researcher makes changes to the object at his own discretion, based on his own considerations of expediency, then an experiment is a completely strict procedure where the researcher must strictly follow the requirements of the experiment.

Experimental work is, as already mentioned, a method of introducing deliberate changes into the object being studied with a certain degree of arbitrariness. So, the geologist himself determines where to look, what to look for, what methods to use - drill wells, dig pits, etc. In the same way, an archaeologist or paleontologist determines where and how to excavate. Or in pharmacy there is a long search for new drugs - out of 10 thousand synthesized compounds, only one becomes a drug. Or, for example, experienced work in agriculture.

Experimental work as a research method is widely used in sciences related to human activities - pedagogy, economics, etc., when models are created and tested, usually proprietary ones: of companies, educational institutions etc., or various proprietary methods are created and tested. Or an experimental textbook, an experimental drug, a prototype is created and then they are tested in practice.

Experimental work is in a sense similar to a thought experiment - in both cases the question is posed: “what will happen if...?” Only in a thought experiment is the situation played out “in the mind,” but in experimental work is the situation played out in action.

But experimental work is not a blind, chaotic search through “trial and error.”

Experimental work becomes a method of scientific research under the following conditions:

1. When it is set on the basis of data obtained by science in accordance with a theoretically based hypothesis.
2. When it is accompanied by in-depth analysis, conclusions are drawn from it and theoretical generalizations are created.

In experimental work, all methods and operations of empirical research are used: observation, measurement, document analysis, expert assessment, etc.

Experimental work occupies an intermediate place between object tracking and experimentation.

It is a way for the researcher to actively intervene in an object. However, experimental work gives, in particular, only the results of the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of certain innovations in a general, summary form. Which of the factors of introduced innovations give a greater effect, which ones have a smaller effect, how they influence each other - experimental work cannot answer these questions.

For a deeper study of the essence of a particular phenomenon, the changes occurring in it, and the reasons for these changes, in the process of research they resort to varying the conditions for the occurrence of phenomena and processes and the factors influencing them. The experiment serves these purposes.

An experiment is a general empirical research method (action method), the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied under strictly controlled and manageable conditions. The basic principle of any experiment is to change only one factor in each research procedure, while keeping the rest unchanged and controlled. If it is necessary to check the influence of another factor, the following research procedure is carried out, where this last factor is changed, and all other controlled factors remain unchanged, etc.

During the experiment, the researcher deliberately changes the course of some phenomenon by introducing a new factor into it. A new factor introduced or changed by the experimenter is called an experimental factor, or independent variable. Factors that change under the influence of an independent variable are called dependent variables.

There are many classifications of experiments in the literature. First of all, depending on the nature of the object being studied, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, biological, psychological, etc. experiments. According to the main purpose, experiments are divided into verification (empirical testing of a certain hypothesis) and exploratory (collection of the necessary empirical information to construct or clarify the put forward guess or idea). Depending on the nature and variety of means and experimental conditions and methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions, for example, in space ), laboratory (under artificial conditions) experiment.

Finally, we can talk about qualitative and quantitative experiments, based on the difference in the results of the experiment. Qualitative experiments, as a rule, are undertaken to identify the impact of certain factors on the process under study without establishing an exact quantitative relationship between characteristic quantities. To ensure accurate values ​​of the essential parameters influencing the behavior of the object under study, a quantitative experiment is necessary.

Depending on the nature of the experimental research strategy, there are:

1) experiments carried out using the “trial and error” method;

2) experiments based on a closed algorithm;

3) experiments using the “black box” method, leading to conclusions from knowledge of the function to knowledge of the structure of the object;

4) experiments using an “open box”, allowing, based on knowledge of the structure, to create a sample with given functions.

In recent years, experiments in which a computer is the means of cognition have become widespread. They are especially important when real systems do not allow either direct experimentation or experimentation using material models. In a number of cases, computer experiments dramatically simplify the research process - with their help, situations are “played out” by constructing a model of the system being studied.

In talking about experiment as a method of cognition, one cannot fail to note another type of experimentation, which plays a large role in natural science research. This is a thought experiment - the researcher operates not with specific, sensory material, but with an ideal, model image. All knowledge obtained during mental experimentation is subject to practical testing, in particular in a real experiment. Therefore, this type of experimentation should be classified as methods of theoretical knowledge (see above). P.V. Kopnin, for example, writes: “Scientific research is only truly experimental when the conclusion is drawn not from speculative reasoning, but from sensory, practical observation of phenomena. Therefore, what is sometimes called a theoretical or thought experiment is not actually an experiment. A thought experiment is ordinary theoretical reasoning that takes the external form of an experiment.”

Theoretical methods of scientific knowledge should also include some other types of experiment, for example, the so-called mathematical and simulation experiments. “The essence of the method of mathematical experiment is that experiments are carried out not with the object itself, as is the case in the classical experimental method, but with its description in the language of the corresponding branch of mathematics.” A simulation experiment is an idealized study by modeling the behavior of an object instead of actual experimentation. In other words, these types of experimentation are variants of a model experiment with idealized images. Mathematical modeling and simulation experiments are discussed in more detail below in the third chapter.

So, we tried to describe research methods from the most general positions. Naturally, in each branch of scientific knowledge certain traditions have developed in the interpretation and use of research methods. Thus, the frequency analysis method in linguistics will refer to the tracking method (method-action), carried out by the methods-operations of document analysis and measurement. Experiments are usually divided into ascertaining, training, control and comparative. But all of them are experiments (methods-actions), carried out by methods-operations: observation, measurement, testing, etc.

Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information, which is then used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations.

It is customary to distinguish two main levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. This division is due to the fact that the subject can obtain knowledge experimentally (empirically) and through complex logical operations, that is, theoretically.

The empirical level of knowledge includes

Observation of phenomena

Accumulation and selection of facts

Establishing connections between them.

The empirical level is the stage of collecting data (facts) about social and natural objects. At the empirical level, the object under study is reflected mainly from external connections and manifestations. The main thing for this level is factualizing activity. These problems are solved using appropriate methods.

The theoretical level of cognition is associated with the predominance mental activity, with comprehension of empirical material, its processing. At the theoretical level it reveals

Internal structure and patterns of development of systems and phenomena

Their interaction and conditionality.

Empirical research (from the Greek empeiria - experience) is “the establishment and generalization of social facts through direct or indirect registration of accomplished events characteristic of the social phenomena, objects and processes being studied”)