“In the year 6453 Roman, Constantine, and Stefan sent ambassadors to Igor to restore the former peace... And they brought Russian ambassadors and ordered them to speak and write down the speeches of both on the charter:
If any of the Russians plans to destroy this friendship, then let the baptized among them accept vengeance from God Almighty and condemnation to eternal destruction, and let the unbaptized not accept help from God and from Perun, let them not defend themselves with their shields and their other weapons , and may they be slaves forever in the Hereafter.
Let the Russian Grand Duke and the boyars send him to Greek land ships to the great Greek kings, as many as they want, with ambassadors and merchants, as is established for them...
If a slave runs away from Rus', then the slave should be caught, since Rus' came to the country of our kingdom, if the slave ran away from the Holy Mother; if the escapee is not discovered, then let our Christians swear an oath to Rus' according to their faith, and not Christians according to their law, and then let Rus' charge us (the Greeks) the price of a slave, as was established before, at 2 silk per slave...”
C1.Name chronological framework period of Igor's reign. What was the purpose of the 945 treaty? What was the nature of the terms of the treaty for Rus'?
C2.What punishment did the document provide for violating its terms? Name at least two provisions. Draw a conclusion about the beliefs of the population of Rus' in the middle of the 10th century.
C3.What conclusions can be drawn from the text of the agreement on the economic development of Rus' using knowledge of the course? national history? Provide at least two conclusions.
From a historical source.
“Don’t forget the more wretched, but as far as you can, feed and give to the orphan, and justify the widow yourself, and do not let the strong destroy a person. Do not kill either the right or the wrong, and do not order him to be killed; even if you are guilty of death, then do not destroy any Christian soul...
And now I will tell you, my children, about my work, how I worked on the road and on the hunt from the age of thirteen. First I went to Rostov through the land of the Vyatichi; My father sent me, and he himself went to Kursk...
And in the spring, my father put me in Pereyaslavl above all the brethren... and on the way to Priluk-city, the Polovtsian princes, with eight thousand, suddenly met us, and wanted to deal with them, but the weapons were sent forward on carts, and we entered city...
And then Oleg came against me with all the Polovtsian land to Chernigov, and my squad fought with them for eight days for a small rampart and did not allow them to enter the prison; I took pity on Christian souls, and burning villages, and monasteries, and said: “Let not the pagans boast.” And he gave his father’s brother his table, and he himself went to his father’s table in Pereyaslavl...
And from Chernigov to Kyiv I went to see my father about a hundred times, driving until evening in one day. And in total there were eighty campaigns and three great ones, and the rest I don’t even remember the smaller ones. And he made peace with the Polovtsian princes, minus one twenty, both with his father and without his father...
Do not judge me, my children or anyone else who reads it: I do not praise myself or my courage, but I praise God and glorify mercy for the fact that he protected me, a sinner and a bad person, for so many years from mortal dangers, and not lazy He created me, and I am fit for all human works.”
C1.What century is the work from which this passage is taken? What is it called? Who is its author?
C2.Using knowledge from the history course, indicate what the author of the work is famous for. Specify at least three provisions.
C3.Using the text of the passage, name at least two problems that concern the author. What character traits does it celebrate? Give at least two character traits.
From the book “The World of History” by academician B.A. Rybakova.
“Perhaps not about any of the figures Kievan Rus I don’t have as many vivid memories as about Vladimir Monomakh. He was remembered both in palaces and in peasant huts many centuries later. The people composed epics about him as the conqueror of the formidable Polovtsian Khan Tugorkan - “Tugarin Zmeevich”, and because of the similarity of the names of the two Vladimirs, they poured these epics into the old cycle of the Kyiv epic of Vladimir I...
It is not surprising that at the end of the 15th century, Moscow historians most noticeably in their native past was the figure of Monomakh, with whose name they associated the legend of the royal regalia, allegedly received by Vladimir from the Emperor of Byzantium...
It is not surprising that in the dark years of strife the Russian people sought solace in their magnificent past; their views turned to the era of Vladimir Monomakh. “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” written on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, idealizes Kievan Rus, glorifies Vladimir Monomakh and his era...
Vladimir received a good education, which allowed him to use not only the sword of a knight, but also the pen of a writer in his political struggle.”
C1.Indicate the chronological framework of the great reign of Vladimir Monomakh. What royal regalia, supposedly received by him, did the historian have in mind?
C2.How do you understand the statement that the Grand Duke used “not only the sword of a knight, but also the pen of a writer” in the political struggle? Give at least two provisions.
C3.Why “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”
RIC has 6453. Having sent Roman, Kostyantin, and Stefan to Igor after, they would bless the great world. Igor then, having talked to them about peace, sent his husbands to Roman. Roman collected the boyars and dignitaries. And they brought the Russian ambassadors, and ordered [them] to speak, and [began] to write speeches from both [sides] on the charter:
“For another reason, what happened under Tsarev Romanov, Kostyantinov, and Stefanov, Christ-loving rulers 1, we, from the Russian people, ambassadors and merchants, Ivor, ambassador of Igor, the Grand Duke of Russia, and others sly: Vuefast - Svyatoslav, son of Igor , Iskusev - Olga the princess, Sludi - Igor, Igor’s nephew, | Ulib - Volodislaviv, Kanitsar - Predslavin; Shigobern - Sfandry, wife of Ulibov, Prasten - Turdiv, Libiar - Fostiv, Grim - Sfirkiv, Prasten - Yakun, nephew of Igorevoy; Kari - Tudkiv, Karshev - Tudoriv, Ygri - Yerliskiv, Voist - Voikiv, Istr - Yamindiv, Prasten - Berniv 2, Yatvyag - Gunariv, Shibrid - Aldaniv, Kol - Klekiv, Steggi - Etoniv, Sfirka - [...... ?], Alvad - Gudiv, Fudri - Tulbiv, Mutor - Utiniv; merchants: Adun, Adolb, Angivlad, Ulib, Frutan, Gomol, Kutsi, Emig, Turbrid, Fursten, Bruni, Roald, Gunastre, Frasten, Ingeld, Turbern and other Turbern, Ulib, Turben, Moni, Ruald, Sven, Stir, Aldan , Tiliy, Apubkar, Sven, Vuzeliv, and Senko-Birich 3, messages from Igor, the Grand Duke of Russia, and the entire princedom, and all the people of the Russian land, and they commanded [us] to renew the ancient world, discord from riches oh let's be a fortune-loving devil, who hates good, [i] establishes friendship between the Greeks and Russia.
And our great prince Igor, and his boyars, and all the Russian people sent us to Roman, and Stefan, and Kostyantin, the great Caesars of Greece, to establish friendship with the Caesars themselves, and with all the boyars, and with all the Greek people for all ita, dopoki the sun shines and the whole world stands still. [And] if we wish [who] from the Russian land to dissolve this friendship, then [that] since they were baptized, let us pay the price of the Almighty God - condemning them to destruction both in this age and in the past, and [th] as many as they are not protected, may they not suffer from the help of God, nor from Perun, may they not be overwhelmed by their shields, and may they be cut with their swords, and may they [perish] from the arrows and from other weapons of theirs , and let there be stinks slaves both in this age and in the past.
Grand Duke The Russians and the boyars yogo send for that [for what they need], from the Greeks to the great Caesars of the Greek [still] ships with their ambassadors and merchants, as much as they want.
It was established that after the seal they wore gold, and merchants wore saree; Nina, our prince has gotten home and sent him a letter before your reign. If one of them, [Russians], forces the ambassadors and merchants, let them bring a letter, where it is written like this: “I have sent so many ships,” and so that from these [letters] we, [the Caesars], will know what is going on with the world come. As soon as they arrive without letters and are handed over to us, we will keep them and guard [them], until your prince knows [about them]. If you don’t let the stench of your hands [knit], but begin to resist and are killed, then let them not be punished for their death by your prince [the one who killed]. If, having disappeared, the stinks arrive in Rus', and we write [about them] to your prince, then [do not] spoil [from them] as they [the authorities] please.
And if Rus' does not come to bargain, let them not collect money.
And let the prince stop the ambassadors of 4 of his and [other] Russians from coming here, so that they do not create outrages in the villages, not in our land. And if they come, let them live near the [church] of St. Mami. And [if] our [my husband’s] kingdom has passed, hi rewrite their names, and then [high] take your money - and then your ambassador’s, and the merchant’s money, - I will first go to the city of Kiev, a also from Chernigov, and from Pereyaslavl, and [from] other cities. And let us not enter the city through one gate, with the Tsar’s husband, without weapons, [by] fifty men, and let us trade as required; and then let us not leave [the city] and let the husband of our kingdom protect them; and whoever from the Russians or from the Greeks would commit [something] unfairly, | hi vin rozsujue.
If the Russians enter the city, let them not create a stinking mess and [high] they don’t have the right to buy more [lower] fifty gold; and if anyone can buy [however] from these trails, let him show it to the crown husband, and she will seal them and give them to them.
And the coming stars, Russians [let us] take from us what is needed: I go on the road and what is needed for the people, as has already been established earlier, and let them turn carelessly to their side; And don’t let the stink of the right to winter near the [church] of St. Mami.
And since the servants from the Russians, if they come to the edge of our kingdom, and from the [church] of St. Mami, [where they live], then if they are found, - don’t let them take him; and if you don’t find out, let our Russian Christians swear by their faith 5, and non-Christians according to their law, [which is not a duck], and then take from us, [Greeks], their price, as was already established long ago: two folds and for servants.
So which of the people of our kingdom, who from our city 6, or from other cities has flown away servants to you, [Russians], and brought something, - don’t let the stench bring him back, and like those that he brought, will That’s all, - let’s take [the one who caught him], from the one [whose servant], two gold coins for the catch.
As soon as it becomes clear that whoever is married to the people of our kingdom from Russia, [then the one] who commits this, the punishment will be great; and if you don’t take it, let’s pay extra. And if you yourself inflict harm on the Rusyns, don’t stop the same punishment as from the distav vin, [Rusyns].
If you happen to steal something from Rusinov to Greeks or Greeks from Rusivs, [then] be sure to turn back at least one [stolen] price; If it turns out that something stolen has been sold, you may not give it back at a false price and you will be subject to punishment according to the Greek law, and according to the Greek rule, and according to the Russian law.
And how many full Christians are there? ours, bring the Russians here [to the Greeks, then] if there is a young girl of goodness, let them give [the Greeks] ten gold pieces and take them; If you are from the Middle Ages, give [the buyer] all the gold and some of it; If you are an old woman, let him give you five gold coins. If Rus' appears in slavery to the Greeks, [then], if there is a stink of polonyaniki, let them be bought by Rus' for ten gold pieces; If you [Rusina, ranish] buy buckwheat [and swear about it] before the cross, [then] you must take [that] price, how much money you gave for it.
About the Korsun side. There are so many cities in this part [of the Greek land], but the Russian princes have no right [to them]. Let the [Russian prince] fight on these sides, - and that side does not submit to us 7, - and then, if the Russian prince asks for war against us, [the Greeks], I will give you as much as I need, - and let him fight 8 .
And about this: if you know in Rus' a Greek ship, thrown [ashore] in some kind of place, - let us not give away the stench of harm to you; If you ever take a person into slavery, let him be guilty according to Russian and Greek law.
And if you tell the Russians of Korsun that they are catching fish at the mouth of the Dnieper, let them not do any harm to them.
And let the Russians not deny the right to spend the winter at the mouth of the Dnieper, Biloberezh, near [the island of] St. Elevtherius, and when autumn comes, let them go to their homes to Rus'.
And about this: the fragments of the black Bulgarians come and devastate in the direction of Korsunsky, then we instruct the Russian prince not to let them in, because the stench is evil on their side.
And if the Greeks, who are under the rule of our kingdom, have to put down the evildoers, [then] you, [Rus'], do not have the right to punish them, but for the rulers of our kingdom, hi distane [the evildoer] how to fix it.
And if a Christian kills a Rusyn or a Rusyn Christian, let him be detained who committed the murder, the relatives of the killed one, let him be killed.
Yakshcho | If the one who committed the murder disappears, and if he will be the one who has it, let him take his relatives of the murdered man; If the one who committed the murder, the poor and in the end, don’t let them look for him until he [is] found, but if he is found, let him be killed.
And if you strike with a sword, or with a list, or with any other projectiles of the Rusyns, the Greeks or the Greeks of the Rusyns, let them pay for this evil in five years of slaughter according to the Russian law; As for the poor, - let them [give], as much as possible, and all those [high] will be sold, put on high and clothes, what kind of clothes to wear, - and let them be taken away from them, and about the decision [sumi], don’t let them swear to you according to my belief, it means [more] nothing, and there will be [high] omissions.
If our kingdom is thirsty for you to fight against us, then let us write [our husbands] to your Grand Duke and send us as much as we want; And from this we can see from other countries that the Greeks are on friendly terms with Russia.
We signed this agreement on two charters, and one charter is for our kingdom and on it there is a cross and our names are written, and on the other [their names were written] by yours and your merchants. And coming from the ambassador of our kingdom, let them escort them 9 to the Grand Duke of the Russian Igor and to his people, and those who accept the charter [ours, hi] swear to maintain loyalty [to that] about which we have been informed and written on the charter this, on What is written is the essence of our names.
We, [Russians], as many as we have been baptized, swore by [their] church of St. Elias in the cathedral church of [Tsesarograd Sophia] and the sworn honorable cross, and by this charter to uphold everything that is written on it, and don’t step beyond that; and if you cross [anyone] from our land, whether the prince, or anyone else, or censure, or non-reproach, - may God help you, and may you be a slave 10 in this century and in the past, | And may your weapons be punished. And let the unbaptized Rus' lay down their shields, and their naked swords, and their hoops, and other weapons, and let them swear that everything written on this charter [will] be upheld by Igor, and all the boyars, and everything, people, and land Russian in the coming years and forever. Yakshcho hto iz Princes Chi iz people of the Ruskiki, Chi Christian, Chi, Chi, Perefoning Se 12, It was written on Hartіїi,- to come in the same way, I hi-high vin is damned by God I perun [for those], crossing his cross oath.
And if you praise [the] Igor, Grand Duke, may you take care of this true friendship, may it not be dissipated until the sun shines and the whole world stands, in our lives and in the future.”
The messages from Igor came to Igor with Greek ambassadors and told all the speeches of Tsar Roman. Igor then called upon the Greek ambassadors, saying: “Say what the Caesar commanded you!” And they said to the crown prince: “Behold, the crown prince sent us. I am glad that there is peace and I want peace between my mother and the Russian prince and friendship. And your ambassadors took our Tsar to the oath, and they sent us to take the oath to you and your husbands.” I promised Igor to do so.
And the next day, calling upon Igor, his followers came to the mountains, where Perun stood. And the [Russians] laid down their weapons, and shields, and gold, and swore allegiance to Igor, and his husbands, and how many [were] the filthy Russians. And the Russian Christians were taken to swear oaths in the Church of St. Elias, which is the end of Pasinchoy’s conversation, because it was a cathedral church, and many Varangians and Khazars were Christians.
Igor this hour, having established peace with the Greeks, sent out his envoys; having given the farmer, the servants, and the wax, and sent them away. And then they came to the Tsar [their Roman] and told all the speeches of Igor and [talked about] the friendship that [it shows] to the Greeks.
Notes:
- This agreement, according to the latest evidence, was concluded in Constantinople after early negotiations between the Byzantine ambassadors from Kiev and Igor. The charter, confirmed in Tsesarograd by Russian ambassadors and merchants, was delivered to Kiev, where they confirmed the oath of Igor, and sent back to Constantinople through the Byzantine ambassadors, who handed it over to the Russian princes in Kiev drew (confirmed the imperial charter); a copy of the charter of the Russian ambassadors was lost in Russia, and its translation was included in the chronicle.
- Dodano z Laurel.
- Birich - administrative and judicial commander.
- In IP. i Chl. hibno "word"; at Laurus, “broken.”
- Dodano z Laurel.
- In IP. i Chl. hibno "from your generation"; at Laurus, “from your city”; Talk about Constantinople.
- In IP., Chl. and Laurel, perhaps, Milkovo “to you.”
- The article in the chronicle is not formulated very clearly, and it is presented in different ways. This is why we provide the text after the original IP. “About Korsunstia of the parties”. Because there is a city in that part, but the Russian princes will not have power. Yes, fight on those sides. but that country does not (in Khl. “yes not”) submits to you. and then he still asks. The prince of Russia is from us. Ladies, he will demand and let him fight.”
- Added from Acad. i Radz.
- In IP. i Chl. “and let there be slaves”; at Laurus, “and let him be a servant.”
- The role of the hoop (hoop, bracelet) as an animal was that, when placed on the hand, it held the muscles from stretching and protected from the blow of the sword; Such bronze ribbed hoops appear archaeological.
- In IP. i Хл “all”, “whole”; in Laurus, “se”, “si”.
Tale of the times: Chronicles (Behind the Patian list) / Translation from old Russian, afterwords, comments by V. V. Yaremenka. - Kiev: Radyanskyi pisennik, 1990. - 558 p.
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Russian-Byzantine Treaty of 944- an international treaty between Ancient Russia and Byzantium, which regulated Russian-Byzantine relations. It was concluded in 944 and had two versions - one in Greek (not preserved) and one in Old Church Slavonic. Preserved in later copies of ancient Russian chronicles, in particular, in the Tale of Bygone Years. One of the oldest written sources of Russian law; contains the norms of the Russian Law.
After unsuccessful campaigns in 941 and 944, Prince Igor was forced to conclude a peace treaty with Byzantium. The treaty was concluded in 944 between the two parties and recorded in two charters, which updated the old treaty of 911:
Ambassadors and merchants were required to carry princely charters with them so that they could be in the Byzantine lands and in Constantinople. Legal relations between people from Rus' and local residents were regulated. Restrictions were introduced for merchants to stay in the capital, to export fabrics, etc. Rus' was charged with protecting the borders with Byzantium in Crimea, and the Old Russian state was not supposed to lay claim to these lands and, if necessary, provide military assistance to Byzantium.
Introduction
The Russian-Byzantine War of 941-944 - the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor against Byzantium in 941 and a repeated campaign in 943, which ended with a peace treaty in 944.
On June 11, 941, Igor’s fleet was scattered at the entrance to the Bosphorus by a Byzantine squadron that used Greek fire, after which the fighting continued for another 3 months. Black Sea coast Asia Minor. On September 15, 941, the Russian fleet was finally defeated off the coast of Thrace while trying to break through to Rus'.
In 943, Prince Igor gathered a new army with the participation of the Pechenegs and led them on a campaign to the Danube to the northern borders Byzantine Empire. This time things did not come to military clashes; Byzantium concluded a peace treaty with Igor, paying tribute.
1. Background and role of the Khazar Kaganate
The Cambridge document (a letter from a Khazar Jew from the 2nd half of the 10th century) connects the Russian campaign against Constantinople with the events that took place in Khazaria shortly before.
Around the 930s, the Byzantine Emperor Romanus began a campaign against the Jews. In response, the Khazar Kagan, professing Judaism, “ overthrew the multitude of the uncircumcised" Then Roman, with the help of gifts, persuaded someone Halgu, called " Tsar of Russia", raid over the Khazars.
Khalga captured Samkerts (near Kerch Strait), after which the Khazar military leader Pesach came out against him and Byzantium, who ravaged three Byzantine cities and besieged Chersonesus in the Crimea.
Then Pesach attacked Khalga, recaptured the spoils of the one from Samkerets and entered into negotiations from the position of the winner. Khalga was forced to agree to Pesach's demand to start a war with Byzantium.
The further development of events in the Cambridge document generally coincides with the description of Prince Igor’s campaign against Byzantium, known from Byzantine and Old Russian sources, but with an unexpected ending:
“And he went against his will and fought against Kustantina [Constantinople] at sea for four months.
And his heroes fell there, because the Macedonians overpowered [him] with fire. And he fled and was ashamed to return to his country, but went by sea to Persia, and there he and his entire camp fell. Then the Rus became subordinate to the power of the Kazars.”
There were attempts to identify Khalga with Oleg the Prophet (S. Shekhter and P.
K. Kokovtsov, later D. I. Ilovaisky and M. S. Grushevsky) or Igor himself (Helgi Inger, “Oleg the Younger” by Yu. D. Brutskus). Such identifications, however, led to a contradiction with all other reliable sources on the 941 campaign. According to the Cambridge document, Rus' became dependent on Khazaria, but ancient Russian chronicles and Byzantine authors do not even mention the Khazars when describing events.
Y. Polovoy offers the following reconstruction of events: Khalga was one of Igor’s governors. While he was fighting Pesach, Igor decided to make peace with the Khazars, recalled Khalga from Tmutarakan and marched on Constantinople. That is why Khalga so firmly holds her promise to Pesach to fight Roman.
Part of the Russian army with governor Khalga passed by ships past Chersonesos, and the other part with Igor along the coast of Bulgaria. From both places news came to Constantinople about the approaching enemy, so Igor was not able to take the city by surprise, as happened during the first Russian raid in 860.
2. Igor’s first campaign. 941
2.1. Sources on the campaign of 941
The raid on Constantinople in 941 and subsequent events of the same year are reflected in the Byzantine Chronicle of Amartol (borrowed from Theophanes' Continuer) and the Life of Basil the New, as well as in the historical work of Liutprand of Cremona (Book of Retribution, 5.XV).
Messages from ancient Russian chronicles (XI-XII centuries) are based generally on Byzantine sources with the addition of individual details preserved in Russian legends.
2.2. Defeat at Hieron
Feofan’s successor begins the story of the raid:
“On the eleventh of June of the fourteenth indictment (941), on ten thousand ships, the Dews, who are also called Dromites, came from the Frankish tribe, sailed to Constantinople.
The patrician [Theophanes] was sent against them with all the dromons and triremes that just happened to be in the city. He equipped and put the fleet in order, strengthened himself with fasting and tears, and prepared to fight the dews.”
The raid did not come as a surprise to Byzantium.
The Bulgarians and later the strategist of Kherson sent news about him in advance. However, the Byzantine fleet fought the Arabs and defended the islands in the Mediterranean, so that, according to Liutprand, there were only 15 dilapidated helandia (a type of ship) left in the capital, abandoned due to their disrepair. The Byzantines estimated the number of Igor's ships at an incredible 10 thousand. Liutprand of Cremona, relaying the story of an eyewitness, his stepfather, named a thousand ships in Igor's fleet. According to the Tale of Bygone Years and the testimony of Liutprand, the Russians first rushed to plunder the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea, so that the defenders of Constantinople had time to prepare a rebuff and meet Igor’s fleet at sea at the entrance to the Bosphorus, near the city of Hieron.
Most detailed story Liutprand wrote about the first naval battle:
“Roman [the Byzantine emperor] ordered the shipbuilders to come to him, and said to them: “ Go now and immediately equip those hellands that remain [at home].
But place the fire-throwing device not only at the bow, but also at the stern and on both sides.” So, when the Hellands were equipped according to his order, he put the most experienced men in them and ordered them to go to meet King Igor.
They set sail; Seeing them at sea, King Igor ordered his army to take them alive and not kill them. But the kind and merciful Lord, wanting not only to protect those who honor Him, worship Him, pray to Him, but also to honor them with victory, tamed the winds, thereby calming the sea; because otherwise it would have been difficult for the Greeks to throw fire. So, having taken up a position in the middle of the Russian [army], they [began] throwing fire in all directions. The Russians, seeing this, immediately began to throw themselves from their ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn in fire.
Some, burdened with chain mail and helmets, immediately sank to the bottom of the sea, and were no longer seen, while others, having floated, continued to burn even in the water; no one escaped that day unless they managed to escape to the shore. After all, the ships of the Russians, due to their small size, also sail in shallow water, which the Greek Hellands cannot do because of their deep draft.”
Amartol adds that the defeat of Igor after the attack of the fiery Chelandia was completed by a flotilla of Byzantine warships: dromons and triremes.
It is believed that the Russians encountered Greek fire for the first time on June 11, 941, and the memory of this was preserved for a long time among Russian soldiers. An Old Russian chronicler of the early 12th century conveyed their words as follows: “ It’s as if the Greeks had heavenly lightning and, releasing it, burned us; that is why they did not overcome them.“According to the PVL, the Russians were first defeated by the Greeks on land, only then there was a brutal defeat at sea, but, probably, the chronicler brought together the battles that took place in different time in different places.
According to PVL and Liutprand, the war ended here: Igor returned home with the surviving soldiers (according to Leo the Deacon, he had barely 10 ships left).
Emperor Roman ordered the execution of all captured Russians.
2.3. Fighting in Asia Minor
Byzantine sources (Chronicle of Amartol and the life of Basil the New) describe the continuation of the 941 campaign in Asia Minor, where part of the Russian army retreated after the defeat at Hieron.
According to Feofan’s Successor, the fighting on the southern coast of the Black Sea developed as follows:
“The survivors swam to the eastern shore, to Sgora. And then the patrician Vardas Phocas with horsemen and selected warriors was sent overland to intercept them from the strategists.
The Rosy sent a sizeable detachment to Bithynia to stock up on provisions and everything necessary, but Bardas Phokas overtook this detachment, routed it completely, put it to flight and killed his warriors. At the head of the entire eastern army, the smartest domestique of the school, John Kurkuas, came there, who, appearing here and there, killed a lot of those who had separated from their enemies, and the Dews retreated in fear of his onslaught, no longer daring to leave their ships and make forays.
The Dews committed many atrocities before the arrival of the Roman army: they set the coast of the Wall (Bosphorus) on fire, and some of the prisoners were crucified on a cross, others were driven into the ground, others were set up as targets and shot with arrows.
They tied the hands of prisoners from the priestly class behind their backs and drove iron nails into their heads. They also burned many holy temples. However, winter was approaching, the Russians were running out of food, they were afraid of the advancing army of the domestic scholia Kurkuas, his intelligence and ingenuity, they were no less afraid of naval battles and the skillful maneuvers of the patrician Theophan, and therefore decided to return home. Trying to pass unnoticed by the fleet, in September of the fifteenth indictment (941) they set sail at night to the Thracian coast, but were met by the mentioned patrician Theophan and were unable to hide from his vigilant and valiant soul.
A second battle immediately ensued, and many ships were sunk, and many Russians were killed by the mentioned husband. Only a few managed to escape on their ships, approach the coast of Kila (Thrace) and escape at nightfall.”
Thus, throughout the entire summer of 941, Russian troops plundered the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea, until the main forces of the Byzantine army arrived.
PVL reports 40 thousand warriors in the eastern army of the Domestic Kurkuas, in addition to the detachments of Bardas Phokas (from Macedonia) and the stratilate Fedor (from Thrace). The fighting was carried out by the Russians in raids from boats, which were inaccessible to Byzantine warships in the shallow waters of Asia Minor.
During an attempt to break into Rus', undertaken on the evening of September 15, 941, the Russian fleet was discovered at sea and destroyed near the city of Kila (Κοιλία) near the entrance to the Bosphorus.
The fate of the Russian army after the second defeat at sea remained unknown. It is unlikely that many managed to return to Rus', since Russian chronicles are silent about such a development of events.
Old Russian sources rearranged the narrative in such a way that all military operations ended with the first and only naval defeat.
The historian N. Ya. Polovoy explains this fact by the fact that after the defeat at Hieron, the Russian army was divided. Part of the army with Igor returned to Rus'; only their fate was reflected in Russian chronicles, but most of the fleet escaped in shallow waters off the coast of Asia Minor, where Greek ships could not get close due to deep draft.
As the commander of the remaining part of the Russian army in Asia Minor, N. Ya. Polovoy considers Khalga, known from the above-mentioned Khazar source, who fought with Byzantium for 4 months. Also, fighting in Amartol continued for 4 months, from June to September 941.
Historian G. G. Litavrin suggests that the Rus also penetrated through shallow waters into the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara and completely dominated there, which led to a severance of communication between the European and Asian shores.
Igor's second campaign. 943
All information about Igor’s 2nd campaign and the subsequent peace treaty is contained only in Russian chronicles.
PVL dates the campaign to 944: “ In the year 6452. Igor gathered many warriors: Varangians, Rus, and Polyans, and Slovenians, and Krivichi, and Tivertsi, - and hired the Pechenegs, and took hostages from them, - and went against the Greeks in boats and on horses, seeking revenge for myself. »
The Byzantine emperor was warned about the attack and sent ambassadors to meet the Russians and Pechenegs.
The negotiations took place somewhere on the Danube. Igor agreed to take a rich tribute and returned to Kyiv, sending his Pecheneg allies to fight against the Bulgarians. The decision was influenced by the recent defeat at sea; the warriors at the council spoke as follows: “ Does anyone know who to overcome: whether we or they? Or who is in alliance with the sea? We are not walking on land, but in the depths of the sea: death is common to all.»
Historians date the campaign to 943 (N.M. Karamzin, B.A. Rybakov, N.Ya.
Sexual). The Novgorod First Chronicle of the younger edition, which contains fragments of the 11th century chronicle, erroneously dates Igor’s campaign to 920 and reports a second campaign a year later, which corresponds to 943 according to a more accurate Byzantine chronology. Feofan's successor under the same year mentions big trip"Turks", which ended in a peace treaty with Byzantium. By “Turks,” the Greeks usually meant the Hungarians, who began raiding Byzantium in 934, and it is possible that the ancient Russian chronicler confused the Hungarians with the Pechenegs.
At least Theophanes’ Successor reports that after the treaty with the “Turks” in 943, peace lasted for 5 years.
4. Russian-Byzantine treaty. 944
The next year after Igor's campaign, Emperor Roman sent envoys to Igor to restore peace. PVL dates the peace treaty to 945, but the mention of Roman's name in the treaty points to 944.
In December 944, Romanus was overthrown by his sons, Stephen and Constantine, who were immediately removed from power by the new emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus.
The text of the Russian-Byzantine treaty, which has a military-trade nature, is fully quoted in the PVL.
The next year after the conclusion of the treaty, Grand Duke Igor was killed by the Drevlyans.
Bibliography:
Knyazkin I.
O. Russian-Byzantine War 941-944. and Khazaria // Khazars. Second international colloquium. Theses. M., 2002.
Polovoy N.
Ya. On the issue of Igor’s first campaign against Byzantium (comparative analysis of Russian and Byzantine sources) // Byzantine Time Book, vol. XVIII, 1961, pp. 85-104.
Based on the thousand ships in Igor’s fleet, one can estimate the number of his troops at 40 thousand soldiers, according to the data on the capacity of the ships of the Prophetic Oleg.
However, the round number 1000 indicates its highly evaluative nature.
Litavrin G. G. Little-known evidence about the campaign of Prince Igor in 941 // Eastern Europe in historical retrospect. M., 1999, pp. 38-44.
Russian—Byzantinewar 907 of the year
Abstract >> History
Introduction Russian—Byzantinewar 907 of the year- legendary victorious campaign...
literally reproduces a fragment from Russian—Byzantine agreement 944 of the year. The table below conveys ... the campaign of Prince Igor in 941 year. IN Byzantine Chronicle of Pseudo-Simeon (last ...
Formation of the Old Russian State (3)
Test >> History
... once free smerds forced into lean times years get into debt (take out a loan - ... the time of his campaign against enemies. Russian—Byzantinewar941 -944 gg.
The case of Prince Oleg... ritual. After a long internecine wars at 980 year ascended the Kyiv throne...
Campaigns of the Kyiv princes against Khazaria and Volga Bulgaria
Abstract >> History
… . According to the Tale of Bygone Years, in 944 year Grand Duke Igor concludes with the Pechenegs...
other states, a certain food content. Russian—Byzantinewar941 -944 gg. The work of Prince Oleg continued...
Baptism of Rus' (15)
Abstract >> History
... necessary Russians merchants.
In 911 year, this agreement was confirmed. IN 941 – 944... 970-971 was walking Russian—Byzantinewar. B 971 year peace was concluded, confirming ... Rus' and Byzantium from 944 of the year. B 1043 – 1046 of the year relations between Rus' and Byzantium...
Byzantine empire (2)
Abstract >> History
... - heavy war with the Ostrogothic kingdom (see Byzantine-Gothic wars) continued ... 886), Roman Lekapin (919- 944 ), Nikifor Phokas (963-.... First Russian—Byzantine trade treaty dates back to 911 year, by... Prophetic Oleg. IN 941 year Prince Igor was defeated...
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Russian-Byzantine treaty.
 |
| Boris Chorikov. Peace be with the Greeks. 944 |
The next year after Igor's campaign, Emperor Roman sent envoys to Igor to restore peace.
The Tale of Bygone Years dates the peace treaty to 945, but the mention of Roman's name in the treaty points to 944.
In December 944 Romanus was overthrown by his sons, Stefan And Konstantin, who were immediately removed from power by the new emperor Konstantin Porphyrogenitus.
The text of the Russian-Byzantine treaty, which has a military-commercial nature, is fully quoted in the Tale of Bygone Years.
First of all, it regulates the conditions of stay and trade of Russian merchants in Byzantium, determines the exact amounts of monetary fines for various offenses, and establishes ransom amounts for captives. It also formulated a provision on mutual military assistance between the Russian Grand Duke and the Byzantine kings.
A year after the conclusion of the treaty, Grand Duke Igor was killed by the Drevlyans.
 Svyatoslav Igorevich Prince of Novgorod in 945-969, Grand Duke of Kiev from 945 to 972, became famous as a commander. Formally, Svyatoslav became Grand Duke at the age of 3 after the death of his father, Grand Duke Igor, in 945, but independent rule began around 964. Under Svyatoslav, the Old Russian state was largely ruled by his mother, Princess Olga, first because of Svyatoslav’s childhood, then because of his constant presence on military campaigns. When returning from a campaign against Bulgaria, Svyatoslav was killed by the Pechenegs in 972 on the Dnieper rapids. |
Boris II Tsar of Bulgaria from 969 to 977, from 971 he was in Byzantine captivity, but in his homeland he continued to be considered the Bulgarian Tsar. The eldest son of Tsar Peter I and Tsarina Irina. |
The Russian-Byzantine War of 970-971 was the campaign of Prince Svyatoslav, first in alliance with the Greeks against Bulgaria, and then in alliance with the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II against Byzantium. The war ended with the expulsion of the Rus from Bulgaria.
Russian-Byzantine War of 941-944 - campaigns against Constantinople by Prince Igor. During the first campaign, the Russian army failed at sea, the second campaign ended with the signing of a peace treaty and tribute with the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas (he sent the noble Chersonese patrician Kalokir to Prince Svyatoslav in Kiev with huge gifts - 15 centinarii (about 450 kilograms) of gold )), from Byzantium.
The goal of the Kalokir diplomatic mission was to redirect the direction of the Russian army to the Danube banks, to the Bulgarian kingdom.
Its king Simeon, a former prisoner of the emperor, successfully fought with Byzantium. However, sudden death did not allow him to complete the defeat of the hated empire. Although the new Bulgarian Tsar Peter the Short did not pose a serious threat to Constantinople, they still decided to get rid of a possible enemy with the help of the Russians.
In 966, Nikephoros Phocas decided to stop paying tribute to the Bulgarians under the agreement of 927, and began to demand that the Bulgarians not allow the Hungarians to cross the Danube to plunder the Byzantine provinces.
The Bulgarian Tsar Peter responded to this by saying that he had peace with the Magyars, which he could not violate. This led to a war against Bulgaria.
However, Prince Svyatoslav had his own plans.
He decided to expand the borders of Rus', make Bulgaria an ally in the upcoming war with Byzantium, and even planned to move his capital from Kyiv to the banks of the Danube, following the example of Prince Oleg, who moved to Kyiv from Novgorod.
The Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phocas was triumphant when he learned that the Russian prince had agreed to go on a campaign against the Bulgarian kingdom.
Tsar Peter soon died from grief. One of the most famous rulers of Byzantium in the history, the most skillful diplomat of his time, played a triple game with Svyatoslav:
1.firstly, the military threat of Russian invasion into the Chersonesos theme, the granary of the Byzantine Empire, was averted;
2. secondly, he pitted heads in a military confrontation between the two most dangerous countries for Byzantium - Kievan Rus and the Bulgarian kingdom;
3. thirdly, he set the Pecheneg nomads against Rus', weakened in the war, in order to meanwhile take over Bulgaria, weakened in the war with Russia.
In 967, Svyatoslav approached the Danube and was preparing to land; the Bulgarian king, still continuing to demand tribute from Byzantium according to custom, hastily collected thirty thousand and threw them against the Russians.
The Russian army, led by Svyatoslav, lined up in a kind of multi-row monolith and rushed towards the Bulgarians like an iron wave.
They were broken.
And so strong that they did not think about further resistance: all survivors fled and locked themselves in the strong fortress of Dorostol. Tsar Peter soon died from grief.
The next year 968 gave Pereyaslavets, Dorostol and eighty other fortified cities into the hands of Svyatoslav. In fact, all the towns along the Danube were in the hands of the people of Kiev. The prince took the place of the Bulgarian kings and began to rule his new state. Kalokir was next to him. And only now Nikifor Phokas realized what kind of trouble he had made for himself - instead of the Bulgarian state, which was gradually beginning to age, he received as a neighbor a great warrior, pondering no less great plans, in which Byzantium was assigned an important, but by no means carefree role.
However, Svyatoslav, having occupied part of Bulgaria, opposed Byzantium.
As soon as Foka found out about this, he immediately ordered throwing machines to be installed on the fortress walls of the capital and to block the entrance to the harbor with a chain. In Svyatoslav’s army there were Hungarians and right-bank Pechenegs, so the emperor restored the left-bank Pechenegs to attack Kyiv and thereby forced Svyatoslav and his Kyiv squad to return to the Dnieper region.
The nomads besieged Kyiv, but as soon as a small squad of Russians approached the city and introduced themselves forward detachment The prince's troops, like the Khan of the Pechenegs, wavered and lifted the siege of the city.
The Kievans, taking advantage of this, managed to send a messenger to the prince, who, without observing diplomatic politesse, conveyed to his lord and prince the voice of the land: He, the prince, is looking for someone else's land and guarding it, but he renounced his own, and Kyiv, along with his mother and children, was almost taken by the Pechenegs.
Does he really not feel sorry for his homeland, or his aged mother, or his children?
Having entrusted power to his grown-up sons, the prince made it clear that he was most likely leaving Kyiv forever and would henceforth reign in Bulgaria, making it the center of his new vast state.
At the same time, the Greeks offered the Bulgarian princesses marriage with the sons of the late emperor Romana.
The Greek ambassadors promised the Bulgarian nobles assistance in expelling Svyatoslav.
But the Bulgarians - at least some of them - thought differently. New king Boris made peace with Byzantium against Svyatoslav. But from now on, the Russian prince also had many allies among the Bulgarians - it seemed easier for them to tolerate a warrior prince than their king, who was friends with the Greeks and learned from them how to oppress his subjects.
When, in August 969, the Russians landed in mighty force on the Danube, their supporters among the Bulgarians became much larger. Svyatoslav easily walked to Boris' capital Preslav, meeting no resistance anywhere, and just as easily took it, given by the king, who recognized himself as a vassal of the Kyiv prince. Realizing that Byzantium would not leave him alone, the prince decided not to wait for the first blow and, as soon as the passes of the Rhodope Mountains were free of snow, he struck himself.
Igor's treaty with the Greeks
Three years later, 944, Igor gathered a new army and planned to attack Constantinople again. In addition to the Varangians and Slavs, he also hired the warlike Pechenegs. News from Crimea and Bulgaria came to Byzantium: “Rus' is coming without number, the ships covered the sea.” Emperor Roman was frightened and asked to start negotiations, promised to give gifts to the prince.
Byzantine ambassadors met Igor on the Danube. The prince gathered his wife for council and informed about the emperor's embassy. The wife replied: “As the emperor says so, we don’t want any more; to have gold, silver and expensive fabrics without a struggle. And in battle, you don’t know who will win, either us or them. We don’t walk on land, but in the depths of the sea, and here death is equal for everyone.” Igor leaned against his wife’s voice, took gold and expensive materials from the Greeks and agreed to peace.
This is how the chronicle tells, but new historians question this story, because there is no news about this campaign anywhere else.
Peace with Byzantium was not useful for Kyiv. Igor had to renounce his rights to the Crimea and the Dnieper estuary, and also agreed to limit trade in the Byzantine lands.
The world was drawn up in Constantinople 944. The embassy had more than 20 ambassadors who were representatives of Igor, his family and other princes. The agreement contained the following points:
1. Both sides renewed the long-standing peace and friendship. “And whoever on the Russian side wanted to violate this love, then, as he is a Christian, let him accept condemnation and death from God for this age and the future; and those who are unbaptized, let them not have help from God or from Perun, and let them not defend themselves with their shields, let them cut them with their own swords and arrows and other weapons and let them become slaves at this age and in the future.”
2. Ambassadors and merchants can come to Greece, they want sprat. But the ambassadors must show a gold seal, the merchants a silver one, and the prince has to send a letter in which it is written that he is sending a sprat of ships, so that it will be that they come in peace. Anyone who arrives without a letter will be detained until the matter becomes clear; when he does not want to be subjected to it and resists, they can kill him and the Greeks are not responsible for this.
3. When Rus' arrives without goods, it does not have to receive a monthly allowance (monthly retention). The prince has orders for his people no matter what they do in the Greek country. According to the life of merchants in Constantinople, Oleg’s condition has been binding since 911. But the rights of Rus' are limited so much that merchants are not free to winter in Constantinople and they cannot export expensive fabrics.
4. When a slave runs away from Rus' while living in Greece, his escape must be confirmed by an oath, then the Greeks pay two pieces of cloth for him.
5. Theft and robbery are punishable by double Groshev execution.
6.
A fee was assigned for ransoming the captives. According to Greek standards, the Greeks paid 10 zolotniks for a young man or a “good” girl, 8 zolotniks for a middle-aged man, and 5 zolotniks for an old man or child. But for the ransom of Russian captives, the Greeks demanded 10 spools, all without a sacristan.
7. The Russian princes renounced their rights in the “Korsun side”, that is, Crimea.
8. Rus' should not prevent the Korsunyans from fishing at the mouth of the Dnieper. The Rus are not free to winter at the mouth of the Dnieper, on Beloberezhye and the island of St.
Eleutheria (Berezani).
9. It is not free to take away the wrecked ships of another state, their luggage or people from them.
Treaties: treaties between Rus' and Byzantium (X century), other international treaties, treaties between principalities, even several private treaties from the times of Kievan Rus have been preserved. Commercial, civil and criminal laws.
Legal status of Russian merchants, benefits, provisions on mutual redemption of slaves and captives (Article 9, 911), on the extradition of criminals (Article 14 of the Treaty 911), on the right of Russians to enter the service of the Byzantine emperor (Article 10, 911).
Norms of criminal law (on the death penalty according to Greek law, on blood feud according to the law of the Rus), sod. At 911.945. Punishments for causing bodily harm are dealt with in Article 5 of Treaty 911 and Article 14 945, and for property crimes (theft, robbery, robbery) - Art. 6.7 agreements 911 and 5.6 agreements. 945.
Rules of civil law: on inheritance by will, by law, Art. 13 911, on slavery and mutual obligation to return fugitive slaves (Art. 12 911, Art. 3, 4 945).
911 Oleg. the right for Russian merchants to trade duty-free in Constant.
945 Igor(941 944 unsuccessful)
971 Svyatoslav. Mirn Dogov's squad Svyatosl received a possible return to Rus', and Byzantine promised not to make any more attacks.
12. The effect of Byzantine collections of law in Rus' and their influence.
All are church sources.
Code of laws of John Scholasticus, 6th century, church rules of 50 titles and a collection of secular laws of 87 chapters.
Nomocanon of Patriarch Photius, 9th century, church rules and articles and comments on them from the Codex and Novellas of Justinian.
Nomocanon of Eclogue, 8th century, 18 titles, civil law and feudal land tenure;
Prochiron, 8th century (replacement of self-harm. Punishments with monetary penalties, and criminal penalties with church penalties).
The helmsman's book of Kirill 2 (13th century), church. Rules and Emperor. Z-s and short stories).
13. Sources and editions of Russian Pravda.
The sources of codification were customary law and princely arbitrage practice. The norms of customary law include, first of all, provisions on blood feud (Article 1) and mutual responsibility (Article 19 KP). The legislator treats these customs differently: he seeks to limit blood feud (by narrowing the circle of avengers) or completely abolish it, replacing it with a monetary fine (vira). Mutual responsibility, on the contrary, is preserved by him as a political measure that binds all members of the community with responsibility for their member who committed a crime (“wild vira” was imposed on the entire community).
editorial staff
prof. S.V. Yushkov identified 6 editions among the lists of Russkaya Pravda. But even within editorial offices, the texts of some lists do not completely coincide. In the original, the text of Russkaya Pravda was not divided into articles; this classification was made later by Vladimirsky-Budanov.
The Brief Truth is the oldest edition, consisting of the Truth of Yaroslav (v. 1-18), the Truth of the Yaroslavichs (v. 19-41), Pokon Virny (v. 42). Lesson of bridge workers (v. 43).
Mainly adjustable. Criminal law. Features: the action of the custom of blood feud (at first), the absence of a clear differential. Fines depending on social Accessories, then the abolition of blood feud, protection of the lives and property of feudal lords. Although, for example, prof. S.V. Yushkov identified 6 editions among the lists of Russkaya Pravda. But even within editorial offices, the texts of some lists do not completely coincide. In the original, the text of Russkaya Pravda was not divided into articles; this classification was made later by Vladimirsky-Budanov.
The short edition of Russian Pravda consists of Pravda Yaroslav (The Most Ancient Pravda) and Pravda Yaroslavich. The articles “Pokon Virny” and “Charter for Bridge Workers” stand out. Pravda Yaroslav was created during the reign of Prince. Yaroslav the Wise, i.e. approximately in the second quarter of the 11th century. The text of the Yaroslavich Truth was formed by the end of the 11th century. Researchers date the appearance of the Brief Truth as a single collection no later than the end of the 11th century. or the beginning of the 12th century. The text of the Brief Truth is most often found in ancient Russian chronicles. First of all, the Short Edition limited blood feud (Article 1). In addition, the Most Ancient Truth (Articles 1-17) contains rules on murder, beatings, violation of property rights and methods of restoring it, and damage to other people's things. The Yaroslavich Pravda, in particular, contains rules on court fees and expenses.
Russian truth arose on local soil and was the result of the development of legal thought in Kievan Rus. It would be erroneous to consider ancient Russian law as a collection of norms of other states (for example, the reception of Byzantine law). At the same time, Rus' was surrounded by other states and peoples, which in one way or another influenced it and which were influenced by it. Thus, there is reason to believe that the norms of Russian truth affected the development of the law of the Western and Southern Slavs. Russian truth also had a great influence on the formation of later monuments of domestic law, such as, for example, the Pskov Judgment Charter (XV century), the Dvina Charter Charter, the Code of Laws of 1497, the Code of Laws of 1550, and even some articles of the Council Code of 1649
The lengthy edition, which arose no earlier than 1113 and is associated with the name of Vladimir Monomakh, is divided into the Court of Yaroslav (Articles 1-52) and the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh (Articles 53-121). Features: the privileges of feudal lords, the dependent position of smerds, purchases, protection of ownership of land and other property, transfer of property by inheritance, and conclusion of contracts were secured. Norms angle. Rights and court. Process. The lengthy edition of Russian Pravda consists of the Court (Charter) of Yaroslav (Articles 1-52) and the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh (Articles 53-131). Apparently, the main text of the Long Edition of the Russian Truth was adopted at a meeting of princes and boyars in Berestovo in 1113. This edition of the Russian Truth operated in the Russian lands until the 14th-15th centuries.
The lengthy edition of Russian Pravda develops the provisions of the Brief edition of Russian Pravda, building them into a more coherent system, and adds to them the norms established by the legislation of the book. Vladimir Monomakh.
The division of the Long Edition of the Russian Pravda into the Court of Yaroslav and the Charter of Vladimir is quite conditional: only the first articles of the sections are associated with the names of these princes, the remaining articles of the code are borrowed from different eras and sources, because the task of the Long Edition of the Russian Truth was to collect and include different standards, which the codifier considered necessary to fix.
An abridged version appeared in the middle of the 15th century. from the revised Long Edition The shortened edition of Russkaya Pravda represents excerpts from the Long Edition of Russian Pravda, including its articles that were most relevant for the 15th century, i.e. the time when this edition was created.
Political history of Kievan Rus (to the beginning XI V.)
The history of Kievan Rus has a relatively short chronological extent. If we count it from the reign of Oleg in Kyiv, and this is the year 882, then it turns out that Kievan Rus lasted only 250 years, because in 1132 the chronicler already recorded the collapse of the Russian Land.Remember what you know about Oleg’s campaign and his seizure of power in Kyiv. Explain the reasons and goals of this approach.
But these were extremely busy years. The state developed. The Kyiv princes collected lands, fought against nomads, made campaigns against Byzantium, and improved the system of collecting tribute. With the growth of the princely family, dramatic pages appeared associated with confusion in the order of succession to the throne, and inter-princely strife began. The most far-sighted princes tried to get out of this situation, but their endeavors were not always successful...
It was seething not only political life. Economic, social, and spiritual processes are of no less interest. Cities grew and settled, social strata and groups formed. Religious reforms of lasting importance fell during this period.
It is natural that the interweaving of these processes gives rise to heated debates and different points of view of historians both within the framework of formational and civilizational perception of events.
It seems appropriate to begin examining the situation by understanding the activities of the first Kyiv princes, who created, figuratively speaking, the “body” of the Old Russian state. It was then, under the first Rurikovichs, that the foundations of many subsequent events were laid, including the very collapse of that early medieval state giant, which we call Kievan Rus.
Let us recall once again that many historians quite rightly emphasize the role in the process of the emergence of the Old Russian state of two early centers of East Slavic statehood - the Middle Dnieper (Cuyaba) and the Ilmen (Slavia), believing their unification as a result of Oleg’s seizure of power in Kyiv (882) as the beginning of the emergence Kievan Rus.
In the Initial Kiev Code, which, as researchers believe, was written earlier than the Tale of Bygone Years (at the end of the 11th century) and which has come down to us as part Novgorod chronicle, it is argued that Igor initially established himself as the Grand Duke. And Oleg was only his commander.
“When they were two years old, Sineus and his brother Truvor died, and Rurik assumed power alone, and both brothers took power, and began to rule alone. And give birth to a son, and call his name Igor. And I will make him, Igor, grow up to be brave and wise. And he had a governor named Oleg, a wise and brave man. And they began to fight, and overflowed the Dnieper River and the Smolnesk city. And from there I walked down the Dnieper, and came to the Kiev mountains, and saw the city of Kiev, and tested who would reign in it; and deciding: “two brothers, Askold and Dir.” Igor and Oleg, passing by, hid in the boats, and with a small squad came to the shore, acting as Podugorsky guests, and tangled with Askold and Dir. She got down, and the other warriors and villains, Igor’s, jumped out onto the shore; and Igor’s speech to Askold: “You are not a prince, nor a prince by birth, but I am a prince, and I deserve to be a prince.” And I killed Askold and Dir; and Abiye carried to the mountain, and buried and Askold on the mountain, which is now known as Ugorsk, where there is Olmin’s courtyard; On that grave, put the church of St. Nicholas at Olma, and Direva’s grave behind St. Irina. And Igor, the prince, is gray in Kiev; and the Varangians became the men of Slovenia, and from then on the others were called Rus. So Igor began to build cities, and ordered that Sloven and Varangian should give tribute, and Krivich and Meryam should give tribute to Varangian, and from Novagorod 300 hryvnia for the summer of peace, dividing it up, so that it would not be given. And then you brought yourself a wife from Pleskov, named Olga, and she was wise and sensible, and from her a son, Svyatoslav, was born.”
(Novgorod first chronicle of the older and younger editions. M.; Leningrad, 1950. (Younger edition). http://litopys.org.ua/novglet/)
With the formation of Kievan Rus, the political institution of tribal princes gradually ceased to exist. Their place is taken by representatives of the Rurik clan.
Let us remember the first princes of Kievan Rus and the dates of their reign according to the Tale of Bygone Years.(You may come across other dates in textbooks. Try to explain their discrepancies with the Tale of Bygone Years).
Olga ruled due to the infancy of her son Svyatoslav, although after his maturity she continued to exercise administrative functions in Kyiv due to the constant absence of Svyatoslav, who was on military campaigns, and the infancy of her grandchildren (Svyatoslav's sons). Olga died in 969.
Svyatoslav (964 – 972)
Yaropolk (973 – 980)
Vladimir (980 – 1015)
It is necessary not only to master the chronology of the first Kyiv rulers. It is required to disclose the most characteristic events associated with their activities.
| Which Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes did Prince Oleg subjugate to the authorities of Kyiv? Remember Oleg’s campaign against Byzantium in 907 and the terms of the peace treaty concluded as a result (in 912). What significance did he have for the development of Rus'? What do you know about Igor’s campaigns against Byzantium? Why is the treaty with Byzantium in 945 considered less beneficial for Rus' than the treaty of Oleg? TEXTS OF TREATIES WITH BYZANTIUM (The Tale of Bygone Years / Prepared text, translation and commentary by O.V. Tvorogova // Library of literature of ancient Rus'. Vol. 1. http://lib.pushkinskijdom.ru/Default.aspx?tabid=2070)
What do you know about the death of Prince Igor? What changes in the tribute collection system after his death were carried out by Princess Olga? Why does the literature claim that in the character and activities of Svyatoslav we observe to a greater extent the features of a wandering Viking than the ruler of the Russian land? Remember under what conditions Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich died. What events are the most famous for the reign of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich? |
If we summarize the activities of the first Kyiv princes (from Oleg to Vladimir Svyatoslavovich), then we can say that its main directions were:
- the unification of all East Slavic (and part of the Finno-Ugric) tribes under the rule of the Grand Duke of Kyiv;
– organization of the system of princely power, including the collection of tribute;
- establishing international relations (primarily with Byzantium), which were carried out by the most different ways– from wars to peace treaties;
– acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and protection of trade routes that led to these markets;
– protection of territories from external threats, fight against raids of nomads.
Another point that requires reflection is the system of inheritance of grand-ducal power that developed during the period under review. This moment will be of particular importance for understanding the situation in the final stages of the existence of Kievan Rus.
Until the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (1015), the inheritance took place by seniority , when power was transferred to the eldest in the Rurik family.
Bye existing system succession to the throne did not create any special problems; due to the small number of the Rurik family itself, it did not create heirs to power. “By seniority” essentially meant here “from father to eldest son.” But the first signs of future serious complications were already becoming noticeable.
The relationship between the father and his sons was still quite definite. But after his death, complications began to arise between the brothers, the question arose about the real status of the younger ones in relation to the elder, which developed into a struggle for power.
And most early manifestation there was a clash between the sons of the famous conquering prince Svyatoslav Igorevich. During the first inter-princely strife in the history of Kievan Rus, Svyatoslav’s eldest sons Oleg and Yaropolk died, and power was seized by the youngest, Vladimir.
Having analyzed the main political moments of the initial history of Kievan Rus, we should turn to a consideration of those processes and trends that were observed in the development of ancient Russian society.