Caliphate as a medieval state formed as a result of the unification of Arab tribes, the center of settlement of which was the Arabian Peninsula (located between Iran and North-East Africa).
A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the 7th century. There was a religious connotation to this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam (Islam translated from Arabic means “surrendering oneself” to God). Political movement for the unification of tribes under the slogans of renouncing paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the trends in the emergence of a new system, it received the name “Hanif”.
The Hanif preachers' search for a new truth and a new god, which took place under the strong influence of Judaism and Christianity, is associated primarily with the name of Muhammad. Muhammad (about 570-632), a shepherd who became rich as a result of a successful marriage, an orphan from Mecca, on whom “revelations descended”, later recorded in the Koran, proclaimed the need to establish the cult of a single god - Allah and a new social order that excluded tribal strife. The head of the Arabs was to be a prophet - “the messenger of Allah on earth.”
Early Islam's calls for social justice (limiting usury, establishing alms for the poor, freeing slaves, fair trade) caused dissatisfaction among the tribal merchant nobility with the "revelations" of Muhammad, which forced him to flee with a group of close companions in 622 from Mecca to Yathrib (later Medina). , "city of the Prophet"). Here he managed to enlist the support of various social groups, including Bedouin nomads. The first mosque was built here, and the order of Muslim worship was determined. From the moment of this migration and separate existence, which received the name “Hijra” (621-629), the summer reckoning according to the Muslim calendar begins.
Muhammad argued that Islamic teachings do not contradict the two previously widespread monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirm and clarify them. However, already at that time it became clear that Islam also contained something new. His rigidity and, at times, fanatical intolerance in some matters, especially in matters of power and authority, were quite clearly evident. According to the doctrine of Islam, religious power is inseparable from secular power and is the basis of the latter, and therefore Islam demanded equally unconditional obedience to God, the prophet and “those who have power.”
For ten years, in the 20-30s. VII century The organizational restructuring of the Muslim community in Medina was completed in public education. Muhammad himself was its spiritual, military leader and judge. With the help of the new religion and military units of the community, the struggle against opponents of the new socio-political structure began.
Muhammad's closest relatives and associates gradually consolidated into a privileged group that received the exclusive right to power. From its ranks, after the death of the prophet, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs ("deputies of the prophet"). Some groups of Islamic tribal nobility formed an opposition group of Shiites, which recognized the right to power only by inheritance and only by the descendants (and not the companions) of the prophet.
The first four caliphs, the so-called "righteously guided" caliphs, quelled discontent with Islam among certain sections and completed the political unification of Arabia. In the 7th - first half of the 8th century. Vast territories were conquered from former Byzantine and Persian possessions, including the Middle East, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and Spain. The Arab army entered French territory, but was defeated by the knights of Charles Martell at the Battle of Poitiers in 732.
In the history of the medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, they usually distinguish two periods, which correspond to the main stages of development of Arab medieval society and state:
- Damascus, or the period of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750);
- Baghdad, or the period of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258).
Umayyad dynasty(from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the next one after them Abbasid dynasty(from the descendants of a prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.
The most famous of the Abbasids were the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who was included in the characters of the Arabian Nights, as well as his son al-Mamun. These were enlightened autocrats who combined concerns for spiritual and secular enlightenment. Naturally, in their role as caliphs, they were also occupied with the problems of spreading the new faith, which they themselves and their subjects perceived as a commandment to live in equality and universal brotherhood of all true believers. The duties of the ruler in this case were to be a fair, wise and merciful ruler. Enlightened caliphs combined concerns about administration, finance, justice and the army with support for education, art, literature, science, as well as trade and commerce.
Organization of power and administration in the Arab Caliphate
The Muslim state for some time after Mohammed remained a theocracy in the sense of recognizing it as the true possession of God (state property was called God's property) and in the sense of striving to govern the state according to the commandments of God and the example of his Messenger (the prophet was also called rasul, that is, messenger).
The first entourage of the prophet-ruler consisted of mujahirs(exiles who fled with the prophet from Mecca) and Ansar(assistants).
Characteristic features of the Muslim social system:
- the dominant position of state ownership of land with the widespread use of slave labor in the state economy (irrigation, mines, workshops);
- state exploitation of peasants through rent-tax in favor of the ruling elite;
- religious-state regulation of all spheres of public life;
- the absence of clearly defined class groups, special status for cities, any freedoms and privileges.
On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the 2nd millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples. In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, and was engaged in crafts and trade.
The other part roamed the deserts and steppes and was engaged in cattle breeding. Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. In this oasis lived the Arab tribe Quraysh, whose tribal nobility, using geographical position Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.
In addition, Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. The ancient pre-Islamic temple of the Kaaba was located here. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Quraysh tribe, Allah (from Arabic: ilah - master).
In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, due to the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade decreases. The population, having lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to seek sources of livelihood in agriculture. But suitable for Agriculture there was little land. They had to be conquered.
For this, forces were needed and, therefore, the unification of fragmented tribes, who also worshiped different gods. The need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis became increasingly clear.
This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Muhammad (c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam. This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity: belief in one God and his prophet, doomsday, reward after death, unconditional submission to the will of God (Arabic: Islam - submission).
The Jewish and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced by the names of prophets and other biblical characters common to these religions: biblical Abraham(Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Elijah (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus (Isa), Mary (Maryam), etc. Islam has Judaism shares common customs and prohibitions. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, prohibit depicting God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.
At the first stage of development, the new religious worldview of Islam was not supported by the majority of Muhammad's fellow tribesmen, and primarily by the nobility, as they feared that the new religion would lead to the cessation of the cult of the Kaaba as a religious center, and thereby deprive them of income. In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina).
This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim calendar. The agricultural population of Yathrib (Medina), competing with the merchants from Mecca, supported Muhammad. However, only in 630, having gathered the required number of supporters, he was able to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, especially since they were satisfied that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.
Much later (c. 650) after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected into a single book, the Koran (translated from Arabic as reading), which became sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.
Later Islamic religious literature is called Sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who recognized the Koran and the Sunnah began to be called Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran - Shiites. Shiites recognize only his relatives as the legitimate caliphs (viceroys, deputies) of Muhammad, the spiritual and secular heads of Muslims.
The economic crisis of Western Arabia in the 7th century, caused by the movement of trade routes, the lack of land suitable for agriculture, and high population growth, pushed the leaders of the Arab tribes to seek a way out of the crisis by seizing foreign lands. This is reflected in the Koran, which says that Islam should be the religion of all peoples, but for this it is necessary to fight the infidels, exterminate them and take their property (Koran, 2: 186-189; 4: 76-78, 86).
Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, began a series of aggressive campaigns. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem. Until the end of the 7th century. The countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia came under Arab rule. In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, and North-West Africa were captured.
In 711, Arab troops under the leadership of Tariq sailed from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from Tariq’s name came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tariq). Having quickly conquered the Pyrenees, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel.
By the middle of the 9th century. Sicily, Sardinia were captured by the Arabs, southern regions Italy, Crete island. At this point, the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. The Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.
The main Arab conquests were carried out under the caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and the Umayyad caliphs (661-750). Under the Umayyads, the capital of the caliphate was moved to Syria to the city of Damascus.
The victories of the Arabs and their seizure of vast areas were facilitated by many years of mutually exhausting war between Byzantium and Persia, disunity and constant hostility between other states that were attacked by the Arabs. It should also be noted that the population of the countries captured by the Arabs, suffering from the oppression of Byzantium and Persia, saw the Arabs as liberators who reduced the tax burden primarily for those who converted to Islam.
The unification of many formerly separate and warring states into single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts and trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture quickly developed, incorporating Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage.
Through the Arabs, Europe became acquainted with the cultural achievements of the eastern peoples, primarily with achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.
In 750, the Umayyad dynasty in the eastern part of the caliphate was overthrown. The Abbasids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abbas, became caliphs. They moved the capital of the state to Baghdad.
In the western part of the caliphate, Spain continued to be ruled by the Umayyads, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Cordoba Caliphate with its capital in the city of Cordoba.
The division of the Arab Caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were provincial rulers - emirs.
The Abbasid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbasid state ceased to exist.
The Spanish Umayyad Caliphate also gradually shrank. In the 11th century As a result of internecine struggle, the Cordoba Caliphate broke up into a number of states. This was taken advantage of by those that emerged in the northern part of Spain. Christian states: Leono-Castilian, Aragonese, Portuguese kingdoms, which began to fight the Arabs for the liberation of the peninsula - the reconquista.
In 1085 they recaptured the city of Toledo, in 1147 Lisbon, and in 1236 Cordoba fell. The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab caliphate as a state ended.
The Caliphate as an institution for the spiritual leadership of the Arabs over all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function passed to to the Turkish Sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.
The history of the Arab Caliphate, dating back only six centuries, was complex, controversial and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution human society planets.
Difficult economic situation population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone, it became necessary to search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here took the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for the fight against infidels (non-believers).
Guided by the ideology of Islam, the caliphs carried out a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of formerly scattered tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe.
Being one of the youngest in the east, occupying the most offensive position among them, having absorbed the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge impact on spiritual life Western Europe, posing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages.
Historical background
The initial core of the caliphate was the Muslim community created by the prophet Muhammad at the beginning of the 7th century in Hijaz (Western Arabia) - the umma. As a result of the Muslim conquests, a huge state was created, which included the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran, most of Transcaucasia (in particular the Armenian Highlands, the Caspian territories, the Colchis Lowland, as well as the Tbilisi regions), Central Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, Sindh.
From the founding of the caliphate () to the Abbasid dynasty ()
This period includes the era of the first 4 caliphs who “walked the right path” (al-Rashidin) - Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar (634-644), Uthman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) and the dominance of the Umayyads (661-750).
Arab conquests
In terms of size, their empire, which was formed in less than a hundred years, surpassed the Roman one, and this turned out to be all the more amazing because at first, after the death of Muhammad, one could fear that even the small successes of Islam that it had achieved in Arabia would collapse. Muhammad, dying, did not leave an heir, and after his death (632) a dispute arose between the Meccans and Medinans over the issue of his successor. During the discussions, Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph. Meanwhile, with the news of Muhammad's death, almost all of Arabia, except Mecca, Medina and Taif, immediately abandoned Islam. With the help of the believing Medinans and Meccans, Abu Bakr managed to return vast but divided Arabia back to Islam; What helped him most in this was the so-called Saifullah “sword of Allah” - the experienced commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, who only 9 years ago defeated the prophet at Mount Departure; Khalid defeated the 40,000-strong army of followers of the false prophet Musailima in the so-called. “death fence” at Aqrab (633). Immediately after the Arab uprising was pacified, Abu Bakr, continuing the policy of Muhammad, led them to war against the Byzantine and Iranian possessions.
The boundaries of the caliphate narrowed somewhat: the escaped Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman I laid the first foundation in Spain () for the independent Emirate of Cordoba, which since 929 has been officially titled “caliphate” (929-). 30 years later, Idris, the great-grandson of Caliph Ali and therefore equally hostile to both the Abbasids and the Umayyads, founded the Alid Idrisid dynasty (-) in Morocco, whose capital was the city of Toudgah; the rest of the northern coast of Africa (Tunisia, etc.) was actually lost to the Abbasid caliphate when the governor of Aghlab, appointed by Harun al-Rashid, became the founder of the Aghlabid dynasty in Kairouan (-). The Abbasids did not consider it necessary to resume their foreign policy of conquest against Christian or other countries, and although from time to time military clashes arose both on the eastern and northern borders (like Mamun’s two unsuccessful campaigns against Constantinople), however, in general, the caliphate lived peacefully.
Such a feature of the first Abbasids is noted as their despotic, heartless and, moreover, often insidious cruelty. Sometimes, as the founder of the dynasty, it was an open source of caliphic pride (the nickname “Bloodbringer” was chosen by Abul Abbas himself). Some of the caliphs, at least the cunning al-Mansur, who loved to clothe himself before the people in the hypocritical clothes of piety and justice, preferred to act with deceit where possible and executed dangerous people on the sly, first lulling their caution with sworn promises and favors. Among al-Mahdi and Harun ar-Rashid, cruelty was obscured by their generosity, however, the treacherous and ferocious overthrow of the vizier family of the Barmakids, which was extremely useful for the state, but imposed a certain bridle on the ruler, constitutes for Harun one of the most disgusting acts of eastern despotism. It should be added that under the Abbasids, a system of torture was introduced into legal proceedings. Even the tolerant philosopher Mamun and his two successors are not free from the reproach of tyranny and cruelty towards people unpleasant to them. Kremer finds (“Culturgesch. d. Or.”, II, 61; cf. Müller: “Ist. Isl.”, II, 170) that the very first Abbasids showed signs of hereditary Caesarian madness, which became even more intensified in their descendants.
In justification, one could only say that in order to suppress the chaotic anarchy in which the countries of Islam found themselves during the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, agitated by the adherents of the overthrown Umayyads, bypassed Alids, predatory Kharijites and various Persian sectarians of radical persuasions who never ceased to rebel on the northern outskirts of the state, the , terrorist measures were perhaps a simple necessity. Apparently, Abul Abbas understood the meaning of his nickname “Bloodbringer.” Thanks to the formidable centralization that the heartless man, but the brilliant politician al-Mansur, managed to introduce, his subjects were able to enjoy inner peace, and public finances were managed brilliantly. Even the scientific and philosophical movement in the caliphate dates back to the same cruel and treacherous Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”), who, despite his notorious stinginess, treated science with encouragement (meaning, first of all, practical, medical goals) . But, on the other hand, it remains undeniable that the flourishing of the caliphate would hardly have been possible if Saffah, Mansur and their successors had ruled the state directly, and not through the talented vizier family of the Persian Barmakids. Until this family was overthrown by () the unreasonable Harun al-Rashid, burdened by its tutelage, some of its members were first ministers or close advisers to the caliph in Baghdad (Khalid, Yahya, Jafar), others were in important government positions in the provinces (like Fadl ), and all together managed, on the one hand, to maintain for 50 years the necessary balance between the Persians and Arabs, which gave the caliphate its political fortress, and on the other hand, to restore the ancient Sasanian life, with its social structure, with its culture, with its mental movement.
"Golden Age" of Arab culture
This culture is usually called Arabic, because the Arabic language became the organ of mental life for all the peoples of the caliphate, and therefore they say: "Arabic art", "Arab science”, etc.; but in essence these were most of all the remnants of the Sassanian and generally Old Persian culture (which, as is known, also absorbed much from India, Assyria, Babylon and, indirectly, from Greece). In the Western Asian and Egyptian parts of the caliphate, we observe the development of the remnants of Byzantine culture, just as in North Africa, Sicily and Spain - the Roman and Roman-Spanish cultures - and the homogeneity in them is imperceptible, if we exclude the link that connects them - Arabic. It cannot be said that the foreign culture inherited by the caliphate rose qualitatively under the Arabs: Iranian-Muslim architectural buildings are inferior to the old Parsi ones, and similarly, Muslim products made of silk and wool, household utensils and jewelry, despite their charm, are inferior to ancient products.
But during the Muslim, Abbasid period, in a vast united and ordered state with carefully arranged communication routes, the demand for Iranian-made items increased, and the number of consumers increased. Peaceful relations with neighbors made it possible to develop remarkable foreign barter trade: with China through Turkestan and - by sea - through the Indian archipelago, with the Volga Bulgars and Russia through the Khazar kingdom, with the Spanish Emirate, with all Southern Europe(with the possible exception of Byzantium), with the eastern shores of Africa (from where, in turn, ivory and blacks were exported), etc. The main port of the caliphate was Basra. The merchant and the industrialist are the main characters of Arabian tales; various high-ranking officials, military leaders, scientists, etc. were not ashamed to add to their titles the nickname Attar (“mosque maker”), Heyyat (“tailor”), Jawhariy (“jeweler”), etc. However, the nature of Muslim-Iranian industry is not so much the satisfaction of practical needs as of luxury. The main items of production are silk fabrics (muslin-muslin, satin, moiré, brocade), weapons (sabers, daggers, chain mail), embroidery on canvas and leather, gimp work, carpets, shawls, embossed, engraved, carved ivory and metals. mosaic works, earthenware and glass products; less often, purely practical products - materials made of paper, cloth and camel hair.
The well-being of the agricultural class (for reasons, however, of taxation, and not of democracy) was increased by the restoration of irrigation canals and dams, which were neglected under the last Sassanids. But even according to the consciousness of the Arab writers themselves, the caliphs failed to bring the people's taxability to such a height as was achieved by the tax system of Khosrow I Anushirvan, although the caliphs ordered specifically for this purpose to translate the Sasanian cadastral books into Arabic.
The Persian spirit also takes over Arabic poetry, which now, instead of Bedouin songs, produces the refined works of the Basri Abu Nuwas (“Arab Heine”) and other court poets Harun al-Rashid. Apparently, not without Persian influence (Brockelmann: “Gesch. d. arab. Litt.”, I, 134) correct historiography emerges, and after the “Life of the Apostle”, compiled by Ibn Ishak for Mansur, a number of secular historians also appear. From Persian, Ibn al-Muqaffa (about 750) translated the Sasanian “Book of Kings”, the Pahlavi treatment of Indian parables about “Kalila and Dimna” and various Greek-Syro-Persian philosophical works, with which Basra, Kufa, and then and Baghdad. The same task is performed by people of a language closer to the Arabs, former Persian subjects, Christian Aramaicians of Jondishapur, Harran, etc. Moreover, Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”) also takes care of the translation of Greek medical works into Arabic, as well as mathematical and philosophical works. . Harun gives the manuscripts brought from the Asia Minor campaigns for translation to the Jondishapur doctor John ibn Masaveyh (who even practiced vivisection and was then the life physician of Mamun and his two successors), and Mamun established, especially for abstract philosophical purposes, a special translation board in Baghdad and attracted philosophers (Kindi). Under the influence of Greco-Syro-Persian philosophy, commentary work on the interpretation of the Koran turns into scientific Arabic philology (Basrian Khalil, Basrian Persian Sibawayhi; Mamun's teacher, Kufi Kisaiy) and the creation of Arabic grammar, philological collection of works of pre-Islamic and Umayyad folk literature (Muallaqat, Hamasa, Khozailite poems, etc.).
The century of the first Abbasids is also known as a period of highest tension in the religious thought of Islam, as a period of strong sectarian movement: the Persians, who were now converting to Islam en masse, took Muslim theology almost completely into their own hands and aroused a lively dogmatic struggle, among which were heretical sects that had emerged even during The Umayyads received their development, and orthodox theology and jurisprudence was defined in the form of 4 schools, or interpretations: under Mansur - the more progressive Abu Hanifa in Baghdad and the conservative Malik in Medina, under Harun - the relatively progressive al-Shafi'i, under Mamun - ibn Hanbal. The government's attitude towards these orthodoxies was not always the same. Under Mansur, a supporter of the Mu'tazilites, Malik was flogged to the point of mutilation. Then, during the next 4 reigns, orthodoxy prevailed, but when Mamun and his two successors elevated (from 827) Mu'tazilism to the level of state religion, followers of orthodox beliefs were subjected to official persecution for “anthropomorphism”, “polytheism”, etc., and under al-Mu'tasim was flogged and tortured by the holy Imam ibn-Hanbal (). Of course, the caliphs could patronize the Mu'tazilite sect without fear, because its rationalistic teaching about the free will of man and the creation of the Koran and its inclination towards philosophy could not seem politically dangerous. To sects of a political nature, such as the Kharijites, Mazdakites, extreme Shiites, who sometimes raised very dangerous uprisings (the false prophet of the Persian Mokanna in Khorasan under al-Mahdi, 779, the brave Babek in Azerbaijan under Mamun and al-Mutasim, etc. ), the attitude of the caliphs was repressive and merciless even during the times of the highest power of the caliphate.
Collapse of the Caliphate
Loss of political power of the caliphs
Witnesses to the gradual collapse of X. were the caliphs: the already mentioned Mutawakkil (847-861), the Arab Nero, much praised by the faithful; his son Muntasir (861-862), who ascended the throne, killing his father with the help of the Turkic guard, Mustain (862-866), Al-Mutazz (866-869), Muhtadi I (869-870), Mutamid (870-892 ), Mutadid (892-902), Muqtafi I (902-908), Muqtadir (908-932), Al-Qahir (932-934), Al-Radi (934-940), Muttaqi (940-944), Mustakfi (944-946). In their person, the caliph from the ruler of a vast empire turned into the prince of a small Baghdad region, warring and making peace with his sometimes stronger, sometimes weaker neighbors. Within the state, in their capital Baghdad, the caliphs became dependent on the willful Praetorian Turkic Guard, which Mutasim considered it necessary to form (833). Under the Abbasids, the national consciousness of the Persians came to life (Goldzier: “Muh. Stud.”, I, 101-208). Harun's reckless extermination of the Barmakids, who knew how to unite the Persian element with the Arab, led to discord between the two nationalities. Under Mamun, the strong political separatism of Persia was expressed in the founding of the Tahirid dynasty in Khurasan (821-873), which turned out to be the first symptom of the coming apostasy of Iran. After the Tahirids (821-873), independent dynasties were formed: the Saffarids (867-903; see), the Samanids (875-999; see), the Ghaznavids (962-1186; see) - and Persia slipped out of the hands of the caliphs. In the West, Egypt, along with Syria, seceded under the rule of the Tulunids (868-905); however, after the fall of the Tulunids, Syria and Egypt were again governed by Abbasid governors for 30 years; but in 935 Ikhshid founded his dynasty (935-969), and since then not a single region west of the Euphrates (Mecca and Medina also belonged to the Ikhshids) was subject to the temporal power of the Baghdad caliphs, although their rights as spiritual rulers were recognized everywhere (except , of course, Spain and Morocco); A coin was minted with their name and a public prayer (khutbah) was read.
Persecution of free thought
Feeling their weakening, the caliphs (the first - Al-Mutawakkil, 847) decided that they should gain new support for themselves - in the orthodox clergy, and for this - to renounce Mu'tazili freethinking. Thus, since the time of Mutawakkil, along with the progressive weakening of the power of the caliphs, there has been a strengthening of orthodoxy, persecution of heresies, free-thinking and heterodoxy (Christians, Jews, etc.), religious persecution of philosophy, natural and even exact sciences. A new powerful school of theologians, founded by Abul-Hasan al-Ash'ari (874-936), who left Mu'tazilism, conducts scientific polemics with philosophy and secular science and wins victory in public opinion. However, the caliphs, with their increasingly declining political power, were not able to actually kill the mental movement, and the most famous Arab philosophers (Basri encyclopedists, Farabi, Ibn Sina) and other scientists lived under the patronage of vassal sovereigns precisely at that time the era (-c.) when officially in Baghdad, in Islamic dogmatics and in the opinion of the masses, philosophy and non-scholastic sciences were recognized as impiety; and literature, towards the end of the said era, produced the greatest free-thinking Arab poet, Maarri (973-1057); at the same time, Sufism, which was very well grafted onto Islam, turned into complete freethinking among many of its Persian representatives.
Cairo Caliphate
The last caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty
The Abbasid Caliph, that is, essentially a petty Baghdad prince with a title, was a toy in the hands of his Turkic military leaders and Mesopotamian emirs: under Al-Radi (934-941), a special position of majordomo (“emir-al-umar”) was established. Meanwhile, next door, in western Persia, the Shiite dynasty of the Buyids, which broke away from the Samanids in 930, advanced (see). In 945, the Buyids captured Baghdad and ruled it for more than a hundred years, with the title of sultans, and at that time the nominal caliphs there were: Mustakfi (944-946), Al-Muti (946-974), Al-Tai (974-991 ), Al-Qadir (991-1031) and Al-Qaim (1031-1075). Although, for political purposes, to counterbalance the Fatimids, the Shiite Buyid sultans called themselves vassals, “emirs of al-Umar” of the Sunni Baghdad Caliphate, but, in essence, they treated the caliphs as captives, with complete disrespect and contempt, patronized philosophers and freethinkers sectarians, and in Baghdad itself Shiism made progress.
Seljuk invasion
A ray of hope for deliverance from the oppressors flashed to the caliphs in the person of the new conqueror, the Turkic Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030), who, having created his own huge sultanate instead of the Samanid state that he had overthrown, showed himself to be an ardent Sunni and introduced orthodoxy everywhere; however, he only took away Media and some other possessions from the small Buyids, and avoided clashes with the main Buyids. Culturally, Mahmud’s campaigns turned out to be very disastrous for the countries he conquered, and in 1036 a terrible misfortune struck all of Muslim Asia: the Seljuk Turks began their devastating conquests and dealt the first mortal blow to the Asian-Muslim civilization, already shaken by the Ghaznavid Turks . But things got better for the caliphs: in 1055, the Seljuk leader Toghrul Beg entered Baghdad, freed the caliph from the power of the Buyid heretics and instead of them became the sultan; in 1058 he solemnly accepted investiture from Al-Qaim and surrounded him with outward signs of respect. Al-Qa'im (d. 1075), Muhtadi II (1075-1094) and Al-Mustazhir (1094-1118) lived in material comfort and respect as representatives of the Muslim church, and Al-Mustarshid (1118-1135) Seljukid Mas'ud granted independent secular governance to Baghdad and most of Iraq, which remained to his successors: Ar-Rashid (1135-1136), Al-Muqtafi (1136-1160), Al-Mustanjid (1160-1170) and Al-Mustadi (1170 -1180).
The end of X. Fatimid, so hated by the Abbasids, was put by the faithful Sunni Saladin (1169-1193). The Egyptian-Syrian Ayyubid dynasty (1169-1250) founded by him revered the name of the Baghdad caliph.
Mongol invasion
Taking advantage of the weakness of the collapsed Seljuk dynasty, the energetic Caliph An-Nasir (1180-1225) decided to expand the boundaries of his small Baghdad X. and ventured into a fight with the powerful Khorezmshah Muhammad ibn Tekesh, who advanced instead of the Seljuks. Ibn Tekesh ordered a meeting of theologians to transfer X. from the Abbas clan to the Ali clan and sent troops to Baghdad (1217-1219), and An-Nasir sent an embassy to the Mongols of Genghis Khan, inviting them to invade Khorezm. Neither An-Nasir (d. 1225) nor the caliph Az-Zahir (1220-1226) saw the end of the catastrophe they brought about, which destroyed the Islamic countries of Asia both culturally, materially, and mentally. The last Baghdad caliphs turned out to be Al-Mustansir (1226-1242) and the completely insignificant and mediocre Al-Mustasim (1242-1258), who in 1258 surrendered the capital to the Mongols to Hulagu and 10 days later was executed along with most of the members of his dynasty. One of them fled to Egypt, and there the Mamluk Sultan Baybars (-), in order to have spiritual support for his sultanate, elevated him to the rank of “caliph” under the name Mustansir (). The descendants of this Abbasid remained nominal caliphs under the Sultans of Cairo until the power of the Mamluks was overthrown by the Ottoman conqueror Selim I (1517). In order to have all the official data of spiritual leadership over the entire Islamic world, Selim I forced the last of these caliphs and the last in the Abbasid family, Motawakkil III, to solemnly renounce his caliphic rights and title in favor of
General history from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. Grade 10. A basic level of Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich
§ 10. Arab conquests and the creation of the Arab Caliphate
The emergence of Islam
The youngest of the world's religions, Islam, originated in the Arabian Peninsula. Most of its inhabitants, Arabs, were engaged in cattle breeding and led a nomadic lifestyle. Despite this, cities also existed here, the largest of which arose along the route of trade caravans. The richest Arab cities were Mecca and Yathrib.
The Arabs were well acquainted with the holy books of Jews and Christians; many adherents of these religions lived in Arabian cities. However, most Arabs remained pagans. The main sanctuary of all Arab tribes was the Kaaba located in Mecca.
In the 7th century The paganism of the Arabs was replaced by a monotheistic religion, the founder of which was the Prophet Muhammad (570-632), who, according to legend, received revelations from the Almighty - Allah and spoke to his fellow tribesmen preaching a new faith. Later, after the death of the prophet, close friends and associates of Muhammad restored and wrote down his words from memory. This is how the holy book of Muslims, the Koran (from Arabic - reading) arose - the main source of Islamic doctrine. Devout Muslims consider the Koran to be the “uncreated, eternal word of God,” which Allah dictated to Muhammad, who acted as a mediator between God and people.
Muhammad and Archangel Jebrail. Medieval miniature
In his sermons, Muhammad spoke of himself only as the last prophet (“seal of the prophets”), who was sent by God to admonish people. He called Musa (Moses), Yusuf (Joseph) and Psu (Jesus) his predecessors. People who believed the prophet began to be called Muslims (from Arabic - those who surrendered themselves to God), and the religion founded by Muhammad - Islam (from Arabic - submission). Muhammad and his supporters expected support from the Jewish and Christian communities, but both the former and the latter saw in Islam only another heretical movement and remained deaf to the calls of the prophet.
The creed of Islam is based on the “five pillars”. All Muslims must believe in one God - Allah and in the prophetic mission of Muhammad; daily prayer five times a day and weekly prayer in the mosque on Fridays are obligatory for them; Every Muslim must fast holy month Ramadan and at least once in your life make a pilgrimage to Mecca - Hajj. These duties are complemented by another duty - if necessary, to participate in the holy war for faith - jihad.
Muslims believe that everything in the world is subordinate and obeys Allah, and nothing can happen without His will. In relation to people, He is merciful, merciful and forgiving. People, realizing the power and greatness of Allah, must completely submit to Him, be submissive, trust and rely on His will and mercy in everything. A large place in the Qur'an is occupied by stories about Allah's reward to people for good deeds and punishment for sinful acts. Allah also acts as the highest judge of humanity: according to His decision, after death, every person will go to hell or heaven - depending on earthly deeds.
Establishment of Islam in Arabia and the beginning of the Arab conquests
Persecution by pagans forced Muhammad and his followers to flee from Mecca to Yathrib in 622. This event was called the hijra (from Arabic - resettlement) and became the beginning of the Muslim calendar. In Yathrib, renamed Medina (City of the Prophet), a community of Muslim believers formed. Many of its residents converted to Islam and began to help Muhammad. In 630, the prophet defeated his opponents and triumphantly entered Mecca. Soon all the Arab tribes - some voluntarily, some under the influence of force - began to profess the new religion. As a result, a single Muslim state emerged in Arabia.
The Islamic State was theocratic– the Prophet Muhammad united in his person both secular and spiritual authorities. After his death, there was still no division between the authorities - the state and the religious organization of believers formed one whole. The most important role in the life of Muslims began to be played by Sharia - a complex of religious, moral, legal and household rules and regulations ordained by Allah himself and therefore unchangeable. It is by these that a devout Muslim should be guided in his life; they are common to everyone and can only be interpreted by experts in Islamic doctrine.
Muslims storm a fortress in Syria. Medieval miniature
Even during the life of Muhammad, the Arabs began their campaigns of conquest. They fell upon the domain Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Iran. These countries were unable to withstand the attacks of the followers of Islam, inspired by the new religion. The Arabs defeated and subjugated all of Iran and captured Syria, Palestine and Egypt that belonged to Byzantium. Jerusalem, sacred to Jews and Christians, surrendered voluntarily. All the eastern possessions of Byzantium came under the rule of the Arabs, with the exception of Asia Minor.
After the death of Muhammad (632), elected caliphs (from Arabic - deputy) stood at the head of the Muslims. The first caliph was Abu Bakr, the father-in-law of Muhammad. Then Omar (Umar) ruled. After the death of Omar as a result of an assassination attempt (644), the Muslim nobility chose Osman (Uthman), the son-in-law of the prophet, as caliph.
In 656, Osman died at the hands of the conspirators, as a result of which an acute political crisis erupted that engulfed the Islamic state - the Arab Caliphate. Ali, the prophet’s cousin and husband of his daughter Fatima, became the new caliph. But influential forces in the caliphate did not recognize his power. The governor of Syria, Muawiyah, a relative of Osman, accused Ali of assisting in his murder. A turmoil began in the Arab state, during which Ali was killed (661). His martyrdom led to a split in the Muslim community. Ali's followers believed that only his descendant could become the new caliph, and all claims of other contenders for power were illegal. Ali's followers began to be called Shiites (from Arabic - a group of adherents). The Shiites endowed Ali with almost divine traits. To this day, the Shiites retain the greatest influence in Iran.
The Muslims who followed the new caliph Muawiyah (661–680) began to be called Sunnis. Along with the Koran, Sunnis recognize the Sunnah - the Holy Tradition about the actions and sayings of Muhammad. Sunnis make up the majority of modern Muslims.
Arab Caliphate in the second half of the 7th–10th centuries.
The founder of the Umayyad dynasty (661–750), Muawiya, managed to make the power of the caliphs hereditary. Capital caliphate became the Syrian city of Damascus. After the end of the turmoil, Arab conquests continued. Campaigns were made in India, Central Asia and western North Africa. The Arabs besieged Constantinople more than once, but were unable to take it. In the West at the beginning of the 8th century. The Muslim army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to the Iberian Peninsula and, having defeated the army of the Visigothic kingdom, captured most of Spain. The Arabs then invaded the Frankish state, but were stopped by the majordomo Charles Martell at the Battle of Poitiers (732). Muslims gained a foothold in the Iberian Peninsula, creating the powerful Cordoba Caliphate there in 929, and continued to push back Christians in North Africa. A vast world of Islam (Islamic civilization) emerged.
The Arab Caliphate reached its peak of power in the 8th century. The Arabs declared all conquered lands the property of the Muslim community, and the local population living on these lands had to pay a land tax. At first, the Arabs did not force Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians (adherents ancient religion Iran) convert to Islam; they were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, paying a special poll tax. But Muslims were extremely intolerant of pagans. People who converted to Islam were exempt from taxes. Unlike the rest of the caliph's subjects, Muslims donated only alms to the poor.
In the middle of the 8th century. As a result of the uprising that led to the overthrow of the Umayyads, the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258) came to power in the caliphate, which attracted not only Arabs, but also Muslims of other nationalities to govern the state. During this period, an extensive bureaucratic apparatus emerged, and the Islamic state increasingly began to resemble an eastern power with unlimited power of the ruler. The new capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, Baghdad, became one of the largest cities in the world with a population of half a million.
In the 9th century. The power of the Baghdad caliphs began to gradually weaken. Revolts of the nobility and popular uprisings undermined the strength of the state, and its territory inexorably decreased. In the 10th century The caliph lost temporal power, remaining only the spiritual head of Sunni Muslims. The Arab Caliphate disintegrated into independent Islamic states - often these were extremely fragile and short-lived formations, the boundaries of which depended on the luck and strength of the sultans and emirs who led them.
Culture Muslim countries Near and Middle East
Muslim culture that united different peoples, had deep roots. Muslim Arabs borrowed a lot from the heritage of Mesopotamia, Iran, Egypt, and Asia Minor. They turned out to be talented students, having mastered much of the knowledge accumulated by the peoples of these countries over the centuries, and passed it on to other peoples, including Europeans.
Muslims valued scientific knowledge and sought to apply it in practice. At the court of the caliphs in Baghdad and in other large cities, “Houses of Wisdom” arose - a kind of academies of sciences, where scientists translated into Arabic the works of authors from different countries and who lived in different eras. Many works belonged to ancient authors: Aristotle, Plato, Archimedes, etc.
Scientists of the Muslim East devoted considerable time to the study of mathematics and astronomy. Trade and travel made the Arabs experts in geography. Came from India through the Arabs to European science decimal system accounts. Scientists of the Muslim world have achieved significant achievements in medicine. The most famous are the works of a man who lived at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries. physician Ibn Sina (in Europe he was called Avicenna), who summarized the experience of Greek, Roman, Indian and Central Asian doctors.
Outstanding poetic works were created in Arabic and Persian. Without the names of Rudaki (860–941), Ferdowsi (940–1020/1030), Nizami (1141–1209), Khayyam (1048–1122) and other Muslim poets, it is impossible to imagine world literature.
In the Muslim East, the art of calligraphy (from the Greek - beautiful handwriting) - intricate patterns and ornaments made up of Arabic letters that form words can be seen in books and on the walls of buildings (mostly these are quotes from the Koran or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad).
Al-Aqsa Mosque. Jerusalem. Modern look
As a result of the emergence of Islam and the conquests of Muslim Arabs in the East, a new, dynamically developing Islamic civilization emerged, which became a serious rival to Western European Christian civilization.
Questions and tasks
1. List the main provisions of the Muslim faith.
2. What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?
3. How were the relations between the Muslim conquerors and people belonging to other religions?
4. Why, despite the unrest and schisms, the Islamic state for a long time managed to maintain unity?
5. What were the reasons for the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate?
6. Using a map, list the states of antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the territories of which became part of the Arab Caliphate.
7. They say that Islam is the only world religion that arose “in the full light of history.” How do you understand these words?
8. The author of the work “Kabus-Name” (11th century) talks about wisdom and knowledge: “Do not consider an ignorant person a man, but do not consider a wise person, but devoid of virtue, a sage, do not consider a cautious person, but devoid of knowledge, as an ascetic, but with the ignorant. do not communicate, especially with those ignorant people who consider themselves wise men and are satisfied with their ignorance. Communicate only with wise people, for from communicating with good people they gain good reputation. Do not be ungrateful for communicating with the good and (their. - Author) do good deeds and do not forget (this. - Auth.); do not push away the one who needs you, for through this pushing away suffering and need (are yours. - Author) will increase. Try to be kind and humane, avoid unpraiseworthy morals and do not be wasteful, for the fruit of wastefulness is care, and the fruit of care is need, and the fruit of need is humiliation. Try to be praised by the wise, and see that the ignorant do not praise you, for the one whom the mob praises is condemned by the nobles, as I heard... They say that once Iflatun (as Muslims called the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. - Author) sat with the nobles of that city. A man came to bow to him, sat down and led him different speeches. In the middle of his speeches, he said: “O sage, today I saw such and such, and he spoke about you and glorified and glorified you: Iflatun, they say, is a very great sage, and there has never been and never will be one like him. I wanted to convey his praise to you.”
The sage Iflatun, hearing these words, bowed his head and began to sob, and was very sad. This man asked: “O sage, what offense have I caused you to make you so sad?” The sage Iflatun replied: “You have not offended me, O Khoja, but can there be a greater disaster than that an ignoramus praises me and my deeds seem worthy of approval to him? I don’t know what kind of stupid thing I did that pleased him and gave him pleasure, so he praised me, otherwise I would have repented of this act. My sadness is because I am still ignorant, for those whom the ignorant praise are themselves ignorant.”
What should a person’s social circle be, according to the author?
Why should such communication be beneficial?
Why was Plato upset?
What does the mention of his name in the story indicate?
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After the death of Muhammad, the Arabs were ruled by caliphs. - heirs of the Prophet. Under the first four caliphs, his closest associates and relatives, the Arabs went beyond the Arabian Peninsula and attacked Byzantium and Iran. The main strength of their army was the cavalry. The Arabs conquered the richest Byzantine provinces - Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the vast Iranian kingdom. At the beginning of the 8th century. in North Africa they subjugated the Berber tribes and converted them to Islam. In 711, the Arabs crossed to Europe, to the Iberian Peninsula, and almost completely conquered the kingdom of the Visigoths; But later, in a collision with the Franks (732), the Arabs were driven back to south. In the east, they subjugated the peoples of Transcaucasia and Central Asia, breaking their stubborn resistance. Having then conquered Eastern Iran and Afghanistan, the Arabs penetrated into Northwestern India.
So during the 7th - first half of the 8th century. a huge state arose - the Arab Caliphate, stretching from the shores Atlantic Ocean to the borders of India and China. Damascus became its capital.
In the middle of the 7th century. Under Caliph Ali, Muhammad's cousin, civil strife broke out in the country, leading to a split of Muslims into Sunnis and Shiites.
Sunnis recognize not only the Koran as sacred books, but also the Sunna - a collection of stories from the life of Muhammad, and also believe that the caliph should be the head of the Muslim church. Shiites reject the Sunnah as a holy book and demand that believers be led by imams - spiritual mentors from the clan of Ali.
After the assassination of Ali, the caliphs from the Umayyad dynasty, who relied on the Sunnis, seized power. The Shiite uprising against the Umayyads began in Central Asia and spread to Iran and Iraq, which the Abbasids - the descendants of Muhammad's uncle, Abbas - took advantage of. The caliph's troops were defeated, the caliph himself fled to Syria, and then to Egypt, where he was killed by the rebels. Almost all the Umayyads were exterminated (one of the fleeing Umayyads created an independent Arab state in Spain - the Emirate of Kardoba, and from the 10th century - the Cordoba Caliphate). In 750, power in the caliphate passed to the Abbasid dynasty. Iranian landowners who supported the Abbasids received high positions in the state. They could even occupy the post of vizier - a senior official, assistant to the caliph.
All land in the state was the property of the caliph. Emirs (governors) from among his closest relatives collected taxes in the provinces, supported the army at this expense, and led the campaigns of conquest. Tax relief for Muslims forced many residents of conquered countries to convert to Islam. As a result, during her time Islam was adopted by the majority of the population of Syria, Egypt, a large part of Africa, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, parts of Hindustan and Indonesia.
Under the Abbasids, the conquests of the Arabs almost ceased: only the islands of Sicily, Cyprus, Crete and part of the south of Italy were annexed. At the intersection of trade routes on the Tigris River, a new capital was founded - Baghdad, which gave the name to the state of the Arabs under the Abbasids - the Baghdad Caliphate. Its heyday was during the reign of the legendary Harun al-Rashid (766-809), a contemporary of Charlemagne.
In the VIII-IX centuries. A series of uprisings swept through the caliphate. Particularly significant was the movement of the Qarmatians (one of the branches of the Shiites), who even managed to create their own state, which lasted for about a century and a half.
The huge caliphate did not remain united for long. The guard, recruited from captive Turks (immigrants from Central Asia), and the governor-emirs, who became independent rulers, acquired increasing power in it. In the 9th century. Egypt and other provinces in North Africa, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan separated from the Baghdad Caliphate. Only Mesopotamia was under the rule of the caliph, but the caliph remained the head of the Sunni Muslims.
In the middle of the 11th century. The Seljuk Turks (named after their leader Seljuk), who had by that time captured part of Central Asia, conquered most of the Arab possessions in the Middle East. In 1055 they captured Baghdad. The Caliph crowned the ruler of the Seljuk Turks and gave him the title of Sultan.