Ivan Rukavishnikov

CURSED KIND

Ivan Rukavishnikov and his novel “The Damned Family”

The trilogy novel by Ivan Sergeevich Rukavishnikov, “The Cursed Family,” was last published in 1914 before this edition and has long become a rarity, and the name of its author is unknown to few people today. The content of the novel is the story of three generations of Nizhny Novgorod merchants, from which the author himself came. By this time, the large commercial and industrial capital of Russia had declared itself loudly, and it seemed that the future belonged to it. Therefore, the “money aces” depicted in the novel, shown from the inside by people from the same environment with all their aspirations, passions, weaknesses, traditions, dreams, aroused, as they still do, considerable interest. At one time, the famous theorist of socialist culture A.V. Lunacharsky saw significant artistic, historical and social value in the novel and recommended re-publishing it, but this did not completely materialize - only the first part was published in 1928.

Can the novel be considered autobiographical? Of course not. The author does not identify himself with any of the characters in the novel, and does not strive for any complete correspondence between the life conflicts of his characters and specific people close to him. But nevertheless, the prototypes of the “Cursed Family” are the author’s family, three generations of Nizhny Novgorod merchants Rukavishnikovs, so the reader needs to have at least a general idea of ​​this family, which was one of the ten richest merchant clans of Nizhny Novgorod.

In the novel, the progenitor of the “cursed family” is the “iron old man”, in whose image Mikhail Grigorievich Rukavishnikov is depicted. Perhaps the author knew too little about his more distant ancestor, or perhaps he deliberately did not include the first of the Rukavishnikov merchants, Grigory Mikhailovich, into the framework of his novel. The first information about his activities in Nizhny Novgorod dates back to the beginning of the 19th century. In the first year of moving the fair from Makaryev to Nizhny, he acquired three shops there, later there were many more, then he built an ironworks, bought land on the high Volga bank, known as the Escarpment, and built a two-story stone house here. In 1836, for his activities, he already received a medal from the Department of Manufactures and Internal Trade. This is where the roots of Mikhail Grigorievich, the “iron old man”, are, this is the source of subsequent, ever-growing wealth.

Under Mikhail Grigorievich (1811-1874), whom his father attracted early to entrepreneurship, the Rukavishnikov business reached full bloom. Steel production is growing, at the fair Rukavishnikov is among the main resellers of iron; He was also a successful interest-bearer. Here’s how Nizhny Novgorod local historian D.N. Smirnov writes about it: “On a mute, looking around, he lent large sums to trustworthy Nizhny Novgorod businessmen. Mikhail Rukavishnikov was considered the largest and most famous moneylender in the entire Volga region.” Mikhail Grigorievich became a well-known and revered person in Nizhny Novgorod - a hereditary honorary citizen, a merchant of the first guild, a manufacturing adviser, and a member of the provincial guardianship committee for prisons. He left a huge fortune to his family, which at the time of his death consisted of a wife, seven sons, two daughters and a sister. His wife, Lyubov Alexandrovna, built an almshouse and a children's hospital in memory of her husband, and the House of Diligence, built later by the Rukavishnikovs, was named after Mikhail and Lyubov Rukavishnikov.

After his death, the company of the “iron old man” became known as “Heirs of M. G. Rukavishnikov.” The business stopped growing, but did not decline, and this was the great merit of the eldest son, Ivan Mikhailovich, the main successor of Rukishnikov’s entrepreneurial traditions. The steel foundry ceased to exist in 1901, but the Rukavishnikovs’ position in the iron trade was still stable. Among the leaders of the iron trade, Ivan Mikhailovich greeted Emperor Nicholas II, who visited the All-Russian Exhibition in 1896, and presented the sovereign with bread and salt on a luxurious silver platter with a relief image of the Iron Row of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. Ivan Mikhailovich was one of the most famous public figures of Nizhny Novgorod: a member of the city duma, an honorary justice of the peace, a full member of the Nizhny Novgorod Society for the Encouragement of Higher Education and the Nizhny Novgorod Society of Art Lovers - this is not a complete list of his social “loads”, which required not only time from him , but also significant material resources. He did a lot of charity.

The second son of the “iron old man” Sergei Mikhailovich (1852-1914) showed little of himself as the heir to his father’s business, but he was known throughout the city for the construction of buildings that still decorate Nizhny Novgorod. For this he spent the lion's share of the income he received from the Rukavishnikovs' common business. First of all, this is a palace house on the Escarpment - luxurious, pompous, but unsuitable for habitation. But later it turned out to be very good for the city art and history museum, which was located in it in 1918. In 1879, Sergei Mikhailovich acquired the Podvyazye estate near Bogorodsk and rebuilt it, intending to organize exemplary agriculture. In 1908, he built an apartment building on Rozhdestvenskaya Street, where at the entrance he placed a sculpture of a worker and a peasant woman by Konenkov.

The youngest son of the “iron old man”, the “last child,” as he was called, Mitrofan Mikhailovich (1864-1911), enjoyed scandalous fame in Nizhny. Being a disabled person who painfully experienced his deformity, he was proud and vain. The poet Boris Sadovskoy, in his memoirs, paints his portrait in the most unpleasant colors: “The younger brother, an ugly hunchbacked alcoholic, loved to play the fool and break down. Giving away gold watches and his portraits in rich frames to anyone... he collected bad paintings and died on the eve of his promotion to full state councilor.” This is how people saw him. But about “bad paintings”: some of them, such as “The Flying Carpet” by Vasnetsov, “Lady under an Umbrella” by Kramskoy and others, now decorate the halls of our art museum. And Mitrofan Mikhailovich gave more charity than all the Rukavishnikovs. He did a lot for the Annunciation Monastery, the Verkhne Posad Trinity Church, and the cathedral. Between Alekseevskaya and Osharskaya streets, at his expense, the building of the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood was built, of which he was the chairman for several years, the construction of a Red Cross hospital was carried out, etc. The city saw off Mitrofan Mikhailovich on his last journey, as he wished, with great honors in the presence of the governor, the provincial leader of the nobility, and the city mayor.

Vladimir Mikhailovich Rukavishnikov was also known in the city, on whose funds there was a well-known choir outside the city. Varvara Mikhailovna Burmistrova, the daughter of the iron old man, also left a memory of herself by purchasing land for the city cemetery, erecting a church and service buildings there and surrounding the Nizhny Novgorod necropolis with a fence with turrets and gates. She lived in a wonderful mansion on Zhukovskaya Street (now Minin) - today the A. M. Gorky Literary Museum is located here. Here is what is briefly known about the direct descendants of the “iron old man”. His grandchildren grew up and were brought up on the eve of the new century. They were far from entrepreneurial activity, the fates of some were tragic, others unknown. The glory of the Rukavishnikov family was supported and continued, but only in the field of culture, by the children of Sergei Mikhailovich Ivan and Mitrofan.

Mitrofan Sergeevich (1887-1946), having graduated from the Nizhny Novgorod Noble Institute in 1907, received an art education in private studios in Moscow and Rome and quickly became a famous sculptor. In 1918, he, like his older brother Ivan, ended up in Nizhny Novgorod and became involved in the work of preserving and popularizing the artistic heritage. With his participation, the Nizhny Novgorod Higher State Art Workshops were opened in 1919. In the same year he leaves for Moscow, where his fate was very successful. He took a prominent place in Russian art, worked a lot for museums, and created a gallery of portraits of outstanding historical figures. And most importantly, he became the founder of a new branch for the Rukishnikov family: a dynasty of sculptors - his son Julian, grandson Alexander, and great-grandson Philip followed in his footsteps. In 1993, the exhibition “Three Generations of Rukavishnikov Sculptors” was organized in the halls of the Academy of Arts - evidence of the high appreciation of the work of this talented family.

A famous poet at the beginning of the century was Ivan Sergeevich Rukavishnikov (1877-1930), the author of this novel. He was born in the year when his father removed the scaffolding from the newly built palace house on the Nizhny Novgorod Escarpment. He spent his childhood and youth here, which allowed him to say in his autobiography: “Golden apples grew in the garden of my youth.”

Ivan Sergeevich studied at the Noble Institute, then at a real school, and passed the exam for a gymnasium course as an external student. At the same time, he studied with great enthusiasm at the art school of the Nizhny Novgorod photographer-artist A. O. Karelin and considered painting his main calling, although he had already written poetry and even published them in the Nizhny Novgorod List and other Volga newspapers. He was considered a decadent and was scolded for his poetry. A. M. Gorky was one of the first to do this, inviting him to his place.

Ivan Rukavishnikov left memories of this meeting, which took place in 1896. Having responded critically to the poetry, Gorky approved of the prose - the story “The Seed Pecked by Birds.” The conversation was casual. “It’s interesting,” writes Ivan Sergeevich, “that Alexey Maksimovich did not touch upon my home environment in the conversation. That is, he did not speak about it in words. But this topic was in the air. We both carefully hinted at this. I was a white crow, or rather a little raven. The same white raven, only from a different flock, was Gorky. Society did not expect writers from the environment where fate had thrown me, and from the environment where Gorky had been thrown, and for many years afterwards I heard behind my back: “This is the one whose father... This is the one whose grandfather... This is the one whose house...”

Gorky favored Ivan for some time, as evidenced by Alexei Maksimovich’s letter to the editor of the “Magazine for Everyone” V. S. Mirolyubov in April 1898, where he recommends Rukavishnikov: “His first story is a very sincere piece! I'll send it to you. The author doesn’t need money, because his dad is a millionaire.”

By the end of the 90s, Ivan Rukavishnikov left for St. Petersburg, where he studied at the Archaeological Institute and was engaged in literary activities. Among his acquaintances are Korolenko, Balmont, Sologub, Tsvetaeva. His books do not escape the attentive critical eye of Valery Bryusov. Alexander Blok in private letters suggests Rukavishnikov to participate in poetry evenings. From the first year of the existence of the Writers' Union, Ivan Sergeevich was elected there. He visited abroad several times: both in Europe and in the East. He wrote a lot, published a lot. In total, he published more than twenty books, although some of them were no more than 20 pages and most of them had scanty editions, as, indeed, with many poets of those years.

October 1917 found Ivan Sergeevich in Nizhny Novgorod. In the spring of 1918, he and his brother Mitrofan were actively involved in creating a city museum in their former home on Otkos, which, by resolution of the executive committee of the Nizhny Novgorod Council, was transferred to the museum. Together with his brother, he is a member of the art commission for its organization, then in the arts department created at the provincial GUBONO.

At the same time, the Rukavishnikov brothers put forward the idea of ​​creating a Palace of Arts in Nizhny Novgorod, but it was considered untimely. Ivan Sergeevich nevertheless organized and headed the Palace of Arts, but... in Moscow, and managed it until its closure in 1921. From 1921 to 1924 he taught poetry at the VLHI named after. Bryusov, and later at the Higher State Literary Courses. He died in 1930.

His greatest fame was brought to him by the novel “The Damned Family,” which began to be published by the magazine “Modern World” from the first issue in 1911. In seven subsequent issues, two parts were published: “The Family of the Iron Old Man” and “The Makarovichs.” According to the writer N. Krandievskaya-Tolstaya, the novel was received unkindly by readers, so its publication was interrupted, although from her point of view it was a talented work, despite “all its confusion.” The following year, the St. Petersburg company Osvobozhdenie published the novel in its entirety with the addition of the third part, “On the Paths of Death,” and in 1914 the novel was republished in Moscow. In 1928, unfortunately, only the first part was published.

One of the first to criticize the novel was K.I. Chukovsky. He didn’t even wait for it to finish, and in a literary review published in the September issue of the newspaper Rech under the title “Cursed Family,” he caustically ridiculed the novel’s oversaturation with the fear of death. “Is it really true that all the merchants in Nizhny are just busy indulging in mortal trepidation?... The definition of “black” is mentioned dozens of times - “black hole of despair”, “black fear”, “black emptiness”, “black wing of the bird of fear” ", "black shadow", "black whirlwinds"... Etc., etc....". He notes that “the chronicle, the story is broad and even, written neurasthenically, often almost hysterically.” However, he is forced to admit that “when you get used to the language of the novel, you learn not to notice it, images of such psychological significance appear before you...”. And further: “The novel tells the story of modern merchants and thus, so to speak, fills the gap in our knowledge of Russia...”.

Critics received the novel with mixed reactions. Noting the bright colorful pictures of living modernity in it, the author was reproached for being excessively drawn out, pretentious and mannered in his presentation.

The modern reader does not know the novel, since it has become inaccessible due to the persecution of literature that goes beyond the framework of socialist realism. It was removed from libraries and became a bibliographic rarity. And interest in him did not wane. After all, information about the life and activities of the Rukavishnikov family was fed mainly by the memories of old-timers of Nizhny Novgorod, as well as rumors and speculation. With such a lack of information, some researchers of the past sinned by misusing the text of the novel, mistaking fiction for real facts, without having sufficient grounds for this, and now it is difficult to distinguish one from the other without knowing the novel.

Many Rukavishnikovs are recognized in the novel. This is, first of all, Makar, the “iron old man”. He dies at the beginning of the novel, but is invisibly present on its pages. “The iron old man gave birth to seven sons for his consolation, to support the great cause...” and further: “If I have erected no small thing on the dust, how can the sons not protect what was erected?” He, as a judge, appears to his sons half asleep, half delirious at the dramatic moments of their lives. So he comes, angry and condemning, to the prison cell of his son Vyacheslav, who was imprisoned for rape. Not seeing in the eldest, Semyon, a worthy successor, he often comes to him and threatens: “Don’t sleep! Do not sleep! Or is everything fine here?”

The eldest son Semyon, in whom the reader recognizes Ivan Mikhailovich Rukavishnikov, is colorless, uninteresting, and often pathetic in the novel. Only in the office does he feel calm and comfortable. He was successful as a businessman, but remained a boring person. Even being seriously ill, he refuses to travel abroad for treatment, fearing that his departure will damage the affairs of the shaky company: “If I leave, what will they say? He ran away, they will say. He fled abroad. Credit will fall."

The smartest and most energetic among the sons of the “iron old man” is Makar, he is easily recognized as Sergei Mikhailovich. This is a visionary builder. As soon as he received freedom of action and money after the death of his father, he decided to surprise his hometown with a palace that would cost a million rubles - no more, no less. Then he embarked on new construction ventures and would have ruined his family if it had not been for the help of a company guarded by Semyon and Raisa, Makar’s wife. By hook or by crook, the capital of other, dying and perishing sons of the “iron old man” came to their disposal.

Among the brothers, the most recognizable is Kornut (in life - Mitrofan Mikhailovich). His childhood dream of having numerous orders and medals carried behind his coffin at his magnificent funeral came true. He prudently invested his money in various charitable activities, receiving awards, ranks and honors for this.

Understanding the background of his brother’s charitable activities, Makar believes that with his construction he is doing more for people - he is giving them work, and therefore prosperity. His reasoning is curious: “If I send them to school today, tomorrow they’ll have a congress... But then they sons of bitches will be too lazy to hammer in a nail with their own hands... You don’t know our worthless people. After all, if you do something in an hour or a day and beg your neighbor to do it, what will the Russian fool choose? Of course, he will stand for a day without a hat, arching his back at someone else’s porch.”

The Nizhny Novgorod region has many literary works that reflect its past in artistic form. This is a whole library. Here is the world of the Old Believers in the famous novels of Melnikov-Pechersky, and the provincial province described by P. D. Boborykin, V. G. Korolenko, M. Gorky, and the historical books of Valentin Kostylev, and so on up to the works of Nikolai Kochin about the twenties and thirties of our century and to the pages of our writers today...

From the same shelf of “Nizhny Novgorod tales” is the novel by Ivan Rukavishnikov. To understand today and ourselves, it is not superfluous to know the history of your land, the history of your ancestors. I hope this book will help you with this. The novel “The Cursed Family” awaits its readers and researchers.

Chief bibliographer-local historian of Nizhny Novgorod

state regional scientific

universal library

Court ranks and titles denoted the official position of persons who were at the court of the Russian emperors - in everyday life these persons were called courtiers. They constituted the smallest, but also the most elite part of the civil bureaucracy (the military, as a rule, could not have court ranks and titles). Their classification as civil servants was justified by the fact that the imperial court was the residence of the head of state. In the first half of the 18th century. the number of courtiers amounted to several dozen people, and by the middle of the 19th century. increased to several hundred; in 1881 this number exceeded 1,300, and in 1914 - 1,600.
What was the Russian imperial court like?

The imperial court meant the courtyard of the emperor himself, or the large courtyard. There were also several small courtyards - the courtyards of individual representatives of the imperial family (23). However, they did not have official significance or their own system of court ranks and titles. Although each of the small courts had its own staff (usually numbering only a few people), it was made up of persons who either did not have court ranks and titles at all, or who had them in the imperial court and were seconded to the small courts.
There is no precise definition of what an imperial court is. But when this term is used in legislation and other sources, it usually means, on the one hand, the imperial residence, and on the other, three groups of people: court ranks, court gentlemen (persons who had court ranks) and court ladies (ladies and maidens, who had special “ladies’” court titles).

The composition, structure and customs of the Russian imperial court took shape over more than a century and were finally formed only during the reign of Nicholas I. Their main idea was to demonstrate the political prestige of the empire and the reigning family - At the same time, it was natural to assimilate the general principles of court organization that already existed in the West (including some ceremonies ), and the nomenclature of court ranks and titles. In the first case, the French court was taken as a model; in the second - the courts of the Prussian kings and the Austrian imperial court. However, from the very beginning, specific Orthodox and pseudo-national elements were present in the customs of the Russian court.

1. Officials of the Russian Empire

Until the 18th century ranks were not widespread and were not yet completely separated from the designation of official position or noble family origin of a person who was at court or in the service of the Grand Duke or Tsar. In conditions of localism, each rank (position) occupied a certain place among others, but there was no clear system of awards and it completely depended on the will of the Grand Duke (Tsar). In this case, the degree of birth - “breed” - was of primary importance.
By the 17th century A system of higher ranks developed - Duma ranks (by seniority: boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles, Duma clerks). There were unique ranks and positions at the courts of the Grand Duke: equerry, butler, steward, treasurer, etc., in the orders - clerk, clerk.
In n. XVIII century With the creation of the regular army, military ranks of the Western European type, which first appeared in the 17th century, became widespread in Russia. in the “regiments of the new system.”
The transformations of Peter I sharply increased the number of positions (ranks) of officers and civil servants. In 1722, the Table of Ranks was introduced, establishing 14 classes of military, civil and court ranks. Along with the ranks themselves, some positions were initially included in the report card (for example, in class III - prosecutor general; in class IV - presidents of boards; in class V - general-provisioner; in class VII - vice-presidents of court courts). Over time, the Table underwent numerous changes (positions were eliminated or turned into ranks, some ranks disappeared, new ones appeared, etc.), but basically remained in effect until 1917. In the present day. XIX century the ranks of the XI and XIII classes fell out of use.
Military ranks. In classes I-V they were called general (admiral), VI-VIII (after 1884 - VI-VII) - staff officers, IX-XIV (after 1884 - VIII-XII) - chief officers (non-commissioned officers were not included in the officer ranks ). Chief and staff officers of the guard were initially listed two classes above the army, and from 1884 - one. In the Guard, the ranks of major and lieutenant colonel were abolished in 1798. There were special military ranks, ranks above and below the classes of the Table of Ranks. The first included the generalissimo, the second included the sub-ensign (until 1880 a harness-junker), in the cavalry - the estandard-cadet, and in the Cossack troops - the sub-horunzhiy.
The rank of field marshal was introduced in 1699; F.A. was the first to receive it in 1700. Golovin. The last award of this rank to the person of the Russian service D.A. Milyutin took place in 1898. There were 64 field marshals in total. The first general admirals were F.A. Golovin and F.M. Apraksin.
In the XVIII-XIX centuries. 6 people had this rank. The last admiral general was Vel. book Alexey Alexandrovich (born 1908), who received this rank in 1883. The number of people who had military ranks grew continuously, especially in the 2nd half. XIX century So, in active military service (without the border guard corps) in 1864 there were 351 generals and admirals, 2630 staff officers, 16,495 chief officers; in 1897, respectively - 1212, 6282 and 35,283 people. In total, 43,720 officers were in service in 1897. (52% of them were hereditary nobles). In n. XX century There were 1,386 generals in the army (Dec. 1902) and 2,668 colonels (May 1903).
In the XVIII-XIX centuries. (until 1867) military ranks were held by employees of the mining, railway, telegraph, forestry and boundary departments.
Civil ranks. The rank of chancellor (state chancellor) was introduced in Russia in 1709 (G.I. Golovkin), and was last awarded in 1867 (to A.M. Gorchakov). It was given to persons in charge of foreign policy (in the 19th century - to ministers of foreign affairs); those with the rank of II class were called vice-chancellors. In total, 11 people had the rank of chancellor. The few civil officials of other departments who rose to the rank of 1st class were called actual privy councilors of the 1st class. After 1881, only D. M. Solsky (1906) and I. L. Goremykin (1916) received this rank. The number of persons holding civil ranks also grew continuously. Thus, there were 674 IV class officials in 1858, 1945 in 1878, and 2687 in the 1890s. As of January 1. 1897 there were in the service (without the State Council, Synod, military and naval departments) persons of class IV and above - 1,438 people, classes V-VIII - 50,082, classes IX-XIX - 49,993 people.
Court officials. The system of these ranks had developed by the 18th century. (the first court staff was adopted in 1727, then new states were introduced in 1796 and 1801). Previously distributed among almost all classes, they were reduced to two main groups: the first ranks of the court (Classes II and III) and the second ranks of the court, which then included chamberlains (VI class), titular chamberlains (VIII class) and chamberlains (Junkers). IX class), converted in 1809 from ranks to court titles. From that time on, the court ranks of the third class began to be called the second ranks of the court. The ranks of chief ceremonial master and chief forschneider could be grades II and III (in grade III they were called second).
Court ranks were considered more honorable than civilian ones. Therefore, some officials who reached the third rank were transferred to the second ranks of the court as an incentive. Civil officials of the lower classes could be granted “the position of chamberlain” or other positions of the second ranks of the court without, however, receiving the corresponding class. In both cases, rank production accelerated. Persons who received a court rank could continue to serve in the civil department. In rare cases, a court rank was given while maintaining a civilian of the same or a different class (thus, the actual privy councilors K. I. Palen and B. A. Vasilchikov were at the same time: the first - chief chamberlain, the second - horse-master). The number of court ranks was determined by the states and in certain periods no awards were made in excess of the set. In general, for the 18th century. there were: chief chamberlains - 9, chief marshals - 11, chief chamberlains - 12, chief chamberlains - 5, chief equestrians - 9, chief jägermeisters - 5, chief masters of ceremonies - 7. During the 19th century. the number of court officials increased significantly. In the court staff on January 1. In 1898 there were 16 first and 147 second ranks of the court.
Chinoproduction. Transfer to each subsequent rank was conditioned by staying in the previous one for a certain number of years, which could be reduced for differences in service. Until 1856, the terms of service in each rank were different for persons of different social origins and were divided into 3 categories. The most preferential conditions for rank production (1st category) were provided to the nobility. But gradually there was a process of establishing uniform service periods. In 1906, terms of civil service were established: in grades XIV, XII, X and IX - 3 years, in grades VIII-V - 4, in grades V - 5 years and in grade IV - 10 years. Production in class III and above was not regulated and depended on the discretion of the emperor. Thus, in 1916 there were only approx. civil and court officials of the first three classes. 800 people Graduation from higher educational institutions (depending on their ranks and the success of graduates) gave the right to receive ranks of XII-VIII classes. A similar procedure existed for military service. However, in the late 19th century. it took longer to reach the highest military ranks than to achieve their civilian equals. From the rank of captain, promotion to subsequent ranks in the army was carried out only if there were vacant positions corresponding to them. Civil and court ranks for special merits could also be awarded “outside the service,” that is, to persons not in public service (in particular, merchants).
Receiving a rank gave the right to appointment to a certain range of positions. The staffing schedules of all departments indicated which rank or ranks each position corresponded to. Thus, usually the position of minister corresponded to class II, comrade minister - class III, director of a department (administration), governor and mayor - class IV, vice-director of a department and vice-governor - class V, head of department and clerk in central institutions - class VI , and the head - VII class. There were, however, cases of appointment to a position of a higher class than the existing rank (P. A. Stolypin, for example, was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of Internal Affairs, being in the 4th grade). The main positions in elections from the nobility, and after 1890 and 1899 also in zemstvo and city self-government were equated to certain classes of civil service positions (the provincial leader of the nobility, for example, for two three years of service in elections received the rank of full state councilor).
According to the law of December 9. 1856 only the acquisition of a military rank of class VI and a civilian rank of class IV (not upon resignation) gave the rights of hereditary nobility; personal nobility was given to all other staff and chief officer ranks, as well as civilian ranks from class IX (in the 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries, the conditions for obtaining nobility were more preferential). All other civil ranks since 1832 have given the rights of hereditary or personal honorary citizenship. The order of awarding orders was coordinated with the system of ranks (each award was usually determined by the recipient’s belonging to certain classes of ranks).

2. Titles of the Russian Empire

In Russia in the 19th-20th centuries. there were honorary titles for senators and members of the State Council, in departments not present, that is, not participating in meetings, something like honorary members. These titles were assigned to officials of classes III-I, who at the same time could continue their activities in accordance with their rank and position. Since the 1860s, the title of senator was usually given to fellow ministers. In a number of cases in the 19th century. receiving this title was the end of a career. The title of member of the State Council after 1810 was considered higher, but with its assignment the title of senator for those who had it could be retained. Few highest civil and court ranks of classes I-III (in exceptional cases classes IV-V) received the title of Secretary of State of His Majesty (should be distinguished from the position of Secretary of State of the State Council - manager of the office of one of the departments). The number of persons who had this title decreased in the XIX century. XX century (in 1876 - 40 people, in 1900 -27, in 1915 - 19 people). The military personnel who made up the emperor's retinue, in addition to ranks, had the ranks: adjutant general (classes I-III), which were in the present day. XX century 60 people; retinue of a major general or retinue of a rear admiral (the first rank was introduced in the 18th century, the second in the 19th century), aide-de-camp (in the 18th century from class IV and below, in the 19th century staff and chief officers ). Secretaries of state and adjutant generals on duty had the right to announce the emperor's verbal orders.
In the century XVIII - AD. XIX century The court ranks of chamberlain and chamber cadet were often given to officials and officers of relatively lower classes, sometimes to representatives of old noble families who did not have class ranks at all (in these cases, children often received court ranks). Awarding these ranks gave the right to receive classes IV and V of the Table of Ranks. In 1809, the ranks of chamberlain and chamberlain cadet were transformed into honorary titles awarded to civil officials of classes III-V and VI-IX (from 1850 classes III-IV and V-VIII). In addition, they could be given to persons of high social status who were not in public service (especially leaders of the nobility), without giving them the right to rank.
There were court titles for ladies: chief chamberlain, chamberlain, lady of state, lady-in-waiting and maid of honor. The first two of them could only belong to persons who held chamberlain positions.
In 1800, the titles of commerce and manufacturing advisors were introduced, equivalent to the VIII class of civil service, which could be awarded to persons of the merchant class (see: Merchants). Since 1824, the right to these titles was granted to all merchants of the 1st guild (after 12 years in the guild). In 1836, persons who had these titles, as well as their widows and children, were given the right to apply for hereditary honorary citizenship.

3. Titles of the Russian Empire

Addressing (orally or in writing) to persons who had ranks was strictly regulated and was called a title. A private title was the name of a rank or position (for example, “state councilor”, “vice-governor”). Common titles for ranks and positions of classes I-II were “Your Excellency”; III and IV classes - “Your Excellency”; Class V - “your honor”; VI-VIII classes (for the military after 1884, including captains) - “your honor” and for ranks of classes IX-XIV (chief officer ranks) - “your honor”. If an official was appointed to a position whose class was higher than his rank, he used the general title of the position (for example, the provincial leader of the nobility used the title of III-IV classes - “your excellency”, even if by rank or origin he had the title “your nobility"). In the written official address of lower officials to higher ones, both titles were called, and the private one was used both by position and by rank and followed the general title (for example, “His Excellency Comrade Minister of Finance Privy Councilor”). From ser. XIX century the private title by rank and surname began to be omitted. When addressing a lower official in a similar manner, only the private title of the position was retained (the surname was not indicated). Equal officials addressed each other either as inferiors, or by name and patronymic, indicating the common title and surname in the margins of the document. Honorary titles (except for the title of member of the State Council) were usually also included in the title, and in this case the private title by rank was usually omitted. Persons who did not have a rank used a general title in accordance with the classes to which the title they held was equated (for example, chamber cadets and manufactory advisers received the right to the general title “your honor”). When speaking orally to higher ranks, a general title was used; equal and lower civil ranks were addressed by first and patronymic or surname, and military ranks by rank with or without the addition of a surname. Lower ranks had to address sub-ensigns and non-commissioned officers by rank with the addition of the word “Mr.” (for example, “Mr. Sergeant Major”).
There were also titles by origin (by “dignity”). Private titles by origin were: emperor, grand duke (for children, and in the male generation for the emperor’s grandchildren; in 1797-1886 also for the great-grandsons and great-great-grandsons of the emperor in the male line), prince of the imperial blood, his serene prince, prince, count, baron, nobleman. They corresponded to general titles (predicates): “your imperial majesty” (sometimes the abbreviated formula “sovereign” was used); "your imperial highness" (for grand dukes) and "your highness" (for princes of imperial blood below the grandsons of emperors); “Your Grace” (for the younger children of the emperor’s great-grandsons and their descendants in the male line, as well as the most serene princes by grant); “Your Excellency” (for persons who had princely or count titles); "your honor" (for other nobles, including barons). When addressing persons of princely, count and baronial rank, the title by origin was used in all cases without fail, and replaced all other general titles (for example, when addressing a colonel-prince, a general used the title “prince”, and a lieutenant - “your excellency” ).
A special system of private and general titles existed for the Orthodox clergy. Monastics (black clergy) were divided into 5 ranks: metropolitan and archbishop were titled “your eminence”, bishop – “your eminence”, archimandrite and abbot – “your eminence”. The three highest ranks were also called bishops, and they could be addressed with the general title "sovereign". The white clergy had 4 ranks: archpriest and priest (priest) were titled - “your reverence”, protodeacon and deacon - “your reverence”.
All persons who had ranks (military, civilian, courtiers) wore uniforms according to their type of service and rank class. The ranks of the I-IV classes had a red lining in their overcoats. Special uniforms were reserved for persons who held honorary titles (secretary of state, chamberlain, etc.). The ranks of the imperial retinue wore shoulder straps and epaulets with the imperial monogram and aiguillettes.
The assignment of ranks and honorary titles, as well as appointments to positions, awards, etc., were formalized by orders of the tsar in the military, civil and court departments and noted in formal (service) lists. The latter were introduced back in 1771, but received their final form and began to be maintained systematically in 1798 as a mandatory document for each person in the public service. Since 1773, lists of civil ranks (including court officials) of classes I-VIII began to be published annually; after 1858, the publication of lists of ranks I-III and separately IV classes continued. Similar lists of generals, colonels, lieutenant colonels and army captains were also published, as well as “List of persons who were in the naval department and fleet admirals, staff and chief officers...”

Consolidated list of titles, ranks and ranks in the Russian Empire

Admiral (from Arabic apig-i1-ta; lit., “lord of the sea”, i.e. commander of the fleet) is a naval rank of the second class.
Adjutant (helping) is a military position and an integral part of the names of some military ranks.
Archbishop (Greek archbishop - chief bishop) is the second most senior private title of the black clergy.
Bishop (Greek archbishop - high priest) is the general name (private title) of metropolitans, archbishops and bishops.
Archimandrite (from the Greek agspo - I go ahead, tapyga - sheepfold, i.e. shepherd) is the fourth most senior private title of the black clergy.

Baron, baroness (French baron - originally the title of a royal vassal) is the lowest private family title.
Berg- (German Thing - mountain) - the initial part of the names of some mountain ranks.
Berg-Hauptmann (German Naprgtapp - colonel) - mountain rank of the VI class.
Berg-geschvoren (German: Vehr^esspshogen - sworn keeper of mines) - mining rank of the XII class.
Bergmeyer (German: Beg^te1sl:er - mine manager) - mining rank of the VIII class.
Berg-assayer (German: Probier - assayer, from probier - to test, to take a sample) - a mountain rank of the XII class.
Nobility is a general title for nobles (including barons) and chief officer ranks.
Blagovestiv is the general title of priests and protodeacons.
Brigadier (from the French brigade - brigade, detachment) - military rank of the V class in the 18th century.

“In the position of chamberlain (court marshal, jägermeister, equestrian master)” is a court rank awarded to persons who held civil ranks of classes III-IV and below.
“In the depths of clarity of the master of ceremonies” is a court title awarded to persons who held civil ranks of VI-Vni classes.
Grand Duchess is a private family title for the wife of the Grand Duke.
Grand Duchess is a private family title for the daughter of the emperor and his granddaughter (daughter of the Grand Duke), which remained with her until her marriage.
Grand Duke (i.e. big, senior prince) - a private family title of members of the imperial family: in 1797-1885. - up to and including the great-great-grandsons of the emperor, after 1885 - only the sons and grandsons of the emperor.
Majesty see Imperial Majesty.
Vice (lat. vice - instead) - the initial part of the names of some ranks and positions, meaning “substituting”.
Vice Admiral is a naval rank of III class.
Vice-Chancellor is a special name for the civil rank of the second class for persons who held positions in the first half of the 19th century. post of Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Vladyka is the general name (private title) of metropolitans, archbishops and bishops.
Military adviser - civilian rank of VI class. Military foreman - military rank in the Cossack troops: in 1798-
1884 -VIII class, corresponding to major; from 1884 -VII
class, corresponded to a lieutenant colonel.
High Evangelism is the general title of protopresbyters and archpriests.
High nobility is a general title for ranks of classes VI-VIII (staff officers).
Excellency is a general title for ranks of I-II classes.
Eminence is the common title of metropolitans and archbishops.
High Reverence is the general title of archimandrites, abbots and archpriests.
Highness is a general title for ranks of the V class.
Highness is a general title for princes of the imperial blood.

Midshipman (from the French garde - security, guard and marine - sea) - in 1860-1882. naval rank (XIII or XPV classes), equivalent to second lieutenant or ensign; until 1860 and in 1882-1917. -senior school student at the Naval School.
General (from Latin general - chief) is the initial part of the names of some higher military ranks and ranks.
Admiral General - naval rank 1st class.
Adjutant General is a senior retinue rank assigned to persons holding military ranks of classes I-III.
Adjutant General to the Emperor's person is the highest retinue rank, awarded after 1881 to persons holding the military rank of II class.
General-in-Chief (French en chef - chief, senior; bouquet, chief general) - military rank of the second class (in 1730-1798).
Generalissimo (lat. generalissimus - most important) - the highest military rank.
Lieutenant General is a military rank of III class, used since 1798.
Major General is a military rank of IV class.
General of Artillery is a military rank of the second class, used since 1798.
General of Infantry (Italian: infanteria - infantry) - military rank of the second class, used since 1798.
Cavalry general is a military rank of the second class, used since 1798.
Lieutenant General - military rank of the third class (in 1730-1798).
General in the person of the emperor is the highest retinue rank awarded in 1811-1881. persons who had a military rank of II class.
Field Marshal General - military rank 1st class.
Feldzeugmeister General (from German Feldzeugmeister - chief of armaments) is the highest military rank for the chief of artillery.
General ranks - military and civilian ranks of classes I-V (in the 19th century - classes I-IV).
Gittenverwalter (German, Hiittenverwalter - plant manager) - mountain rank X class.
Mr. (Mrs.) is a private predicate title (usual nominal form of address).
Sovereign (empress) is a private predicate title.
Sovereign (empress) is a short general title of the emperor (empress) and an integral part of the private title “sovereign emperor” (“empress empress”).
Hof... (German Hof - courtyard) - the initial part of the names of some court officials.
Court Marshal - court rank of the third class.
Chamberlain (German: Hofmeister; lit., manager of the court) - court rank of the III class.
The Chamberlain of Pages is a court rank of class XIV according to the Table of Ranks.
Chamberlain is a court title-position for ladies. Hoff-Fourier - rank IX class "at the highest court." Gough Junker is a court rank of class XII according to the Table of Ranks.
Count (German Graf - originally: royal official, judge) is a private family title.
Countess is a private family title for the wife and daughter of an earl. Provincial secretary is a civil rank of the XII class. Nobleman (originally: close to the court) is the lowest private family title.

Actual chamberlain - court rank: from 1737 - VI, then IV class, and from 1800 also III class; in the 1810-1860s. was preserved for those who had it as the highest court rank.
Actual State Councilor is a civil rank of IV class.
Actual Privy Councilor - civil rank P class.
Actual Privy Councilor of the 1st class - civil rank of the 1st class, from the end of the 18th century. given to persons who, due to their official position, could not be called chancellors.
Deacon (Greek diakonos - minister) is the lowest private title of the white clergy.

Jägermeister (German: Jagermeister - chief of the hunt) - court rank of the III class.
Bishop (Greek episkopos - guardian, observer) is the third most senior private title of the black clergy.
Esaul (Turkic, Yasaul - chief) - military rank in the Cossack troops: in 1798-1884. - IX class, since 1884 - VIII class; corresponded to the captain.

Hegumen (Greek hegumenos - going ahead, leading) is the fifth most senior private title of the black clergy.
Priest (Greek hiereus - priest) is the second most senior private title of the white clergy.
Emperor (lat. imperator - ruler) is a private title of the monarch - head of state.
Imperial Majesty is the common title (minor) of the emperor and empress.
Imperial Highness is the general title of the Grand Dukes.
Empress is a private title: a) female monarchs - heads of state; b) the mother of the reigning emperor; c) the emperor's wife.
Engineer General is a military rank of the second class, used since 1802.

Cavalier (French cavalier - knight, horseman, from Latin caballus - horse) see Knight of the Order and Court Cavalier.
Knight of an order (orders) - a person awarded one or another order for services corresponding to this order; initially - a member of one or another monastic or knightly order (union).
Camera... (from Latin camera, German Kammer - room, chamber) - an integral part of the names of some court ranks and titles, meaning “close one”.
Chamberlain (German: Kammerherr; buke, room noble) - originally a court rank of the VI (until 1737) and IV classes; after 1809 - a senior court rank for persons who had the rank of III-V classes, and from 1850 - III and IV classes; see takyase Acting chamberlain.
Chamber Page is a special court rank for young men who studied in the senior classes of the Corps of Pages.
Maid of Honor is a senior court rank for girls. Chamber-Fourier is a rank of VI class “at the highest court.”
Chamber cadet - initially: court rank IX class, from 1737 - VI, from 1742 - V class; after 1809 - a junior court rank for persons who had the rank of IV-IX classes, and from 1850 - V-VIII classes.
Chancellor (German Kanzler, from Latin cancellarius) is a civil rank of the first class.
Captain (from Latin caput, capitis - head) - military rank IX class, since 1884 - VIII class (chief officer).
Captain of brigadier rank - the name of the naval rank of the V class in 1764-1798.
Captain of the second rank is a naval rank of VII class.
Captain-Commander is a fifth class naval rank that existed until 1827.
Lieutenant Commander - naval rank of the VIII class in 1797-1884 and in 1907-1911. (until 1797 - captain-lieutenant).
Captain-lieutenant is a military rank of class X according to the Table of Ranks.
Captain of the first rank is a naval rank of VI class.
Captain-lieutenant - naval rank: until 1764 - IX, in 1764-1797. - VIII class (since 1797 - captain-lieutenant).
Captain-lieutenant - military rank of the VIII class in the guards units in the 18th century; in 1751-1797 - rank of IX class in the artillery and engineering troops (since 1797 - staff captain).
Captain of the third rank - naval rank of VIII class until 1764.
Princess is a private family title for the prince's wife.
Princess is a private family title for the unmarried daughter of a prince.
Prince (possibly from the Norman konung - ruler) is a private family title.
Prince of “imperial blood” - a private family title of members of the imperial family: in 1797-1885. - children of the emperor's great-great-grandchildren in the male line, after 1885 - great-grandchildren of the emperor in the male generation, their eldest sons and grandchildren, and also the younger children of great-grandchildren and their descendants in the male line.
judge) - civil
Collegiate assessor (lat. assessor rank VIII class.
Collegiate registrar is a civil rank of the XIV class. Collegiate secretary is a civil rank of class X. Collegiate Councilor is a civil rank of VI class. Commerce Advisor is an honorary title established in 1800.
and equivalent to the civil rank of VIII class. Rear admiral (lat. contra - against) - naval rank of IV class.
Ship's secretary - in the 18th century. initially naval, then civilian rank of XI class.
Cornet (from the French cornette - standard, banner) - a military rank in cavalry units: in 1730-1884. -XIV class, corresponded to a warrant officer; from 1884 - XII class, equivalent to second lieutenant.
Coffee shop (German Kaffeeschenk - coffee maker) - rank of the XII class “at the highest court.”

Lieutenant (fr. lieutenant - substitute) - naval rank of the IX class, used since 1798 (until 1797 - lieutenant).
Lieutenant - military rank of class XII according to the “Table of Ranks”; see also Lieutenant.

Major (lat. major - senior) - military rank of the VIII class, abolished in 1884; in 1731-1798 was divided into two levels (see Prime Major and Second Major).
Manufacturer-Counselor is an honorary title established in 1800 and equivalent to the civil rank of VIII class.
Mine surveyor (German: Markscheider - surveyor of mine sites) - mining rank of IX class.
Metropolitan (Greek, metropolites - head of the capital's diocese) is the highest private title of the black clergy.
Midshipman (from the English midshipman; bouquet, middle ship rank) - naval rank: initially - non-commissioned officer, from 1758 - XIII, from 1764 - XII, after 1884 - X class.
Mundschenk (German Mundschenk - cupbearer) - rank of the XIV class “at the highest court” (according to the “Table of Ranks”), then - XII class.

Court Councilor is a civil rank of the VII class.
Heir Tsarevich is a private title for the heir to the throne.

Ober- (German ober - senior) - the initial part of the names of some ranks.
Oberberg-Hauptmann - mountain rank of IV and V classes.
Oberbergmeister - mountain rank of the VII class.
Oberberg-probierer - mountain rank of IX class.
Ober-Gittenferwalter - mountain rank of the VIII class.
Chief Marshal - court rank of the 2nd class.
Chief Chamberlain is a court rank of the 2nd class.
Chief Chamberlain is the highest court rank and position for ladies.
Chief Jägermeister is a court rank of the 2nd class. Chief Chamberlain is a court rank of the 2nd class.
Chief officer ranks - military and civilian ranks of classes IX-XPV.
Ober-Forschneider (German: Vorschneider - cutter [of food]) - court rank of the II and III classes, established in 1856.
Chief Master of Ceremonies - court rank: from 1743 - IV class, from the end of the 18th century. - III class, after 1858 - II and III classes.
Ober-Schenk (German: Schenk - keeper, keeper of wines) - court rank of the 2nd class.
Chief of the Horse - a court rank of the 2nd class.
General title is an honorary formula of address (title).
Guardian see Honorary Guardian.

Pane (French page) - a special court title for young men who studied in the Corps of Pages.
Lieutenant Colonel is a military rank of the VII class.
Second lieutenant - military rank of the XIII class, since 1884 - XII class.
Sub-ensign - a military rank below class XIV; from 1880 - non-commissioned officer from the nobility (in the infantry); from 1880 - graduate of the cadet school (in the infantry, artillery and engineering units); from 1906 - long-term non-commissioned officer who graduated from military school.
Podkhorunzhy - a military rank below XTV class in the Cossack troops, awarded to graduates of cadet schools - officer candidates; established in 1880 and corresponding to the rank of ensign.
Pod'esaul - military rank in the Cossack troops: in 1798-1884. -
X, from 1884 - IX class; corresponded to the staff captain. Colonel is a military rank of VI class.
Belt-ensign (from the French porter Göröe - to wear a sword) - a military rank below the XIV class in 1798-1800. for non-commissioned officers from the nobility (in the infantry); from 1865 - cadet (see), performing non-commissioned officer duties.
Belt cadet - military rank below class XIV in 1798-1802. for non-commissioned officers from the nobility (in artillery and light cavalry); since the 1860s to 1880 - graduate of the cadet school - candidate officer.
Lieutenant (polek. porucznik - guarantor, assistant commander) - a naval rank in the 18th century: initially - X class, from 1764 - IX class (from 1797 - lieutenant).
Lieutenant - military rank of the XII class, since 1884 - X class.
Honorary Citizen is an honorary title established in 1832.
Honorary guardian is an honorary title equivalent to the third class of civil service.
Ensign (from Old Orthodox prapor. - banner; bouquet, bannerman, standard bearer) - military rank of the XIV class, since 1884 - XIII class (assigned to reserve officers in wartime).
Excellency is a general title for ranks of III-IV classes.
Predicate title (from Latin praedicatum; bouquet, explanation of an object, judgment) is the usual generally accepted form of address and name (for example, master, sir, etc.).
Premier Major (French premier - first) - in 1731-1798. the upper stage of a Class VIII military chip.
Eminence is the general title of bishops.
Reverence is the general title of priests, protodeacons and deacons.
The court cavalier is usually a chamberlain (q.v.) and a chamberlain cadet (q.v.).
Provincial Secretary is a civil rank of Class XIII.
Proto... (Greek protos - first) - the initial part of the names of some clergy titles.
Protodeacon is a private title for the white clergy.
Archpriest is the highest private title of the white clergy.
Protopresbyter (Greek protos presbyteros - oldest) is the highest private title of the white clergy.

Family title - a private or general title by origin (for example, baron, count, prince).
Rotmister (German: Rittmeister - chief of knights) - a military rank in cavalry units: until 1884 - IX, from 1884 - VIII class, corresponding to captain.

The Most Serene Prince is a private family title.
Lordship is the general title of the most serene princes (princesses, princesses), and since 1886 - also of princes, princesses and princesses of imperial blood.
His Majesty's retinue Major General is a retinue rank assigned to persons who had military ranks of the IV class.
His Majesty's Retinue Rear Admiral is a retinue rank assigned to persons who had naval ranks of the IV class.
Priesthood is the general title of priests and archdeacons.
Seconds (from Latin secundus - second) - an integral part of the names of some military ranks.
Second major - in 1731-1798. the lowest level of the VIII class military rank.
Second lieutenant see Second Lieutenant.
Second captain - in 1730-1797. military rank VIII class in the cavalry units of the guard; corresponded to a captain-lieutenant of the guard.
Senator is a civil honorary title and position.
Lordship is a common title for princes (princesses, princesses) and counts (countesses),
Sotnik - military rank in the Cossack troops: in 1798-1884. - XII, from 1884 -X class, corresponded to a lieutenant.
Senior lieutenant - naval rank: in 1909-1911. - IX, since 1912 - VIII class.
Stats- (from German Staat - state) is the initial part of the names of some civil and court ranks and titles, meaning state or civilian (civilian).
State lady is a court title for ladies.
State Councilor is a civil rank of class V.
His Majesty's Secretary of State is the highest civilian honorary title.
Sudar is a private predicate title (usual nameless form of address).

Privy Councilor is a third class civil rank.
Tafeldekker (German: Tafeldecker - setting the table) - rank of the XII class “at the highest court.”
Title by merit (by origin) see Family title. Predicate title, see Predicate title. For titling, see General title, Particular title.

Unter- (German unter - below) - the initial part of the names of some ranks and titles.
Non-commissioned lieutenant - naval rank of the XII class until 1764.
Non-commissioned lieutenant - military rank XII class according to the “Table of Ranks”; see Second Lieutenant.
Non-commissioned officer ranks are military ranks below class XIV.

Fanen-junker (from German Fahne - banner) - a military rank below XTV class in dragoon regiments for non-commissioned officers from the nobility in 1798-1802.
Field Marshal see Field Marshal General.
Fendrick (German: Fahnrich - lit., flag bearer) - military rank of XTV class according to the “Table of Ranks”.
Wing adjutant (German: Flugeladjutant, from Flttgel - wing) is a junior retinue rank assigned to headquarters and chief officers of the army and navy.
Maid of honor (German Fraulein - unmarried woman, young lady) - a junior court rank for girls.
Fourier (French fourrier, from Latin fodrum - feed) - a court rank in charge of the household of the court; see Gough-Fourier, Chamber-Fourier.

Cornet (Polish chorazy, from choragiew - banner, banner) - military rank in the Cossack troops: in 1798-1884. -XIII class, corresponded to a warrant officer; from 1884 - XII class, corresponding to a second lieutenant.

Master of Ceremonies - court rank V class.
Tsarevich (in common parlance - prince) see Heir Tsarevich.
Tsesarevna is a private title for the heir to the throne and the wife of the crown prince.

A private title is a verbal designation of position, rank, rank and nobility of origin.
Member of the State Council is a civil rank and position.

Schoutbenacht (from Dutch schaut bij nacht; lit., “look at night”) - the original name of the IV class naval rank; in the first half of the 18th century. received a new name - rear admiral (see).
Schichtmeister (from German Schichte - shift of workers; Schichtmeister - shift supervisor) is a mining rank of the XIII and XIV classes.
Staff officer ranks - military and civilian ranks of classes VI-VIII.
Staff captain - military rank: in 1797-1884. - X, s
1884 - IX class.
Staff captain - military rank in cavalry units: in 1797-1884. - X, from 1884 - IX class, corresponded to staff captain.
Rallymaster (German: Stallmeister - head of the stable) - court rank of the III class.
Bayonet-junker (from German Stuck - gun) - military rank of the XIII class in artillery in 1712-1796.

Estandart-junker (from German Standarte - banner) - a military rank below the XIV class, in 1798-1802. - for non-commissioned officers from the nobility (in the cavalry); in 1880-1903 - graduate of the cadet cavalry school - candidate officer.

Junker (German Junker - young nobleman) - military rank below XTV class from 1802 to the 1860s. for non-commissioned officers from the nobility; since the 1860s. - student of the cadet school.

4. Estate, rank, rank, title.

4.1. Basic provisions O estates Russian empires.

From the creation of the Russian centralized state until 1917, there were estates in Russia, the boundaries between which, as well as their rights and obligations, were legally defined and regulated by the government. Initially, in the XVI-XVII centuries. in Rus' there were relatively numerous class groups with a poorly developed corporate organization and not very clear distinctions between themselves in rights.

Subsequently, during the course of Peter's reforms, as well as as a result of the legislative activities of the successors of Peter I, especially Catherine II, the consolidation of estates took place, the formation of estate-corporate organizations and institutions, and inter-class partitions became clearer. At the same time, the specificity of Russian society included broader opportunities for transition from one class to another than in many other European countries, including increasing class status through the civil service, as well as the widespread inclusion of representatives of the peoples who entered Russia into the privileged classes.

After the reforms of the 1860s. class differences began to gradually smooth out, and after the February Revolution of 1917, the issue of abolishing classes was put on the agenda and was being prepared by the Provisional Government. The all-class character of the future Russian republic was to be determined by the Constituent Assembly. But back in August 1917, the previous procedure for entering information about class origin into metric birth records was confirmed, up to the legislative resolution of the issue.

The official abolition of estates was carried out by the Bolsheviks.

All classes of the Russian Empire were divided into privileged And taxes . The differences between them were the rights to civil service and ranks, the rights to participate in public administration, the rights to self-government, the rights to trial and serving sentences, the rights to property and commercial and industrial activities, and, finally, the rights to receive education.

The class position of each Russian subject was determined by his origin (by birth), as well as his official position, education and occupation (property status), i.e. could vary depending on promotion in the state - military or civil - service, receipt of an order for official and non-official merits, graduation from a higher educational institution, the diploma of which gave the right to move to the upper class, and successful commercial and industrial activities. For women, increasing class status was also possible through marriage to a representative of a higher class.

The state encouraged the inheritance of professions, which was manifested in the desire to provide the opportunity to receive special education at the expense of the treasury, primarily to the children of specialists in this field (mining engineers, for example). Since there were no strict boundaries between classes, their representatives could move from one class to another: with the help of service, rewards, education, or successful conduct of any business. For serfs, for example, sending their children to educational institutions meant a free fortune for them in the future.

The functions of protecting and certifying the rights and privileges of all classes belonged exclusively to the Senate. He considered cases of proof of class rights of individual persons and the transition from one state to another. Especially a lot of work has been postponed in the Senate fund for the protection of the rights of the nobility. He examined evidence and asserted the rights to noble dignity and honorary titles of princes, counts and barons, issued charters, diplomas and other acts certifying these rights, compiled coats of arms and armorials of noble families and cities; was in charge of cases of promotion for length of service to civil ranks up to the fifth grade inclusive. Since 1832, the Senate was entrusted with the assignment of honorary citizenship (personal and hereditary) and the issuance of corresponding diplomas and certificates.

The Senate also exercised control over the activities of noble deputy assemblies, city, merchant, petty bourgeois and craft societies.

It is advisable to consider the main stages in the history of Russian estates, the methods of determining membership in them and the path to “co-assignment,” their rights and obligations separately for each estate.

4.2. Peasantry.

The peasantry, both in Muscovite Rus' and in the Russian Empire, was the lowest tax-paying class, constituting the overwhelming majority of the population. In 1721, various groups of the dependent population were combined into larger categories state-owned (state ), palace , monastic And landowners peasants At the same time, former black moss , yasak and so on. peasants. All of them were united by feudal dependence directly on the state and the obligation to pay, along with the per capita tax, a special (at first four-hryvnia) fee, equated by law to owner's duties. The palace peasants were directly dependent on the monarch and members of his family. After 1797 they formed the category of so-called specific peasants Monastic peasants after secularization formed the category of so-called economic (since until 1782 they were subordinate to the College of Economy). Not fundamentally different from the state ones, paying the same duties and governed by the same government officials, they stood out among the peasants for their prosperity. In number proprietary (landowner) peasants included both peasants themselves and slaves, and the position of these two categories in the 18th century. became so close that all differences disappeared. Among the landowner peasants there were differences arable peasants, corvée And quitrent , And yard , but the transition from one group to another depended on the will of the owner.

All peasants were assigned to their place of residence and their community, paid a poll tax and sent conscription and other natural duties, and were subject to corporal punishment. The only guarantees of the landowner peasants from the arbitrariness of the owners was that the law protected their lives (the right of corporal punishment belonged to the owner); since 1797, a law on three-day corvee was in force, which formally did not limit corvee to 3 days, but in practice, as a rule, was applied. In the first half of the 19th century. There were also rules prohibiting the sale of serfs without a family, the purchase of peasants without land, etc. For state peasants, the opportunities were somewhat greater: the right to become burghers and register as merchants (if available dismissal evidence ), the right to resettle to new lands (with the permission of local authorities, in case of land shortage). After the reforms of the 1860s. the communal organization of the peasantry was preserved with mutual responsibility, a ban on leaving the place of residence without a temporary passports and the prohibition to change place of residence and enroll in other classes without dismissal from the community. The poll tax, which was abolished only in the beginning, remained a sign of the class inferiority of the peasants. XX century, their jurisdiction in minor cases to a special volost court, which retained, even after the abolition of corporal punishment under general law, the rod as a measure of punishment, and in a number of administrative and judicial cases - to zemstvo chiefs. After peasants received the right to freely leave the community and the right to private ownership of land in 1906, their class isolation decreased.

An important document containing genealogical information was family lists , which were compiled for persons of the tax-paying classes (peasants and burghers). They were conducted since 1858 by state chambers and volost boards. They acquired particular importance in connection with the new charter on military service dated January 1, 1874, which abolished the recruitment system and prescribed the compilation of draft lists of persons of tax-paying classes according to family lists. Since that time, every year parish priests verified peasant family lists with metric books, and since 1885 this responsibility was assigned to volost elders and clerks, therefore lists of male persons who turned 20 years old in the next year, with information about the composition of their families were postponed to the volost government. Inventory books of appanage peasants are stored in the Russian State Historical Archive. F. 515.

Once compiled, the family list was supplemented with new information over the years, and when making new amendments became difficult, a new one was created. Therefore, in the funds of the volost boards you can find 3-4 family lists.

The family list form, printed in a typographical way, had 11 columns. It is in many ways similar to the form for the revision tale of 7-10 revisions.

Column 1 indicated the N family in order, and the 2nd column indicated the N family according to the last revision tale. Columns 3-8 were filled in with information about the male part of the family. Column 3: nickname (or surname), name and patronymic of the head of the family and the names of his sons, grandchildren, brothers and sons who lived together. Columns 4-6 showed the age of men (year, month and birthday) - as of January 1 of the current year. Column 7 included information about the year in which the family member died, the name and number of years of the newly born person. Column 8 indicated the beginning of entry into active service, its end, transfer to the reserve, etc. Column 9 indicated the names and patronymics of wives (who is the husband) and the names of daughters. Column 10 indicated the facts of marriage and death of women.

4.3. Philistinism.

The petty bourgeoisie - the main urban tax-paying class in the Russian Empire - originates from the townspeople of Moscow Rus', united in the black hundreds and settlements. The townspeople were assigned to their city societies, which they could leave only for temporary reasons. passports, and transfer to others - with the permission of the authorities. They paid a poll tax, were subject to conscription and corporal punishment, did not have the right to enter public service, and when entering military service they did not enjoy the rights of volunteers.

Petty trade, various crafts, and hired work were allowed for the townspeople. To engage in crafts and trade, they had to enroll in guilds and guilds.

The organization of the bourgeois class was finally established in 1785. In each city they formed a bourgeois society, elected bourgeois councils or bourgeois elders and their assistants (governments were introduced in 1870).

In the middle of the 19th century. The townspeople are exempt from corporal punishment, and since 1866 - from the poll tax.

Belonging to the petty bourgeois class was hereditary. Registration as a bourgeois was open to persons obliged to choose a type of life, to state (after the abolition of serfdom - to all) peasants, but to the latter only upon dismissal from society and permission from the authorities.

4.4. Shop (artisans).

Guilds as corporations of persons engaged in the same craft were established under Peter I. For the first time, the guild organization was established by the Instructions to the Chief Magistrate and the rules on registration in guilds. Subsequently, the rights of the guild workers were clarified and confirmed by the Craft and City Regulations under Catherine II.

Guild workers were given preferential rights to engage in certain types of crafts and sell their products. To engage in these crafts by persons of other classes, they were required to temporarily register in a workshop and pay the appropriate fees. Without registration in the workshop, it was impossible to open a craft establishment, employ workers and have a sign.

Thus, all persons registered in the workshop were divided into temporary and permanent workshop members. For the latter, belonging to a guild also meant class affiliation. Only eternal guild members had full guild rights.

After spending 3 to 5 years as apprentices, they could enroll as journeymen, and then, after presenting a sample of their work and its approval by the guild (craft) council, become a master. For this they received special evidence . Only masters had the right to open establishments with hired workers and keep apprentices.

Jewish artisans were taken into account in separate statements. Statement O Jews , masters And artisans contained: last name, first name, patronymic, place of residence, marital status, degree of relationship, ownership of land and real estate. Records were kept in the craft councils.

The guilds belonged to the tax-paying classes and were subject to poll tax, conscription and corporal punishment.

Belonging to a guild was acquired at birth and upon enrollment in a guild, and was also passed on by husband to wife. But the children of the guilds, having reached adulthood, had to enroll as students, journeymen, masters, and otherwise they became petty bourgeois.

The guilds had their own corporate class organization. Each workshop had its own council (in small towns, since 1852, workshops could unite and be subordinated to the craft council). The guilds elected craft leaders, guild (or managerial) foremen and their comrades, elected apprentices and attorneys. Elections were to take place annually.

4.5. Merchants.

In Muscovite Rus', merchants stood out from the general mass of townspeople, divided into guests, merchants of the Gostinaya and Cloth hundreds in Moscow and the “best people” in the cities, and the guests constituted the most privileged elite of the merchants.

Peter I, having singled out the merchants from the general mass of townspeople, introduced their division into guilds and city self-government. In 1724, the principles for assigning merchants to a particular guild were formulated: “In 1st guilds noble merchants who have large markets and who sell various goods in rows, city doctors, pharmacists and healers, ship industrialists. In 2nd guilds who sell small goods and all kinds of food supplies, people who trade in crafts of all sorts of skills, and others like that; others, namely: all the vile people who find themselves in hired jobs, in menial jobs and the like, although they are citizens and are counted in citizenship, they are only not counted among noble and regular citizens."

But the guild structure of the merchants, as well as the bodies of city self-government, acquired its final form under Catherine II. On March 17, 1775, it was established that merchants with a capital of more than 500 rubles should be divided into 3 guilds and pay 1% of their declared capital to the treasury, and be free from the poll tax. On May 25 of the same year it was clarified that in third guild merchants must be recorded who declared their capital from 500 to 1000 rubles, in second- from 1000 to 10000 rubles, in first more than 10,000 rub. At the same time, “the announcement of capital is left to the voluntary indication of everyone’s conscience.” Those who could not declare a capital of at least 500 rubles for themselves did not have the right to be called merchants and register in the guild. Subsequently, the size of the guild capital increased. In 1785, capital was set for the 3rd guild from 1 to 5 thousand rubles, for the 2nd - from 5 to 10 thousand rubles, for the 1st - from 10 to 50 thousand rubles. , in 1794, respectively, from 2 to 8 thousand rubles, from 8 to 16 thousand rubles. and from 16 to 50 thousand rubles. , in 1807 - from 8 to 10 thousand rubles, from 20 to 50 thousand and more than 50 thousand rubles.

The certificate of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire confirmed that “whoever declares more capital is given a place before the one who declares less capital.” Another, even more effective means of encouraging merchants to declare large amounts of capital (within the guild norm) was the provision that in government contracts “trust” is reflected in proportion to the declared capital.

Depending on the guild, merchants enjoyed different privileges and had different rights to carry out trade and trade. All merchants could pay appropriate money instead of recruitment. Merchants of the first two guilds were exempt from corporal punishment. Merchants of the 1st guild had the right to foreign and domestic trade, the 2nd - to internal trade, the 3rd - to petty trade.

cities and counties. Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds had the right to travel around the city in pairs, and

3rd - only on one horse.

Persons of other classes could sign up in the guild on a temporary basis and, by paying guild duties, maintain their class status.

On October 26, 1800, nobles were prohibited from enrolling in guilds and enjoying benefits assigned to merchants alone, but on January 1, 1807, the right of nobles to enroll in guilds was restored.

On March 27, 1800, to encourage merchants who distinguished themselves in trading activities, the title was established commerce advisor , equivalent to the 8th grade of civil service, and then manufactories -advisor with similar rights. On January 1, 1807, the honorary title was also introduced first-class merchants , which included merchants of the 1st guild, conducting only wholesale trade. Merchants who had both wholesale and retail trade or who held farms and contracts were not entitled to this title. First-class merchants had the right to travel around the city in pairs or quadruples, and even had the right to come to the court (but only in person, without family members).

The Manifesto of November 14, 1824 established new rules and benefits for the merchants. In particular, the right to engage in banking, enter into government contracts for any amount, etc. was confirmed for merchants of the 1st guild. The right of merchants of the 2nd guild to trade abroad was limited to 300 thousand rubles. per year, and for the 3rd guild such trade was prohibited. Contracts and farm-outs, as well as private contracts for merchants of the 2nd guild, were limited to 50 thousand rubles, and banking was prohibited. For merchants of the 3rd guild, the right to establish factories was limited to light industry and the number of employees up to 32. It was confirmed that a merchant of the 1st guild, engaged only in wholesale or foreign trade, is called a first-class merchant or merchant Those engaged in banking could also be called b anchors . Those who spent 12 consecutive years in the 1st guild received the right to be awarded the title of commerce or manufacturing advisor. At the same time, it was emphasized that “monetary donations and concessions on contracts do not give the right to be awarded ranks and orders” - this required special merit, for example, in the field of charity. Merchants of the 1st guild, who had been in it for less than 12 years, also had the right to request the enrollment of their children in the civil service as chief officer children, as well as their admission to various educational institutions, including universities, without dismissal from society . Merchants of the 1st guild received the right to wear the uniforms of the province in which they were registered. The manifesto emphasized: “In general, the merchants of the 1st guild are not considered a taxable state, but constitute a special class of honorable people in the state.” It was also noted here that merchants of the 1st guild are required to accept only positions city goals And assessors chambers (judicial ), conscientious ships And orders public charity , and deputies trade And directors banks and their offices and church prefects , and have the right to refuse election to all other public positions; for merchants of the 2nd guild, positions were added to this list burgomasters , Ratmanov And members shipping reprisals , for the 3rd - city prefects , members six-vowel doom , deputies at different places. All other city positions had to be elected by the burghers, unless the merchants were willing to accept them.

On January 1, 1863, a new guild structure was introduced. Trade and crafts became available to persons of all classes without registration in the guild, subject to payment of all trade and trade certificates, but without class guild rights. At the same time, wholesale trade was classified in the 1st guild, and retail trade in the 2nd. Merchants of the 1st guild had the right to universally engage in wholesale and retail trade, contracts and deliveries without restrictions, maintenance of plants and factories, 2nd - to retail trade at the place of registration, maintenance of factories, factories and craft establishments, contracts and supplies in the amount no more than 15 thousand rubles. At the same time, the owner of a factory or factory with machines or more than 16 workers had to take a guild certificate of at least the 2nd guild, and joint-stock companies - of the 1st guild.

Thus, belonging to the merchant class was determined by the amount of declared capital. Merchant children and unseparated brothers, as well as the wives of merchants belonged to the merchant class (they were registered as one certificate ). Merchant widows and orphans retained this right, but without engaging in trade. Merchant children who had reached adulthood had to

department again sign up to the guild for a separate certificate or became bourgeois. Unseparated merchant children and brothers were to be called not merchants, but merchants sons etc. The transition from guild to guild and from merchants to burghers was free. The transition of merchants from city to city was permitted provided that there were no arrears in guild and city dues and no taking dismissal evidence . The entry of merchant children into public service (except for the children of merchants of the 1st guild) was not allowed unless such a right was acquired by education.

The corporate class organization of the merchants existed in the form of annually elected merchant elders and their assistants, whose duties included maintaining guild lists , concern for the benefits and needs of the merchants, etc. This position was considered in the 14th grade of the civil service. Since 1870, merchant elders were approved by governors.

Belonging to the merchant class was combined with belonging to honorary citizenship.

4.6. Clergy.

The clergy was considered a privileged, honorable class in Russia in all periods of its history.

The Orthodox clergy was divided into black (all monastics) and white , and the latter belonged as a matter of fact clergy (protopresbyters And archpriests , elders , priests , protodeacons And subdeacons , and clerks in rank psalmists ), and churchly -ministers (sexton , sextons etc.). Since the black clergy, as monks who renounced the world, could not have property, had no offspring, or ceased all civil ties with children, parents and all relatives, and persons of the upper classes who entered monasticism could not enjoy any class privileges, talk about the clergy as class group can be primarily applied to the white clergy.

In the 18th century the financial position of the parish clergy in the countryside was only slightly higher than that of wealthy peasants, and in the city it was comparable to the position of the lower part of the bureaucracy and the bulk of the townspeople (with the exception of the clergy of cathedrals and, of course, the court clergy). At the same time, the practice (not formally legalized by any civil code or church canon) of the actual inheritance of church parishes was established, when the diocesan bishop, upon retiring, assigned the parish priest, according to petition the latter, the place belongs to his son or son-in-law. As a result, the applicant could most often receive a parish by marrying a priest’s daughter, for which purpose even lists brides and recommendations were given to those interested.

At the same time, the principle of the need for spiritual education to occupy a clergy position, enshrined in the Spiritual Regulations, was finally established.

From the very beginning, the clergy was free from state taxes, primarily from the poll tax, the recruitment tax (from the moment of its establishment until the introduction of universal conscription), and from 1874 - military service and military registration. But the freedom of clergy (priests and deacons) from corporal punishment was proclaimed only in 1747.

Persons of clergy rank were deprived of the right to own serfs (before secularization, this right was exercised corporately by monasteries, bishops' houses and even some churches), but for priests who joined the clergy from the nobility, as well as those who received orders, this right was recognized. The clergy could own uninhabited lands and houses. When owning houses for clergy, there was one restriction: taverns and drinking establishments could not be located in these houses. Clergymen could not engage in contracts and supplies and act as guarantors for them. In general, persons of clergy rank were prohibited from engaging in trades “uncharacteristic of them,” which entailed their inclusion in the trade category (i.e., registration in guilds and workshops). This prohibition was in the same vein as the prohibition for the clergy to attend “games”, play cards, etc.

Belonging to the clergy class was acquired at birth and upon entry into the ranks of the white clergy from other classes. In principle, the law allowed the entry into the clergy of persons of all classes, except for serfs who had not received a leave of absence from their owners, but persons of the tax-paying classes could join the ranks of the clergy only with certification from the local diocesan authorities about the lack of persons of clergy rank to fill the corresponding position, with “approval” behavior and if there is dismissal evidence from peasant or urban society. The transition to the white clergy of persons of the noble class until the beginning. XX century was uncharacteristic for Russia, but this practice was quite common in Ukraine.

Children of clergy and clergy inherited their class affiliation and did not have to choose their own line of life upon reaching adulthood, but those who remained with their fathers until the age of 15 without going to theological schools and appropriate training, or who were expelled from theological schools for lack of understanding and laziness, were excluded from the clergy. and had to choose their kind of life, i.e. sign up to any community of the tax-paying class - bourgeois or peasant - or sign up into merchants. The children of clergymen who voluntarily evaded the clergy also had to choose their type of life. For the "excess" children of the clergy, so-called " reviews ", under which the children of clergy, not recorded anywhere and not identified anywhere, were given up as soldiers. This practice finally stopped only in the 60s of the 19th century.

Children of the clergy had the right (and initially this right also meant an obligation) to receive an education in theological schools. Graduates of theological seminaries and theological academies might wish to choose a secular career for themselves. To do this, they had to resign from the spiritual department. Those born into the clergy, when entering the civil service, enjoyed the same rights as the children of personal nobles, but this only applied to clergy children. When entering - voluntarily or by examination - into military service, children of the clergy who graduated from the secondary department of the seminary and were not dismissed from the seminary for vices enjoyed the rights volunteer . But for persons who voluntarily resigned from the priesthood and wished to enter the civil service, such entry was prohibited for priests for 10 years after the removal of the priesthood, and for deacons - 6 years.

In practice, the most common option for changing class status for children of the clergy in the 18th - early. XIX centuries There was entry into the civil service as clerical servants before reaching the first class rank, and later - into universities and other educational institutions. Prohibition in 1884

Seminary graduates entering universities significantly limited this path of class and social mobility of the clergy. At the same time, the greater openness of religious educational institutions (according to the statutes of 1867 and 1884) for persons of all classes contributed, as well as the formal prohibition of inheritance of parishes, to greater openness of the clergy.

The wives of clergymen adopted their class affiliation and retained it after the death of their husbands (until their second marriage).

Persons who belonged to the Orthodox clergy were subject to trial by the ecclesiastical department.

Evidence of belonging to the clergy was metric evidence , clear statements compiled in consistories, as well as henchmen diplomas .

The clergy did not have a special corporate class organization, except for the beginnings of such an organization in the form of diocesan congresses and attempts to introduce it in the early 60s. 80s XIX century election of deans. Inherited at birth, belonging to the clergy class was preserved upon reaching adulthood only upon entering a clergy position. Belonging to the clergy could be combined with innate or acquired (for example, by order) rights of nobility and honorary citizenship.

In Russia, clergy of the Armenian-Gregorian Church enjoyed rights basically similar to the Orthodox clergy.

There was no question regarding the class affiliation and special class rights of the Roman Catholic clergy, due to mandatory celibacy in the Catholic Church.

The Protestant clergy enjoyed the rights of honorary citizens.

Clergy of non-Christian confessions either received honorary citizenship after a certain period of fulfillment of their duties (Muslim clergy), or did not have any special class rights other than those that belonged to them by birth (Jewish clergy), or enjoyed the rights specified in special provisions on foreigners (Lamaist clergy).

4.7. Nobility.

The main privileged class of the Russian Empire was finally formed in the 18th century. Its basis was formed by the privileged class groups of the so-called " servicemen By to the fatherland ranks " (i.e. by origin). The highest of them were the so-called " thoughtful ranks " - thoughtful boyars , okolnichy , nobles And thoughtful clerks , and membership in each of the listed class groups was determined both by origin and by completion of “government service.” It was possible to achieve boyarhood by serving, for example, from Moscow nobles. At the same time, not a single son of a Duma boyar began his service directly with this rank - he first had to be at least a stolnik. Then they walked ranks Moscow : stewards , solicitors , nobles Moscow And tenants . They went below Moscow policemen ranks : nobles elected (or choice) children boyars yard And children boyars policemen . They differed from each other not only in their “fatherland,” but also in the nature of their service and their financial status. Duma officials headed the state apparatus. Moscow officials carried out court service, formed the so-called “sovereign regiment” (a kind of guard), and were appointed to leadership positions in the army and local administration. All of them had significant estates or were endowed with estates near Moscow. Elected nobles were sent in turn to serve at court and in Moscow, and also served “long-distance service,” i.e. went on long hikes and carried out administrative duties far from the county in which their estates were located. Children boyars yard also carried out long-distance service. Children boyars policemen due to their financial status, they could not perform long-distance service. They carried out city or siege service, forming garrisons of their district cities.

All these groups were distinguished by the fact that they inherited their service (and could move up through it) and had hereditary estates, or, upon reaching adulthood, they acquired estates, which were the reward for their service.

The intermediate class groups included the so-called servicemen People By device , i.e. recruited or mobilized by the government in Sagittarius , gunners , creators , reiters , spearmen etc., and their children could also inherit the service of their fathers, but this service was not privileged and did not provide opportunities for hierarchical elevation. A monetary reward was given for this service. Land (during the border service) was given to the so-called “vochye dachas”, i.e. not on an estate, but as if in communal ownership. At the same time, at least in practice, their ownership by slaves and even peasants was not excluded.

Another intermediate group were clerks different categories, which formed the basis of the bureaucratic machine of the Moscow state, who entered the service voluntarily and received monetary compensation for their service.

Service people were free from taxes, which fell with all their weight on taxing people, but none of them, from the city son of a boyar to the Duma boyar, was exempt from corporal punishment and at any moment could be deprived of their rank, all rights and property. “Sovereign service” was mandatory for all service people and it was possible to be released from it only due to illness, wounds and old age.

The only title available in Muscovite Rus' was prince - did not provide any special advantages other than the title itself and often did not mean either a high position on the career ladder or large land ownership.

Belonging to service people in the fatherland - nobles and boyar children - was recorded in the so-called tens , i.e. lists of service people compiled during their reviews, debriefings And layout , as well as in dated books Local order, which indicated the size of estates given to service people.

The essence of Peter's reforms in relation to the noble class was that, firstly, all categories of service people in the fatherland merged into one "noble gentry class", and each member of this class was equal from birth to everyone else, and all differences were determined by the difference in

position on the career ladder, according to the Table of Ranks, secondly, the acquisition of nobility by the service was legalized and formally regulated (nobility gave the first chief officer rank in military service and the rank of 8th class - collegiate assessor - in civilian service), thirdly , every member of this class

was obliged to be in the public service, military or civil, until old age or loss of health; fourthly, the correspondence of military and civilian ranks was established, unified in the table of ranks; fifthly, all differences between estates were finally eliminated as a form of conditional possessions and estates on the basis of a single right of inheritance and a single duty to serve. Numerous small intermediate groups of the "old services of people" were, in one decisive act, deprived of their privileges and assigned to the state peasants.

The nobility was, first of all, a service class with formal equality of all members of this class and a fundamentally open character, which made it possible to include into the ranks of the class the most successful representatives of the lower classes in public service.

Titles: native to Russia princely title and new - count's And baronial - only honorary family names mattered and, apart from the rights to title, they did not provide any special rights and privileges to their bearers.

The special privileges of the nobility in relation to the court and the procedure for serving sentences were not formally legalized, but rather existed in practice. Nobles were not exempt from corporal punishment.

With regard to property rights, the most important privilege of the nobility was the monopoly on the ownership of inhabited estates and households, although this monopoly was not yet sufficiently regulated and absolute.

The realization of the privileged position of the nobility in the field of education was the establishment in 1732 of the Corps of Gentry.

Finally, all the rights and benefits of the Russian nobility were formalized by the Charter of the Nobility, approved by Catherine II on April 21, 1785.

This act formulated the very concept of the nobility as a hereditary privileged service class. It established the procedure for acquiring and proving nobility, its special rights and benefits, including freedom from taxes and corporal punishment, as well as from compulsory service. This act established a noble corporate organization with local noble elected bodies. And Catherine's provincial reform of 1775, somewhat earlier, assigned to the nobility the right to elect candidates for a number of local administrative and judicial positions.

The charter granted to the nobility finally consolidated the monopoly of this class on the ownership of “serf souls.” The same act for the first time legalized such a category as personal nobles. The basic rights and privileges granted to the nobility by the Charter remained, with some clarifications and changes, in force until the reforms of the 1860s, and, in a number of provisions, until 1917.

4.7.1. Acquisition And confirmation rights nobility.

Hereditary nobility , by the very meaning of the definition of this class, was inherited and, thus, acquired by the descendants of nobles at birth. Women of non-noble origin acquired nobility upon marriage to a nobleman. However, they did not lose their rights of nobility upon entering into a second marriage in the event of widowhood. At the same time, women of noble origin did not lose their noble dignity when marrying a non-nobleman, although the children from such a marriage inherited their father’s class affiliation.

The table of ranks determined the order acquisitions nobility service : achieving the first chief officer rank in military service and the rank of 8th class in civilian service. On May 18, 1788, it was prohibited to assign hereditary nobility to persons who received the military rank of chief officer upon retirement, but did not serve in this rank. The Manifesto of July 11, 1845 raised the bar for achieving nobility by service: from now on, hereditary nobility was awarded only to those who received the first staff officer rank in military service (major, 8th class), and in the civil service the rank of 5th class (state councilor ), and these ranks had to be received in active service, and not upon retirement. Personal nobility was assigned in military service to those who received the rank of chief officer, and

for civilians - ranks from 9th to 6th grade (from titular to collegiate adviser). From December 9, 1856, hereditary nobility in military service began to bring the rank of colonel (captain of the 1st rank in the navy), and in civilian service - full state councilor.

The charter granted to the nobility indicated another source of acquisition noble dignity - awarding one from Russian orders .

On October 30, 1826, the State Council decided in its opinion that “in defiance of misunderstandings about the ranks and orders most graciously bestowed upon persons of the merchant class,” henceforth such awards should only be given to personal, and not hereditary, nobility.

On February 27, 1830, the State Council confirmed that the children of non-noble officials and clergy who received orders, born before their fathers were granted this award, enjoy the rights of the nobility, as well as the children of merchants who received orders before October 30, 1826.

But according to the new statute of the Order of St. Anne, approved on July 22, 1845, the rights of hereditary nobility were granted only to those awarded the 1st degree of this order; by decree of June 28, 1855, the same restriction was established for the Order of St. Stanislaus. Thus, only the orders of St. Vladimir (except for merchants) and St. George gave all degrees the right to hereditary nobility. From May 28, 1900, the right to hereditary nobility began to be given only by the Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd degree.

Another limitation on the right to receive nobility by order was the procedure according to which hereditary nobility was awarded only to those awarded orders for active service, and not for non-official distinctions, for example, for charity.

From time to time, a number of other restrictions arose: for example, the prohibition to classify among the hereditary nobility ranks of the former Bashkir army who were awarded any orders, representatives of the Roman Catholic clergy who were awarded the Order of St. Stanislav (the Orthodox clergy were not awarded this order), etc.

In 1900, persons of the Jewish confession were deprived of the right to acquire nobility through ranks in the service and the award of orders.

Grandsons of personal nobles (i.e., descendants of two generations of persons who received personal nobility and served for at least 20 years each) and eldest grandchildren could apply for elevation to hereditary nobility. eminent citizens (a title that existed from 1785 to 1807) upon reaching the age of 30, if their grandfathers, fathers and they themselves “retained their eminence immaculately,” as well as - according to tradition, not formalized by law - merchants of the 1st guild on the occasion 100th anniversary of their company. For example, the founders and owners of the Trekhgornaya manufactory, the Prokhorovs, received nobility.

Special rules applied to a number of intermediate groups. Since the number odnodvortsev impoverished descendants of ancient noble families also came in (under Peter I, some of them were registered as single-dvorets in order to avoid compulsory service), who had letters of nobility; on May 5, 1801, they were given the right to find and prove the noble dignity lost by their ancestors. But after 3 years, it was ordered to consider their evidence “with all rigor,” while ensuring that people who had lost it “for guilt and absence from service” were not admitted to the nobility. On December 28, 1816, the State Council recognized that mere proof of the presence of noble ancestors is not enough for members of the same palace; it is also necessary to achieve the nobility

res service For this purpose, members of the same palace, who presented evidence of their origin from a noble family, were given the right to enter military service with exemption from duties and promotion to the first chief officer rank after 6 years. After the introduction of universal military service in 1874, members of the same palace were given the right to restore the nobility lost by their ancestors (in the presence of appropriate evidence, confirmed by a certificate from the noble assembly of their province) by enlisting in military service as volunteers and receiving an officer rank in the general manner prescribed for volunteers.

In 1831 Polish gentry , who had not formalized the Russian nobility since the annexation of the Western provinces to Russia by presenting the evidence provided for by the Charter, was recorded as one-dvortsy or " citizens " .

On July 3, 1845, the rules regarding the return of noble status to single-lords were extended to persons who belonged to the former Polish gentry.

IN Cossack troops The hereditary nobility included:

For the Don Army - persons who received staff officer ranks on the basis of a report approved by Catherine II on February 14, 1775, military foremen, who, on the basis of this report, were considered ordinary juniors in front of army second majors and foremen in relation to captains, military officials,

recognized by the decree of September 22, 1798 as army ranks, persons promoted to military officer ranks after the decree of September 22, 1798 on comparing them with ranks with regular troops and before the decree of September 29, 1802, and, finally, persons promoted to military officer ranks after the decree of September 29, 1802 and before the manifesto of June 11, 1845;

According to the Ural Army - military officials recognized by the decree of April 9, 1799 as army ranks, persons promoted to military officer ranks after comparing their ranks with regular troops by the decree of April 9, 1799 before the decree of December 26, 1803 and after this decree until manifesto of June 11, 1845;

According to the Astrakhan Army - military officials, by the Regulations of May 7, 1817, compared in rank with regular troops, and persons promoted to military officer ranks after May 7, 1817 and before the manifesto of June 11, 1845;

According to the Orenburg Army - military officials, by the Regulations of December 12, 1840, compared in rank with regular troops, persons promoted to military officer ranks after December 12, 1840 and before the manifesto of June 11, 1845, as well as military officials of the former Orenburg thousandth Cossack regiment, compared with army ranks according to the “highest approved report” on June 8, 1803;

According to the Kuban Army (formerly Black Sea) - military officials who received army ranks according to the report approved by Alexander I on November 13, 1802, and persons who received military officer ranks after November 13, 1802 and before the manifesto of June 11, 1845;

According to the Tersky Army (formerly Caucasian Linear) - military officials, according to the Regulations of February 14, 1845, compared in rank with the army, and persons who received military officer ranks after the mentioned regulations and before the manifesto of June 11, 1845;

According to the Siberian Army (formerly the Siberian Linear) - persons who received active army ranks before the manifesto of June 11, 1845, and everyone who received the rank of colonel before the decree of December 6, 1849 or received the rank of military foreman for military exploits, as well as cavalry officers artillery company, renamed by decree of June 9, 1812 into army ranks or promoted to ranks before June 11, 1845, as well as persons who rose to the rank of military foreman after December 6, 1849, but before December 9, 1856.

According to the Don, Ural, Astrakhan, Orenburg, Kuban and Terek Cossack troops, the hereditary nobility also included persons who received actual army officer ranks before comparing the Cossack troops in rank with the regular troops, and all those who served from June 11, 1845 to December 9, 1856 to the rank of military foreman.

According to the Transbaikal Cossack army, in the Irkutsk and Yenisei Cossack cavalry regiments, as well as in the abolished Cossack troops that had no comparison in rank with the army - Azov and Novorossiysk, all persons who received actual army ranks before the manifesto of June 11, 1845 were classified as hereditary nobility ., everyone who rose to the rank of colonel or received the actual rank of military foreman for military exploits before December 9, 1856, and for the Novorossiysk army - promoted to military foreman from November 13, 1844 to February 23, 1848.

According to the abolished Bashkir army, persons who received active officer ranks in the service before May 14, 1863 were confirmed in the hereditary nobility according to the rules in force for the Transbaikal Cossack army.

Persons who had abolished Little Russian ranks were recognized as hereditary nobles: general baggage train , general judges , general treasure , general clerk , general Yesaula , general cornet , general sheepskin , colonel military board , bunchukova comrade , baggage train regimental Artillery board , Yesaula Artillery board , cornet Artillery G general Artillery board , regimental Yesaula , cornet And centurion

Military board , ataman Artillery general , military comrade regimental And clerk regimental Statsky board , and feeding , Zemsky judges And jurisdiction who received these ranks during the existence of hetman rule in Little Russia.

When new territories were annexed to Russia, the local nobility, as a rule, was included in the Russian nobility. This happened with the Tatar Murzas, Georgian princes, etc. For other peoples, nobility was achieved by receiving the corresponding military and civil ranks in the Russian service or Russian orders. So, for example, noyons and zaisangs of Kalmyks wandering in the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces (Don Kalmyks were enrolled in the Don Army and were subject to the procedure for obtaining nobility adopted for Don military ranks), upon receiving orders they enjoyed the rights of personal or hereditary nobility according to the general situation . The senior sultans of the Siberian Kirghiz could ask for hereditary nobility if they served in this rank by election for three triennia. Bearers of other honorary titles of the peoples of Siberia did not have special rights to nobility, unless the latter were awarded to one of them by separate charters or if they were not promoted to ranks conferring nobility.

Regardless of the method of obtaining hereditary nobility, all hereditary nobles in the Russian Empire enjoyed the same rights. The presence of a title did not give the holders of this title any special rights. The differences were only depending on the size of the real estate (until 1861 - inhabited estates). From this point of view, all nobles of the Russian Empire could be divided into 3 categories: 1) nobles included in genealogical books and owning real estate in the province; 2) nobles included in genealogical books, but not owning real estate; 3) nobles not included in genealogical books. Depending on the size of real estate ownership (until 1861 - on the number of serf souls) the degree of full participation of nobles in noble elections was determined. Participation in these elections and, in general, belonging to the noble society of a particular province or district depended on being included in the genealogical books of a particular province. Nobles

who owned real estate in the province were subject to entry into the genealogical books of this province, but entry into these books was carried out only by petitions these nobles. Therefore, many nobles who received their nobility through ranks and orders, as well as some foreign nobles who received the rights of the Russian nobility, were not recorded in the genealogical books of any provinces.

Only the first of the categories listed above enjoyed the full rights and benefits of the hereditary nobility, both as part of noble societies and individually belonging to each person. The second category enjoyed the full rights and benefits that belonged to each person, and the rights within noble societies to a limited extent. And finally, the third category enjoyed the rights and benefits of the nobility assigned to each individual and did not enjoy any rights as part of noble societies. Moreover, any person from the third category could, at his own request, move to the second or first category at any time, while the transition from the second category to the first and vice versa depended solely on his financial situation.

Every nobleman, especially non-employees, had to enroll in pedigree book the province where he had a permanent place of residence, if he owned any real estate in this province, even if this property was less significant than in other provinces. Nobles who had the necessary property qualifications in several provinces at once could be recorded in the genealogical books of all those provinces where they wished to participate in elections. At the same time, nobles who proved their nobility through their ancestors, but who did not have any real estate anywhere, were entered in the register of the province where their ancestors owned the estate. Those who received nobility by rank or order could be included in the book of that

provinces wherever they wish, regardless of whether they have real estate there. The same rule also applied to foreign nobles, but the latter were included in the genealogical books only after a preliminary presentation about them to the Department of Heraldry. The hereditary nobles of the Cossack troops were included: the Don Troops in the genealogical book of this army, and the remaining troops - in the genealogical books of those provinces and regions where these troops were located. When the nobles of the Cossack troops were entered into the genealogical books, their affiliation with these troops was indicated.

Personal nobles were not included in the genealogical books. The genealogical book was divided into six parts. IN first Part “classes of the nobility, granted or actual,” were included; in second Part - families of the military nobility; V third - families of nobility acquired in the civil service, as well as those who received the right of hereditary nobility by order; V fourth - all foreign births; V fifth - titled families; V sixth Part - "ancient noble noble families."

In practice, persons who received nobility through an order were also included in the first part, especially if this order complained outside the usual official order. Given the legal equality of all nobles, regardless of which part of the genealogical book they were recorded in, entry in the first part was considered less honorable than in the second and third, and all together the first three parts were considered less honorable than the fifth and sixth. The fifth part included families that had the Russian titles of barons, counts, princes and noble princes, and the Baltic barony meant belonging to an ancient family, a barony granted to a Russian family - its initially humble origin, occupation in trade and industry (barons Shafirovs, Stroganovs, etc. ). The title of count meant

especially high position and special imperial favor, the rise of the family in the 18th - early. XIX centuries, so that in other cases it was even more honorable than princely, not supported by the high position of the bearer of this title. In the XIX - early XX centuries The title of count was often given upon the resignation of a minister or as a sign of special royal favor towards the latter, as a reward. This is precisely the origin of the county of the Valuevs, Delyanovs, Wittes, Kokovtsovs. The princely title itself in the 18th - 19th centuries. did not mean a particularly high position and did not speak of anything other than the antiquity of the origin of the family. There were much more princely families in Russia than count families, and among them there were many Tatar and Georgian princes; there was even a family of Tungus princes - the Gantimurovs. The title testified to the greatest nobility and high position of the family the brightest princes , which distinguished the bearers of this title from other princes and gave the right to the title “Your Lordship” (ordinary princes, like counts, used the title “Your Excellency”, and barons were not given a special title).

The sixth part included families whose nobility numbered a century at the time of publication of the Charter, but due to the insufficient certainty of the law, when considering a number of cases, the hundred-year period was calculated according to the time of consideration of documents for nobility. In practice, most often, evidence for inclusion in the sixth part of the genealogical book was considered especially meticulously, while at the same time, entry into the second or third part did not encounter any obstacles (if there was appropriate evidence). Formally, recording in the sixth part of the genealogical book did not give any privileges, except for one single one: only the sons of nobles recorded in the fifth and sixth parts of the genealogical books were enrolled in the Corps of Pages, the Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum and the School of Law.

Evidence nobility were considered: d iplomas on grant of nobility dignity , complained from monarchs coats of arms , patents on ranks , proof awards of the order, evidence “through letters of commendation or letters of commendation”, decrees on award lands or villages , layout By noble service estates , decrees or diplomas on award their estates And fiefdoms , decrees or diplomas on complained villages And fiefdoms (even if they were subsequently lost by the family), decrees , orders or diplomas , data nobleman on embassy , messenger or other parcel, proof O noble service ancestors , proof , that the father and grandfather "led a noble life or fortune or service similar to the title of nobility", supported by the testimony of 12 people whose nobility there is no doubt, bills of sale , mortgages , in-line And spiritual O noble estate , proof that father and grandfather owned villages, as well as evidence" generational And hereditary , ascending from son To father , grandfather , great-grandfather and so on higher, as much as they can and wish to show" ( genealogy , generational murals ) .

The first instance for consideration of evidence of nobility was noble parliamentary meetings , consisting of deputies from district noble societies (one from the district) and the provincial leader of the nobility. The noble deputy assemblies considered the evidence presented for the nobility, conducted provincial pedigrees books and sent information and extracts from these books to the provincial boards and to the Department of Heraldry of the Senate, and also issued letters for the inclusion of noble families in the genealogical book, issued to nobles at their request lists With protocols , according to which their family is included in the genealogical book, or evidence O nobility . The rights of noble deputy assemblies were limited to the inclusion in the genealogical book of only those persons who had already irrefutably proven their nobility. Elevation to the nobility or restoration to the nobility was not within their competence. When considering evidence, noble parliamentary assemblies did not have the right to interpret or explain existing laws. They had to consider evidence only from those persons who owned or owned real estate in a given province themselves or through their wives. But retired military officers or officials who chose this province as their place of residence upon retirement could be freely entered into genealogy books by deputy assemblies themselves upon presentation of patents for ranks and certified service records or formal lists, as well as metric certificates for children approved by ecclesiastical consistories.

Pedigrees books were compiled in each province by the deputy assembly together with the provincial leader of the nobility. The district leaders of the nobility were alphabetical lists noble childbirth his district, indicating each nobleman’s first and last name, information about marriage, wife, children, real estate, place of residence, rank and whether he was in service or retired. These lists were submitted, signed by the district marshal of the nobility, to the provincial marshal. The deputy assembly was based on these lists when entering each clan into the genealogical book, and the decision on such entry had to be based on irrefutable evidence and made by no less than two-thirds of the votes.

Determinations of parliamentary assemblies were submitted for revision to the Department of Heraldry of the Senate, except for cases about persons. acquired nobility by way of service. When sending cases for revision to the Department of Heraldry, the noble deputy assemblies had to ensure that the pedigrees attached to these cases contained information for each person about evidence of his origin, and the metric certificates were certified in the consistory. The Department of Heraldry considered cases of nobility and genealogical books, considered rights to noble dignity and to the titles of princes, counts and barons, as well as to honorary citizenship, carried out issuance in the manner prescribed by law diploma , diplomas And evidence for these rights, considered cases of changing the surnames of nobles and honorary citizens, compiled an armorial of noble families and a city armorial, approved and compiled new noble coats of arms and issued copies of coats of arms and genealogies.

When considering cases of proof of nobility for certain localities and peoples (confessions), there was a special procedure. Thus, when considering cases of Greeks and Mohammedans seeking nobility, in case of insufficiency or absence of evidence required by general legislation, deputy assemblies were obliged to send their negative conclusions, without carrying them out and without announcing them to the petitioners, to the governor, who had the right, if, despite for lack of written evidence, the nobility of a given person “is beyond doubt, was announced by general and simultaneous fame among the people or proved by some special events,” send your ideas about this to the Minister of Justice, the latter submitted them for consideration to the State Council (to the Department of Civil and spiritual affairs).

4.8. Honorary citizenship.

The category of famous citizens included three groups townspeople : having merit on elective urban service (not included in the civil service system and not included in the Table of Ranks), scientists , artists , musicians (remember that until the end of the 18th century, neither the Academy of Sciences nor the Academy of Arts were included in the Table of Ranks system) and, finally, top merchants . Representatives of these three essentially heterogeneous groups were united by the fact that, not being able to achieve through public service, they could lay claim to certain class privileges personally and wanted to extend them to their offspring.

Eminent citizens were exempted from corporal punishment and conscription. They were allowed to have suburban courtyards and gardens (except for inhabited estates) and travel around the city in pairs and quadruples (the privilege of the “noble class”), they were not forbidden to own and operate factories, factories, sea and river vessels. The title of eminent citizens was inherited, which made them a distinct class group. The grandchildren of eminent citizens, whose fathers and grandfathers bore this title immaculately, upon reaching 30 years of age, could ask to be awarded the nobility.

This class category did not last long. On January 1, 1807, the title of eminent citizen for merchants was abolished “as confusing heterogeneous merits.” At the same time, it was left as a distinction for scientists and artists, but since by that time scientists were included in the civil service system, which gave personal and hereditary nobility, this title ceased to be relevant and practically disappeared.

On October 19, 1831, in connection with the “dissection” of the gentry, with the exclusion of a significant mass of small gentry from the number of nobles and their enrollment in single-dvorets and urban estates, those of them “who are involved in any scientific pursuits” - doctors, teachers, artists, etc., as well as those with legalized certificates for the title of lawyer, “to distinguish them from those engaged in petty-bourgeois crafts or those in service and other lower occupations” received the title honorary citizens . Then, on December 1, 1831, it was clarified that among artists, only painters, lithographers, engravers, etc. should be included in this title. stone and metal carvers, architects, sculptors, etc., who have a diploma or certificate from the academy.

By the manifesto of April 10, 1832, a new class was introduced throughout the empire honorary citizens , divided, like the nobles, into hereditary And personal . IN

the number of hereditary honorary citizens included children of personal nobles, children of persons who received the title of hereditary honorary citizen, i.e. born in this state, merchants awarded the titles of commerce and manufacturing advisors, merchants awarded (after 1826) one of the Russian orders, as well as merchants who spent 10 years in the 1st guild or 20 years in the 2nd and not falling into bankruptcy. Individuals who graduated from Russian universities, free artists, who graduated from the Academy of Arts or received a diploma for the title of artist of the Academy, foreign scientists, artists, as well as trading capitalists and owners of significant manufacturing and factory establishments, could apply for personal honorary citizenship, even if they did not were Russian subjects. Hereditary honorary citizenship could be complained about “for differences in the sciences” to persons who already have personal honorary citizenship, to persons who have doctoral or master’s degrees, to students of the Academy of Arts 10 years after its graduation “for differences in the arts” and to foreigners who have accepted Russian citizenship and who have stayed there for 10 years (if they previously received the title of personal honorary citizen).

The title of hereditary honorary citizen was inherited. The husband gave honorary citizenship to his wife if she belonged by birth to one of the lower classes, and the widow did not lose this title with the death of her husband.

Confirmation of hereditary honorary citizenship and the issuance of certificates for it were entrusted to the Heraldry.

Honorary citizens enjoyed freedom from the poll tax, from conscription, from standing and corporal punishment. They had the right to participate in city elections and be elected to public positions no lower than those to which merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds are elected. Honorary citizens had the right to use this name in all acts.

Honorary citizenship was lost by court in the event of malicious bankruptcy; Some rights of honorary citizens were lost when enrolling in craft guilds.

In 1833, it was confirmed that honorary citizens are not included in the general census, but special lists are kept for each city. Subsequently, the circle of persons who had the right to honorary citizenship was clarified and expanded.

In 1836, it was established that only university graduates who had received an academic degree upon graduation could apply for personal honorary citizenship. In 1839, the right to honorary citizenship was granted to artists of the imperial theaters (1st category, who served for a certain period of time on stage). In the same year, students of a higher commercial boarding school in St. Petersburg received this right (in person). In 1844, the right to receive honorary citizenship was extended to employees of the Russian-American Company (from classes not entitled to public service). In 1845, the right to hereditary honorary citizenship of merchants who received the Orders of St. Vladimir and St. Anna was confirmed. Since 1845, civil ranks from the 14th to the 10th grade began to bring hereditary honorary citizenship. In 1848, the right to receive honorary citizenship (personal) was extended to graduates of the Lazarev Institute. In 1849, doctors, pharmacists and veterinarians were considered honorary citizens. In the same year, the right to personal honorary citizenship was granted to graduates of gymnasiums and children of personal honorary citizens, merchants and townspeople. In 1849, personal honorary citizens were given the opportunity to enroll in military service as volunteers. In 1850, the right to be awarded the title of personal honorary citizen was granted to Jews serving on special assignments under governors general in the Pale of Settlement ("learned Jews under governors"). Subsequently, the rights of hereditary honorary citizens to enter the civil service were clarified, and the range of educational institutions, the completion of which gave the right to personal honorary citizenship, was expanded. In 1862, 1st category technologists and process engineers who graduated from the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology received the right to honorary citizenship. In 1865, it was established that from now on, merchants of the 1st guild were granted hereditary honorary citizenship after staying in it “consecutively” for at least 20 years. In 1866, the right to receive hereditary honorary citizenship was granted to merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds who bought estates in the Western provinces at a price of at least 15 thousand rubles.

Representatives of the top citizens and clergy of some peoples and localities of Russia were also included in honorary citizenship: Tiflis first-class Mokalaks, residents of the cities of Anapa, Novorossiysk, Poti, Petrovsk and Sukhum, on the recommendation of the authorities for special merits, zaisangs from

Kalmyks of the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces, who do not have ranks and own hereditary aimaks (hereditary honorary citizenship, who did not receive personal citizenship), Karaites who held the spiritual positions of Gahams (hereditary), Gazzans and Shamas (personally), etc. for at least 12 years.

As a result, at the beginning of the 20th century. hereditary honorary citizens by birth included the children of personal nobles, chief officers, officials and clergy granted the Orders of St. Stanislav and St. Anne (except for 1st degree), children of clergy of the Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian confession, children of church clergy ( sextons, sextons and psalm-readers), who completed courses in theological seminaries and academies and received academic degrees and titles there, children of Protestant preachers, children of persons who served blamelessly for 20 years as a Transcaucasian sheikh-ul-Islam or a Transcaucasian mufti, Kalmyk zaisangs, not those who had ranks and owned hereditary aimaks, and, of course, the children of hereditary honorary citizens, and personal honorary citizens by birth included those adopted by nobles and hereditary honorary citizens, widows of church clerks of the Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian confessions, children of the highest Transcaucasian Muslim clergy, if their parents Zaisangs from the Kalmyks of the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces, who had neither ranks nor hereditary aimaks, performed their service without fault for 2 years.

Personal honorary citizenship could be applied for for 10 years of useful activity, and after being in personal honorary citizenship for 10 years, hereditary honorary citizenship could be applied for for the same activity.

Hereditary honorary citizenship was awarded to those who graduated from certain educational institutions, commerce and manufactories-advisors, merchants who received one of the Russian orders, merchants of the 1st guild who stayed in it for at least 20 years, artists of the imperial theaters of the 1st category who served for at least 15 years, fleet conductors who served for at least 20 years, Karaite gahams who stayed in position for at least 12 years. Personal honorary citizenship, in addition to the persons already mentioned, was received by those who entered the civil service upon promotion to the rank of 14th class, who completed a course in some educational institutions, were dismissed from the civil service with the rank of 14th class, and received a chief officer upon retirement from military service. rank, managers of rural craft workshops and masters of these institutions after serving, respectively, 5 and 10 years, managers, masters and teachers of technical and craft training workshops of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, who served for 10 years, masters and master technicians of lower vocational schools of the Ministry of Public Education , who have also served for at least 10 years, 1st category artists of imperial theaters who have served for 10 years on stage, fleet conductors who have served for 10 years, persons with navigator ranks and have sailed for at least 5 years, ship mechanics who have sailed for 5 years, honorary guards Jewish educational institutions who have held this position for at least 15 years, “scientific Jews under governors” for special merits after serving for at least 15 years, masters of the Imperial Peterhof Lapidary Factory who have served for at least 10 years and some other categories of persons.

If honorary citizenship belonged to a given person by right of birth, it did not require special confirmation; if it was assigned, it was required solution Department of Heraldry of the Senate and diploma from the Senate.

Belonging to an honorary citizen could be combined with being a member of other classes - merchants and clergy - and did not depend on the type of activity (until 1891, only joining some guilds deprived an honorary citizen of some of the advantages of his title).

There was no corporate organization of honorary citizens.

4.9. Cossacks.

The Cossacks in the Russian Empire were a special military class (more precisely, a class group) that stood apart from others. The basis of the class rights and obligations of the Cossacks was the principle of corporate ownership of military lands and freedom from duties subject to compulsory military service. The class organization of the Cossacks coincided with the military one. Under elected local self-government, the Cossacks were subordinate to wax atamans (military atamans or nakazny), who enjoyed the rights of commander of a military district or governor-general. Since 1827, the heir to the throne was considered the supreme ataman of all Cossack troops.

To the beginning XX century in Russia there were 11 Cossack troops, as well as Cossack settlements in 2 provinces.

Under the ataman, there was a military headquarters, local management was carried out by department atamans (on the Don - district ones), in the villages - by village atamans elected by village assemblies.

Belonging to the Cossack class was hereditary, although formal enrollment in the Cossack troops was not excluded for persons of other classes.

During their service, Cossacks could achieve ranks and orders of the nobility. In this case, belonging to the nobility was combined with belonging to the Cossacks.

The relationship between the merchants and the nobility throughout Russian history has undergone a complex evolution from the unconditional dominance of the nobility and the recognition of the merchants as a second-class class to almost complete equalization of their rights.

To distinguish the merchants into a special class by the City Regulations of 1785. The institution of “famous citizens” is introduced. This title was awarded to wholesale traders, bankers, and shipowners with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles. Such persons were not part of the guilds and were taken into account in section 5 of the philistine book.

In 1800, the title of commerce advisor was established for merchants as a sign of special distinction. This title gave its holders the right to the 8th class of full-time service, i.e. these individuals were given the opportunity to receive privileges close to those of the nobility.

In 1807, a manifesto “On new benefits, differences and advantages granted to the merchants and new ways to spread and strengthen trade enterprises” was published, which emphasized the difference between “real” merchants, who were called “first-class” or merchants and ordinary contractors, tax farmers and shopkeepers. The 1st group included only wholesale traders.

In 1810 The Manifesto “On ways to better organize cloth factories” was announced, which established the title of manufacturing advisor for merchants. Members of the 1st guild for 12 years in a row and who produced more than 100,000 arshins of cloth annually in their own factory. This title provided the same rights as a commerce advisor. Those who received the title of commerce or manufacturing advisor could move into the category of honorary citizens, which was introduced in 1832. The title of hereditary and personal honorary citizen gave a number of rights: exemption from conscription, capitation and corporal punishment... Merchants of the 1st guild could also become honorary citizens after a 10-year stay in it. Honorary citizens enjoyed “the right to be titled, like the nobles and your honor.” Thus, honorary citizens were an intermediate layer between the nobility and merchants and played a certain role in the formation of a layer of urban entrepreneurs.

In addition, merchants who traded with foreign countries for at least 50 thousand rubles for 5 years received the title of trade guest and in “honors” were equal to the 7th class of regular service. These benefits extended to members of merchant families.

The presence of such privileges increased the social status of the merchants in the class system, facilitated the conduct of commercial activities, and created additional opportunities for capital accumulation.

The desire of representatives of large merchants to obtain nobility is also considered in historical literature as a manifestation of the influence of the feudal value system on the consciousness and behavior of merchants. Some representatives of the large merchant class sought to obtain ranks and the title of nobility, guided not by commercial calculations, but by ambitious motives. Such merchants even considered charitable activities as a way to obtain high ranks and titles. Thus, Irkutsk merchant E.A. Kuznetsov in 1848 - 1849 donated more than 1 million rubles to charitable purposes, for which he received the rank of state councilor. According to a contemporary memoirist, the dream of his life was “to be promoted to actual state councilor, so that he would be addressed on an equal basis with the governor with the words: “Your Excellency,” which then had enormous significance and constituted an almost unacceptable dream of the most inveterate ambitious people.” However, the significance of ambitious calculations among the motives that determined the desire of merchants for ranks and noble titles also weakened over time, since during the first half of the 19th century. for persons who were successfully engaged in industry and trade, the government introduced a number of honorary titles (eminent citizen, hereditary honorary citizen, commerce advisor, manufacturing advisor), the holders of which received a social status comparable in many respects to the status of persons who had the title of nobility. Thus, the titles of manufacturing advisor and commerce advisor were equated to the VIII class of the civil service, and their holders received the right to the title “Your Honor.”

And yet there is no need to talk about harmonious relationships. Since the beginning of the 19th century, wealthy merchants en masse became interested in collecting paintings, patronized artists, theaters, and charitable institutions, trying to raise their level of culture and respectability, and assert their class priority over the nobility. In his memoirs “The Artist in Bygone Russia”, Prince Sergei Shcherbatov wrote: “The merchants’ bitterness towards the nobility received vivid expression in the significant and unforgivably rude speech of the eldest of the Ryabushinsky brothers during the revolution, in which he celebrated with obvious gloating a funeral feast for the nobility who were about to be replaced merchants, “the salt of the Russian land.” Everything that was created by the Russian nobility over the centuries on this Russian soil and for it was forgotten or passed over in silence.”

The merchants had very good reasons to “dislike” the nobility: class prejudices, even at the end of the 19th century, greatly limited the possibilities of the merchant class. So, for example, the “salt of the Russian land” was simply not allowed to attend the Moscow Governor-General’s annual ball. Despite the enormous capital that the merchant class owned, it was almost impossible for its most efficient, active and successful representatives to obtain a rank or title in order to be able to be in the public service.

At the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, the previously established division of society into class groups was preserved, which was largely facilitated by state policy that prevented the erosion of class boundaries. The law divided the population of the Russian Empire into 3 large groups: natural inhabitants (indigenous citizens), foreigners (nomadic and other aboriginal groups) and foreigners. Natural inhabitants or subjects of the Russian crown, in turn, were divided into 4 classes: nobles, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants.

The unprecedented economic growth that Russia experienced at the end of the 19th century brought to life new layers of the population that changed the usual picture of classes. An entrepreneurial layer is emerging, its own bourgeoisie, large and medium, whose numbers and political weight are constantly growing. The former division of the merchants into guilds, with different rights for each, is a thing of the past, and membership in the bourgeoisie is now determined by “trade certificates” issued annually by the authorities. They indicate the amount of capital within which the business is carried out and property liability arises. There remains a step to the final equalization of entrepreneurs and merchants, as well as the equalization of the rights of all classes. And Russia took this step in 1905.

Russian entrepreneurs declare themselves to be joining the liberal movement, an opposition to the government is being formed, which demands participation in government.

Russian merchants commercial education

RANKS, RANKS AND TITLES. Until the 18th century ranks were not widespread and were not yet completely separated from the designation of official position or noble family origin of a person who was at court or in the service of the Grand Duke or Tsar. In conditions of localism, each rank (position) occupied a certain place among others, but there was no clear system of awards and it completely depended on the will of the Grand Duke (Tsar). In this case, the degree of birth - “breed” - was of primary importance. By the 17th century A system of higher ranks developed - Duma ranks (by seniority: boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles, Duma clerks). There were unique ranks and positions at the courts of the Grand Duke: equerry, butler, steward, treasurer, etc., in the orders - clerk, clerk. In n. XVIII century With the creation of the regular army, military ranks of the Western European type, which first appeared in the 17th century, became widespread in Russia. in the “regiments of the new system.”

The transformations of Peter I sharply increased the number of positions (ranks) of officers and civil servants. In 1722, the Table of Ranks was introduced, establishing 14 classes of military, civil and court ranks. Along with the ranks themselves, some positions were initially included in the report card (for example, in class III - prosecutor general; in class IV - presidents of boards; in class V - general-provisioner; in class VII - vice-presidents of court courts). Over time, the Table underwent numerous changes (positions were eliminated or turned into ranks, some ranks disappeared, new ones appeared, etc.), but basically remained in effect until 1917. In the present day. XIX century the ranks of the XI and XIII classes fell out of use.

Military ranks. In classes I-V they were called general (admiral), VI-VIII (after 1884 - VI-VII) - staff officers, IX-XIV (after 1884 - VIII-XII) - chief officers (non-commissioned officers were not included in the officer ranks ). Chief and staff officers of the guard were initially listed two classes above the army, and from 1884 - one. In the Guard, the ranks of major and lieutenant colonel were abolished in 1798. There were special military ranks, ranks above and below the classes of the Table of Ranks. The first included the generalissimo, the second included the sub-ensign (until 1880 a harness-junker), in the cavalry - the estandard-cadet, and in the Cossack troops - the sub-horunzhiy.

The rank of field marshal was introduced in 1699; F. A. Golovin was the first to receive it in 1700. The last award of this rank to the person of the Russian service D. A. Milyutin took place in 1898. There were 64 field marshals in total. The first general admirals were F.A. Golovin and F.M. Apraksin. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. 6 people had this rank. The last admiral general was Vel. book Alexey Alexandrovich (born 1908), who received this rank in 1883. The number of people who had military ranks grew continuously, especially in the 2nd half. XIX century So, in active military service (without the border guard corps) in 1864 there were 351 generals and admirals, 2630 staff officers, 16,495 chief officers; in 1897, respectively - 1212, 6282 and 35,283 people. In total, 43,720 officers were in service in 1897. (52% of them were hereditary nobles). In n. XX century There were 1,386 generals in the army (Dec. 1902) and 2,668 colonels (May 1903).

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. (until 1867) military ranks were held by employees of the mining, railway, telegraph, forestry and boundary departments.

Civil ranks. The rank of chancellor (state chancellor) was introduced in Russia in 1709 (G.I. Golovkin), and was last awarded in 1867 (to A.M. Gorchakov). It was given to persons in charge of foreign policy (in the 19th century - to ministers of foreign affairs); those with the rank of II class were called vice-chancellors. In total, 11 people had the rank of chancellor. The few civil officials of other departments who rose to the rank of 1st class were called actual privy councilors of the 1st class. After 1881, only D. M. Solsky (1906) and I. L. Goremykin (1916) received this rank. The number of persons holding civil ranks also grew continuously. Thus, there were 674 IV class officials in 1858, 1945 in 1878, and 2687 in the 1890s. As of January 1. 1897 there were in the service (without the State Council, Synod, military and naval departments) persons of class IV and above - 1,438 people, classes V-VIII - 50,082, classes IX-XIX - 49,993 people.

Court officials. The system of these ranks had developed by the 18th century. (the first court staff was adopted in 1727, then new states were introduced in 1796 and 1801). Previously distributed among almost all classes, they were reduced to two main groups: the first ranks of the court (Classes II and III) and the second ranks of the court, which then included chamberlains (VI class), titular chamberlains (VIII class) and chamberlains (Junkers). IX class), converted in 1809 from ranks to court titles. From that time on, the court ranks of the third class began to be called the second ranks of the court. The ranks of chief ceremonial master and chief forschneider could be grades II and III (in grade III they were called second). Court ranks were considered more honorable than civilian ones. Therefore, some officials who reached the third rank were transferred to the second ranks of the court as an incentive. Civil officials of the lower classes could be granted “the position of chamberlain” or other positions of the second ranks of the court without, however, receiving the corresponding class. In both cases, rank production accelerated. Persons who received a court rank could continue to serve in the civil department. In rare cases, a court rank was given while maintaining a civilian of the same or a different class (thus, the actual privy councilors K. I. Palen and B. A. Vasilchikov were at the same time: the first - chief chamberlain, the second - horse-master). The number of court ranks was determined by the states and in certain periods no awards were made in excess of the set. In general, for the 18th century. there were: chief chamberlains - 9, chief marshals - 11, chief chamberlains - 12, chief chamberlains - 5, chief equestrians - 9, chief jägermeisters - 5, chief masters of ceremonies - 7. During the 19th century. the number of court officials increased significantly. In the court staff on January 1. In 1898 there were 16 first and 147 second ranks of the court.

Chinoproduction. Transfer to each subsequent rank was conditioned by staying in the previous one for a certain number of years, which could be reduced for differences in service. Until 1856, the terms of service in each rank were different for persons of different social origins and were divided into 3 categories. The most preferential conditions for rank production (1st category) were provided to the nobility. But gradually there was a process of establishing uniform service periods. In 1906, terms of civil service were established: in grades XIV, XII, X and IX - 3 years, in grades VIII-V - 4, in grades V - 5 years and in grade IV - 10 years. Production in class III and above was not regulated and depended on the discretion of the emperor. Thus, in 1916 there were only approx. civil and court officials of the first three classes. 800 people Graduation from higher educational institutions (depending on their ranks and the success of graduates) gave the right to receive ranks of XII-VIII classes. A similar procedure existed for military service. However, in the late 19th century. it took longer to reach the highest military ranks than to achieve their civilian equals. From the rank of captain, promotion to subsequent ranks in the army was carried out only if there were vacant positions corresponding to them. Civil and court ranks for special merits could also be awarded “outside the service,” that is, to persons not in public service (in particular, merchants).

Receiving a rank gave the right to appointment to a certain range of positions. The staffing schedules of all departments indicated which rank or ranks each position corresponded to. Thus, usually the position of minister corresponded to class II, comrade minister - class III, director of a department (administration), governor and mayor - class IV, vice-director of a department and vice-governor - class V, head of department and clerk in central institutions - class VI , and the head - VII class. There were, however, cases of appointment to a position of a higher class than the existing rank (P. A. Stolypin, for example, was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of Internal Affairs, being in the 4th grade). The main positions in elections from the nobility, and after 1890 and 1899 also in zemstvo and city self-government were equated to certain classes of civil service positions (the provincial leader of the nobility, for example, for two three years of service in elections received the rank of full state councilor).

According to the law of December 9. 1856 only the acquisition of a military rank of class VI and a civilian rank of class IV (not upon resignation) gave the rights of hereditary nobility; personal nobility was given to all other staff and chief officer ranks, as well as civilian ranks from class IX (in the 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries, the conditions for obtaining nobility were more preferential). All other civil ranks since 1832 have given the rights of hereditary or personal honorary citizenship. The order of awarding orders was coordinated with the system of ranks (each award was usually determined by the recipient’s belonging to certain classes of ranks).

Titles In Russia in the 19th-20th centuries. there were honorary titles for senators and members of the State Council, in departments not present, that is, not participating in meetings, something like honorary members. These titles were assigned to officials of classes III-I, who at the same time could continue their activities in accordance with their rank and position. Since the 1860s, the title of senator was usually given to fellow ministers. In a number of cases in the 19th century. receiving this title was the end of a career. The title of member of the State Council after 1810 was considered higher, but with its assignment the title of senator for those who had it could be retained. Few highest civil and court ranks of classes I-III (in exceptional cases classes IV-V) received the title of Secretary of State of His Majesty (should be distinguished from the position of Secretary of State of the State Council - manager of the office of one of the departments). The number of persons who had this title decreased in the XIX century. XX century (in 1876 - 40 people, in 1900 -27, in 1915 - 19 people). The military personnel who made up the emperor's retinue, in addition to ranks, had the ranks: adjutant general (classes I-III), which were in the present day. XX century 60 people; retinue of a major general or retinue of a rear admiral (the first rank was introduced in the 18th century, the second in the 19th century), aide-de-camp (in the 18th century from class IV and below, in the 19th century staff and chief officers ). Secretaries of state and adjutant generals on duty had the right to announce the emperor's verbal orders.

In the century XVIII - AD. XIX century The court ranks of chamberlain and chamber cadet were often given to officials and officers of relatively lower classes, sometimes to representatives of old noble families who did not have class ranks at all (in these cases, children often received court ranks). Awarding these ranks gave the right to receive classes IV and V of the Table of Ranks. In 1809, the ranks of chamberlain and chamberlain cadet were transformed into honorary titles awarded to civil officials of classes III-V and VI-IX (from 1850 classes III-IV and V-VIII). In addition, they could be given to persons of high social status who were not in public service (especially leaders of the nobility), without giving them the right to rank.

There were court titles for ladies: chief chamberlain, chamberlain, lady of state, lady-in-waiting and maid of honor. The first two of them could only belong to persons who held chamberlain positions.

In 1800, the titles of commerce and manufacturing advisors were introduced, equivalent to the VIII class of civil service, which could be awarded to persons of the merchant class (see: Merchants). Since 1824, the right to these titles was granted to all merchants of the 1st guild (after 12 years in the guild). In 1836, persons who had these titles, as well as their widows and children, were given the right to apply for hereditary honorary citizenship.

Titles. Addressing (orally or in writing) to persons who had ranks was strictly regulated and was called a title. A private title was the name of a rank or position (for example, “state councilor”, “vice-governor”). Common titles for ranks and positions of classes I-II were “Your Excellency”; III and IV classes - “Your Excellency”; Class V - “your honor”; VI-VIII classes (for the military after 1884, including captains) - “your honor” and for ranks of classes IX-XIV (chief officer ranks) - “your honor”. If an official was appointed to a position whose class was higher than his rank, he used the general title of the position (for example, the provincial leader of the nobility used the title of III-IV classes - “your excellency”, even if by rank or origin he had the title “your nobility"). In the written official address of lower officials to higher ones, both titles were called, and the private one was used both by position and by rank and followed the general title (for example, “His Excellency Comrade Minister of Finance Privy Councilor”). From ser. XIX century the private title by rank and surname began to be omitted. When addressing a lower official in a similar manner, only the private title of the position was retained (the surname was not indicated). Equal officials addressed each other either as inferiors, or by name and patronymic, indicating the common title and surname in the margins of the document. Honorary titles (except for the title of member of the State Council) were usually also included in the title, and in this case the private title by rank was usually omitted. Persons who did not have a rank used a general title in accordance with the classes to which the title they held was equated (for example, chamber cadets and manufactory advisers received the right to the general title “your honor”). When speaking orally to higher ranks, a general title was used; equal and lower civil ranks were addressed by first and patronymic or surname, and military ranks by rank with or without the addition of a surname. Lower ranks had to address sub-ensigns and non-commissioned officers by rank with the addition of the word “Mr.” (for example, “Mr. Sergeant Major”).

There were also titles by origin (by “dignity”). Private titles by origin were: emperor, grand duke (for children, and in the male generation for the emperor’s grandchildren; in 1797-1886 also for the great-grandsons and great-great-grandsons of the emperor in the male line), prince of the imperial blood, his serene prince, prince, count, baron, nobleman. They corresponded to general titles (predicates): “your imperial majesty” (sometimes the abbreviated formula “sovereign” was used); "your imperial highness" (for grand dukes) and "your highness" (for princes of imperial blood below the grandsons of emperors); “Your Grace” (for the younger children of the emperor’s great-grandsons and their descendants in the male line, as well as the most serene princes by grant); “Your Excellency” (for persons who had princely or count titles); "your honor" (for other nobles, including barons). When addressing persons of princely, count and baronial rank, the title by origin was used in all cases without fail, and replaced all other general titles (for example, when addressing a colonel-prince, a general used the title “prince”, and a lieutenant - “your excellency” ).

A special system of private and general titles existed for the Orthodox clergy. Monastics (black clergy) were divided into 5 ranks: metropolitan and archbishop were titled “your eminence”, bishop – “your eminence”, archimandrite and abbot – “your eminence”. The three highest ranks were also called bishops, and they could be addressed with the general title "sovereign". The white clergy had 4 ranks: archpriest and priest (priest) were titled - “your reverence”, protodeacon and deacon - “your reverence”.

All persons who had ranks (military, civilian, courtiers) wore uniforms according to their type of service and rank class. The ranks of the I-IV classes had a red lining in their overcoats. Special uniforms were reserved for persons who held honorary titles (secretary of state, chamberlain, etc.). The ranks of the imperial retinue wore shoulder straps and epaulets with the imperial monogram and aiguillettes.

The assignment of ranks and honorary titles, as well as appointments to positions, awards, etc., were formalized by orders of the tsar in the military, civil and court departments and noted in formal (service) lists. The latter were introduced back in 1771, but received their final form and began to be maintained systematically in 1798 as a mandatory document for each person in the public service. Since 1773, lists of civil ranks (including court officials) of classes I-VIII began to be published annually; after 1858, the publication of lists of ranks I-III and separately IV classes continued. Similar lists of generals, colonels, lieutenant colonels and army captains were also published, as well as “List of persons who were members of the naval department and fleet admirals, staff and chief officers...”

Lit.: Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. T. 3. Part 3. St. Petersburg, 1832).