The word sociology comes from the Latin societas (society) and the Greek hoyos (study). It follows from this that sociology is the study of society. We invite you to take a closer look at this interesting area of knowledge.
Briefly about the development of sociology
At all stages of its history, humanity has tried to comprehend society. Many ancient thinkers spoke about it (Aristotle, Plato). However, the concept of “sociology” was introduced into scientific circulation only in the 30s of the 19th century. It was introduced by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher. Sociology as an independent science was actively formed in Europe in the 19th century. Scientists writing in German, French and English participated most intensively in its development.
The founder of sociology and his contributions to science
Auguste Comte is the man who gave birth to sociology as a science. The years of his life are 1798-1857. It was he who first spoke about the need to separate it into a separate discipline and justified such a need. This is how sociology arose. Briefly characterizing the contribution of this scientist, we note that he, in addition, was the first to define its methods and subject matter. Auguste Comte is the creator of the theory of positivism. According to this theory, it is necessary to create an evidence base similar to that of the natural sciences when studying various social phenomena. Comte believed that sociology is only based on scientific methods, with the help of which empirical information can be obtained. These are, for example, observation methods, historical and comparative analysis of facts, experiment, method of using statistical data, etc.
The emergence of sociology played an important role in the study of society. The scientific approach to its understanding proposed by Auguste Comte opposed the speculative reasoning about it that metaphysics offered at that time. According to this philosophical school, the reality in which each of us lives is a figment of our imagination. After Comte proposed his scientific approach, the foundations of sociology were laid. It immediately began to develop as an empirical science.
Rethinking the content of the subject
Until the end of the 19th century, the point of view on it, as identical to social science, dominated in scientific circles. However, in research conducted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the theory of sociology was further developed. It began to stand out along with legal, demographic, economic and other aspects and social. In this regard, the subject of science that interests us gradually began to change its content. It began to be reduced to the study of social development, its social aspects.
Emile Durkheim's contribution
The first scientist who defined this science as specific, different from social science, was the French thinker Emile Durkheim (lived 1858-1917). It was thanks to him that sociology ceased to be considered as a discipline identical to social science. It became independent and joined the ranks of other social sciences.
Institutionalization of sociology in Russia
The foundations of sociology were laid in our country after the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted in May 1918. It stated that conducting research on society is one of the main tasks of Soviet science. In Russia, a sociobiological institute was founded for this purpose. In the same year, the first sociological department in Russia was created at Petrograd University, headed by Pitirim Sorokin.
In the process of development in this science, both domestic and foreign, 2 levels were distinguished: macro- and microsociological.
Macro- and microsociology
Macrosociology is a science that studies social structures: educational, social, political, family, economic institutions from the point of view of their interrelation and functioning. This approach also studies people who are involved in a system of social structures.
At the level of microsociology, the interaction of individuals is considered. Its main thesis is that phenomena in society can be understood by analyzing the individual and his motives, actions, behavior, and value orientations that determine interaction with others. This structure allows us to define the subject of science as the study of society, as well as its social institutions.
Marxist-Leninist approach
In the Marxist-Leninist concept, a different approach arose in understanding the discipline of interest to us. The model of sociology in it is three-level: special theories and historical materialism. This approach is characterized by the desire to fit science into the structure of the worldview of Marxism, to create connections between historical materialism (social philosophy) and specific sociological phenomena. The subject of the discipline in this case becomes philosophical. That is, sociology and philosophy have one subject. Clearly this is the wrong position. This approach isolated knowledge about society from the global process of development.
The science that interests us cannot be reduced to social philosophy, since the peculiarity of its approach is manifested in other concepts and categories that are correlated with verifiable empirical facts. First of all, its peculiarity as a science lies in the ability to consider social organizations, relationships and institutions existing in society as subject to study with the help of empirical data.
Approaches of other sciences in sociology
Let us note that O. Comte pointed out 2 features of this science:
1) the need to apply scientific methods to the study of society;
2) use of the obtained data in practice.
Sociology, when analyzing society, uses the approaches of some other sciences. Thus, the use of a demographic approach allows us to study population and human activities related to it. The psychological one explains the behavior of individuals with the help of social attitudes and motives. The group or community approach is associated with the study of collective behavior of groups, communities and organizations. Cultural studies studies human behavior through social values, rules, and norms.
The structure of sociology today determines the presence in it of many theories and concepts related to the study of individual subject areas: religion, family, human interactions, culture, etc.
Approaches at the level of macrosociology
In understanding society as a system, that is, at the macrosociological level, two main approaches can be distinguished. We are talking about conflictological and functional.
Functionalism
Functional theories first appeared in the 19th century. The idea of the approach itself belonged to (pictured above) who compared human society with a living organism. Like it, it consists of many parts - political, economic, military, medical, etc. Moreover, each of them performs a specific function. Sociology has its own special task related to the study of these functions. By the way, the very name of the theory (functionalism) comes from here.
He proposed a detailed concept within the framework of this approach. It was continued to be developed by R. Merton and T. Parsons. The main ideas of functionalism are the following: society is understood as a system of integrated parts, in which there are mechanisms through which its stability is maintained. In addition, the need for evolutionary transformations in society is substantiated. Its stability and integrity are formed on the basis of all these qualities.
Conflict theories
Marxism can also be considered as a functional theory (with certain reservations). However, it is analyzed in Western sociology from a different point of view. Since Marx (his photo is presented above) considered the conflict between classes to be the main source of the development of society and based his idea of its functioning and development on this basis, approaches of this kind received a special name in Western sociology - conflict theories. From Marx's point of view, class conflict and its resolution are the driving force of history. From this followed the need to restructure society through revolution.
Among the supporters of the approach to considering society from the point of view of conflict, one can note such German scientists as R. Dahrendorf and the latter believed that conflicts arise due to the existence of an instinct of hostility, which worsens when a clash of interests occurs. R. Dahrendorf argued that their main source is the power of some over others. Conflict arises between those who have power and those who do not.
Approaches at the level of microsociology
The second level, microsociological, developed in the so-called theories of interactionism (the word “interaction” is translated as “interaction”). An important role in its development was played by C. H. Cooley, W. James, J. G. Mead, J. Dewey, and G. Garfinkel. Those who developed interactionist theories believed that interactions between people could be understood using the categories of reward and punishment - after all, this is what determines human behavior.
Role theory occupies a special place in microsociology. What characterizes this direction? Sociology is a science in which the theory of roles was developed by such scientists as R. K. Merton, Y. L. Moreno, R. Linton. From the point of view of this direction, the social world is a network of social statuses (positions) interconnected. They explain human behavior.
Basis of classification, coexistence of theories and schools
Scientific sociology, considering the processes occurring in society, classifies it on various grounds. For example, when studying the stages of its development, one can take as a basis the development of technology and productive forces (J. Galbraith). In the tradition of Marxism, classification is based on the idea of formation. Society can also be classified on the basis of the dominant language, religion, etc. The meaning of any such division is the need to understand what it represents in our time.
Modern sociology is structured in such a way that different theories and schools exist in it on equal terms. In other words, the idea of a universal theory is rejected. Scientists began to come to the conclusion that there are no hard methods in this science. However, the adequacy of the reflection of processes occurring in society depends on their quality. The meaning of these methods is that the phenomenon itself, and not the causes that gave rise to it, is given the main importance.
Economic sociology
This is a direction of social research that involves analysis from the standpoint of the social theory of economic activity. Its representatives are M. Weber, K. Marx, W. Sombart, J. Schumpeter and others. Economic sociology is a science that studies the totality of social socio-economic processes. They may concern the state or markets, as well as individuals or households. In this case, various methods of data collection and analysis are used, including sociological ones. Economic sociology, within the framework of the positivist approach, is understood as a science that studies the behavior of any large social groups. At the same time, she is not interested in any behavior, but related to the use and receipt of money and other assets.
Institute of Sociology (RAN)
Today in Russia there is an important institution belonging to the Russian Academy of Sciences. This is the Institute of Sociology. His the main objective- carrying out fundamental research in the field of sociology, as well as applied developments in this area. The institute was founded in 1968. Since that time, it has been the main institution of our country in such a branch of knowledge as sociology. His research is very great importance. Since 2010, he has been publishing "Bulletin of the Institute of Sociology" - a scientific electronic journal. Total There are about 400 employees, of which approximately 300 are researchers. Various seminars, conferences, and readings are held.
In addition, the sociological faculty of GAUGN operates on the basis of this institute. Although this department enrolls only about 20 students per year, it is worth considering for those who have chosen the sociology major.
1. Sociology as a science. Object, subject, functions of sociology
Sociology is the study of society.
Science object: SOCIETY
1) Social connections
2) Social interactions
3) Social relations and the way they are organized
Science subject: SOCIAL LIFE OF SOCIETY
1) Man, his consciousness, his attitude to social changes
2) Human activity, through the study of which the institutional, stratification, managerial and other levels of organization of social life are revealed
3) Relations between groups of people occupying different positions in society
4) Social structures and structural elements (individuals, social communities, social institutions):
Functions of sociology:
1) Theoretical-cognitive
2) Critical
3) Descriptive
4) Prognostic
5) Transformative
6) Information
7) Worldview
2. Structure of sociology
Sociological knowledge is heterogeneous and has its own rather complex, multi-level structure, due primarily to the difference in perspectives and levels of studying social phenomena and processes.
Sociology studies these phenomena and processes both at the level of society as a whole, and at the level of more or less broad social communities and their interactions, and at the level of the individual and interpersonal interactions. This, in particular, provides an objective basis for dividing sociological science into the following components:
1) general theoretical sociology as a macro-sociological study aimed at elucidating the general patterns of functioning and development of society as a whole;
2) middle-level sociology as research of a lesser degree of generality, focused on studying the patterns of action and interaction of individual structural parts of the social system, i.e. private, special sociological theories, including branches of sociology (sociology of social groups, sociology of the city, sociology of the village, ethnosociology, economic sociology, sociology of education, sociology of politics, sociology of law, sociology of propaganda, sociology of family, sociology of culture, sociology of labor, etc.);
3) microsociology, which studies social phenomena and processes through the prism of the actions and interactions of people, their behavior. In this structure of sociological knowledge the relationship between the general, the particular and the individual finds its expression.
Depending on the level of knowledge gained, sociological research is divided into theoretical and empirical. For theoretical sociological research, a deep generalization of the accumulated factual material in the field of social life is of decisive importance.
The focus of empirical sociological research is the accumulation itself, the collection of factual material in the specified area (based on direct observation, survey, analysis of documents, statistical data, etc.) and its primary processing, including the initial level of generalization.
The structure of sociology is sometimes analyzed through the prism of current problems relevant to various spheres of public life. In the structure of sociology, one should especially distinguish between fundamental and applied sociology. The basis for this division is the differences in the goals and objectives that are set for sociological research: some of them are aimed at building and improving theory and methodology, at enriching the foundations of sociological science itself, while others are aimed at studying practical issues of transformations of social life, at developing practical recommendations. Both theoretical and empirical research can be carried out in these directions. Applied sociology seeks ways and means of practical use of the mechanisms and tendencies of social life known by fundamental sociology.
3. Methods applied research
1) Survey method
a) Questionnaire
b) Interviewing
2) Observation method
3) Document analysis methods
4) Experimental methods
4. The role of sociology in modern society
1) Cognitive – provides new knowledge about society
2) Applied – provides specific sociological information for solving practical scientific and social problems.
3) Controlled - political parties and authorities use the possibilities of sociology to carry out targeted policies in all spheres of social activity
4) Ideological – develops social ideals, programs for scientific, technical, socio-economic and socio-cultural development of society
5) Prognostic – warns about deviations in the development of society, predicts and models trends in the development of society.
6) Humanistic - conducting social research and communicating its results to the public can contribute to the improvement of public relations and the development of society
5. Personality as a subject of social relations. Personality structure
The study of personality structure is carried out in science on two interrelated grounds: on the basis of activity and on the basis of social relations into which it enters in the process of its life. The first (“activity”) basis for structuring personality is used primarily in philosophy and psychology, and the second (“relational”) basis is used in sociological science. Thus, we can conclude: the structure of personality, like its essence, is described in completely different ways in philosophy, psychology and sociology.
The structure of personality is considered in sociology in two ways: on the one hand, as the fundamental basis of human activity, determined by the state and development of society as a whole, and on the other, as the social structure of the individual. In the first case, she relies on the principles of philosophical analysis of personality, in the second - on her own capabilities.
The social structure of a personality characterizes both the “external” and “internal” correlation of a person with society: “external” correlation is expressed in a system of social statuses (as the objective position of a person in society) and models of role behavior (as the dynamic side of statuses); “internal” correlation is represented by a set of dispositions (as subjectively meaningful positions) and role expectations (as the dynamic side of dispositions).
Man, being a social being, interacts with various social groups and participates in cooperative, joint actions. However, there is practically no such situation when a person completely belongs to any one group. For example, a person is a member of a family as a small group, but he is also a member of the enterprise team, and public organization, and sports society. Entering simultaneously into many social groups, he occupies a different position in each of them, determined by relationships with other members of the group. For example, the director of an enterprise, who occupies the highest position in a given team, when he comes to a sports society, will be there as a newcomer and incompetent, i.e. will take a low position.
6. Socialization of personality
The first occurs from birth to one year
Second crisis – 1-2 years
Third crisis – 3-4 years
The fourth crisis is related to going to school
The fifth crisis comes in adolescence and it is connected with determining one’s place in life
Sixth crisis (18-20 years old) relationship building
Seventh crisis (40 years) approximate outcome of life
Eighth crisis ( elderly age) final summary of life
7. Social statuses and roles
In modern society, each person occupies a certain position. This means that the individual has some kind of relationship, responsibilities assigned to him, and the rights he has. The totality of these personality characteristics determines it social status.
Status (from lat. status- “legal status”) is a system of rights and obligations of an individual in relation to other people with other statuses. Social status is intended to indicate the position of the individual and the social group to which he belongs in some spheres of human existence, in the sphere of human relationships.
Social status is not a stable characteristic of a person. Throughout life, a person can change a huge number of social statuses.
A person’s social status is determined by the following factors:
1. marital status of the individual;
2. degree of education;
3. the age of the person;
4. profession;
5. position held;
6. nationality.
The totality of all social statuses is called statutory set. So, one and the same person can be a mother, woman, sister, wife, teacher, candidate of science, associate professor, elderly person, Russian, Orthodox, etc.
1.2. History of sociology
The study of social phenomena and processes has a long tradition. Already in the works of philosophers Ancient world the first attempts were made to solve such problems as building an ideal state and improving social structure society (Plato), political stability in small (Aristotle) and super-large states (Polybius, Cicero), education and socialization of the individual (Socrates), etc.
Social problems in the era of antiquity were solved within the framework of such sciences as history, philosophy, sophistry, ethics, law, as well as in literature, poetry and mythology. In the Middle Ages, complex social issues were dealt with mainly by theology, which took a lot from Antiquity, but at the same time was based primarily on Christian dogmas. Problems Everyday life were decided on the basis of traditions, habits and prejudices.
In modern times, with the expansion of the geographical and intellectual boundaries of the known world, the range of social problems has also expanded significantly. They become especially acute during the era of rapid development of capitalism at the beginning of the 19th century. The third estate, which represented the most active and enterprising part of society, required, in addition to religious ones, scientific ideas about society.
The idea of the possibility of developing natural laws of existence was first expressed by Saint-Simon(1760–1825) from the standpoint of the “physical” (i.e. natural) sciences, contrasting them with theology and metaphysics. Disciple and follower of Saint-Simon O. Comte developed the idea of his teacher and developed the concept of positive science, which should take the place of theology and old philosophy. He believed that a positive science of society should be based on the same principles as physics, physiology, and biology, and at first he called it “social physics.” In his major work, “The Course of Positive Philosophy,” consisting of six volumes published successively from 1830 to 1842, Comte creates a coherent theory of the origin of the science of society, proves the need for its construction on positive principles, determines its place in the hierarchy of sciences and, finally, , gives it its name. If Saint-Simon can be considered the “forerunner” of sociology, then we can rightfully call Comte its “father.”
By analogy with physics, Comte divides his “social physics” into social statics, that is, the science of the structure, structure of society, and social dynamics, the task of which is to study the process of development of society. Society is considered by O. Comte as a single whole, consisting of interconnected parts. These parts - social institutions (family, religion, state) - by their existence contribute to “universal consent”, the unification of society. They help overcome people’s selfishness and the division of labor that separates them, educate the younger generation in an altruistic spirit, and pass on the traditions, experience and moral standards of older generations. Social dynamics, according to Comte, should study the theory of social progress.
In the literature one can find discrepancies regarding the origins of the science of sociology. If we're talking about about science, the most accurate date for its foundation should be considered 1826, when Comte began giving public lectures on the course of positive philosophy. Most authors point to 1830 as the beginning of the publication of the “Course...”, others consider (for example, A. Radugin and K. Radugin) the year of birth of sociology to be 1839, since then the 3rd volume of the “Course...” was published, in which Comte first used the term "sociology".
It must be taken into account that in his philosophical worldview Comte was an idealist. For him, the world is first thought, then exists. Consequently, the development of society begins with the appearance of ideas of progress in the minds of people. Comte identifies progress with the development of human knowledge, which passes through three stages; each of them corresponds to a certain state of society (the law of three states). “The first stage,” notes Comte, “although at first necessary in all respects, must henceforth be regarded as purely preliminary; the second is in fact only a modification of a destructive nature, having only a temporary purpose - to gradually lead to the third; It is precisely at this last, the only completely normal stage, that the structure of human thinking is in the full sense final.” Let's present this law in the form of a table (Table 1).
Table 1
O. Comte's law of three states
It is positive (positive) science, according to O. Comte, that is “the only solid basis for social transformation that will put an end to the critical state in which the most civilized peoples have been for so long”2. This science will help make the transition to an industrial, peaceful society.
The development of science and knowledge goes from simple to complex, from general to specific. Each new science, O. Comte believed, has a higher order of the phenomena being studied and includes the previous one as a necessary part. The hierarchy of sciences (the law of classification of sciences) is as follows (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Law of classification of sciences
The place of sociology, according to O. Comte, is at the top of this hierarchy, because it studies the most complex phenomena of interaction between individuals. The law of three states is combined with the law of classification of sciences in the sense that positive thinking, formed in mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology, should cover the social sphere and lead to the creation of a positive science about society - sociology. Comte considers the subject of this science to be society as a whole, the history of its development and transformation. Moreover, the laws of this development are precise and strict, just like the laws of mathematics, physics, and chemistry. These laws, according to O. Comte, can not only show the essence of society and its past, but also predict the future (the principle of historical determinism). But Comte's determinism is idealistic. If for the philosophers of the Ancient World the state of society is determined by the form of the state, for K. Marx - by the method of production, then for O. Comte - by the way of thinking. It is precisely by changing the way of thinking, while human nature remains unchanged, that Comte explains the historical movement of human civilization.
In the 40s XIX century The materialist direction of sociology arose, the founder of which was K. Marx (1818–1883). He was familiar with the works of Saint-Simon and O. Comte and agreed with them that the world is an objective reality and that it is possible to discover the exact laws of its development. But the development of human society, according to K. Marx (in this he differs from the positivists), does not occur on the basis of the development of knowledge and spirit; it is determined by material production (materialistic determinism). It is material production that determines the so-called relations of production, that is, the connections between people that arise in the production process. All connections in society (social relations) are derivatives of production relations. The basis of any society is the economic basis, which determines the political superstructure, spiritual life, all processes occurring in society, including the development of science, which is determined by the needs of material production. “It is not the consciousness of people that determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness.” For K. Marx, man is an active social being whose behavior changes depending on the reality around him. With changes in society, not only the way of thinking changes, but also the very nature of man, from which his way of action follows. Consequently, Marx believed that by developing production and changing social relations and everyday life, it is possible to change a person. Thus, society moves to a new, higher level (socio-economic formation). “Not a single social formation perishes before all the productive forces for which it provides sufficient scope have developed, and new higher relations of production will never appear before the material conditions of their existence have matured in the depths of the old society itself.”
K. Marx's views on society influenced the development of social sciences in the 20th century, but in the sociology of the 19th century. Positivism continued to dominate. Positivist sociologists, unlike metaphysical philosophers, represented the surrounding world, including nature, as an objective reality. Human society for them is a continuation, a historical part of nature. The same natural laws of movement and development operate in it, which no longer move inorganic matter, not plants and animals, but people. But there is no fundamental difference in the manifestation of natural laws in human society. Thus, the principles of positivist sociology are:
naturalism. For positivism, human society is part of nature;
organicism. A positivist sociologist understands human society as a living organism, each organ of which functions in such a way as to ensure the integrity and development of the system as a whole;
evolutionism. Society, according to positivists, is in constant motion and development. The driving forces of these changes are natural laws: the struggle for existence, natural selection, etc.
It follows that sociology should be the same “natural science” as astronomy, physics, biology, and human society develops according to natural laws. There are no specific “sociological” laws, and the methods of sociology must, in contrast to the speculative methods of metaphysics, be precise, strict, quantitatively described and experimentally verifiable.
A follower of O. Comte, the English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the creator of the biological trend in positive sociology, based his doctrine of society on an analogy with an organism developing according to the laws of evolution.
In his work “Foundations of Sociology” (1886), Spencer argues that the evolution of society lies in its differentiation (as in animals and plants - an increase in the number of species). At the same time, evolution pushes individual parts-organs of society towards greater integration, because this is the only way to preserve an integral social organism.
However, there are differences between animal society and human society. Thus, an animal individual is “concrete”, that is, it is really single, and a human individual is “discrete”, since it has abstract thinking and freedom of action. It follows that progress consists in society moving from a state in which the individual is subordinate to the whole to a state in which social organization serves the individuals who compose it. Moreover, in the first state of society, integration is forced, and in the second, it is voluntary. The behavior of people, like animals, according to Spencer, is determined by the law of force.
Another difference between animal society and human society is that the “regulatory system” of human society is based on “fear of the living and the dead,” that is, on respect for such social institutions as the state and the church. Everyday communication is regulated by “ceremonial instructions”, i.e. traditions, norms reflecting the statuses and roles of people. In the economic system of society, the role of natural selection of the organic world, discovered by Charles Darwin, is played, according to G. Spencer, by competition.
This is where the direction of sociological positivism, called “social Darwinism,” originates. Darwinian sociologists explained the development of individualistic tendencies in society by the survival of the fittest (instinct of self-preservation), and the strengthening of social solidarity, morality and morality by the manifestation of the altruistic instinct of procreation.
Social Darwinism gave food for thought to many sociologists and served as a sociological basis for such diverse currents of political thought as anarchism (P. Kropotkin), socialism (E. Evans, W. Clifford), fascism (B. Mussolini, A. Hitler).
Another English sociologist, Henry Buckle (1821–1862), founded the geographical branch of positivist sociology. He presented the progress of human society not as predetermined by providence or as the result of the free will of historical figures, but as a manifestation of natural factors. Such factors are: climate, food, soil, landscape. In the south, food is cheaper, the soil is more fertile, and the climate is more favorable for life. Hence the large population in the countries of the East, the poverty of the bulk of it and the enormous wealth of a few rulers. The landscape of temperate latitudes forms a rational, logical type of activity. This explains that “in Europe the dominant trend was the subordination of nature to man, and outside Europe the subordination of man to nature.”
Positivism gave a powerful impetus to the formation and development of sociology. But he viewed society mechanistically, that is, as being, despite the internal struggle for existence, in an equilibrium state, which was determined by the balance and strict functioning of organ parts within the framework of certain tasks. Despite O. Comte’s slogan “Order and progress,” society for the positivists remained essentially unchanged. They could not explain many social phenomena of the second half of the 19th century century, including such as revolutions, the growth of the labor movement and class struggle. All this by the 80s. XIX century led to a crisis of positivism.
Antipositivism (1880–1920) did not seek to explain the world of social phenomena by the biological struggle for existence or the influence of the natural environment. On the contrary, the founders of antipositivism, German philosophers and sociologists Wilhelm Windelband (1848–1915), Heinrich Rickert (1863–1936), Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911), saw their task as distinguishing between nature and human society, which, in their opinion, lives according to its own laws other than natural and physical ones. Not to explain society from the point of view of the universal laws of the physical world, but to understand the meaning of social phenomena, structures and processes - this is what they saw as their task. Antipositivists considered the main thing not to acquire objective knowledge about society, but to understand social facts. They chose neo-Kantianism as the philosophical basis for this understanding. Neo-Kantians criticized the philosophy of Immanuel Kant “from the right”, from the standpoint of subjective idealism. They considered the main achievement of I. Kant’s epistemology to be the subjectivity of the world and the existence of “things-in-themselves,” and the main misconceptions were the objective nature of the latter. V. Windelband and G. Rickert proceeded from the transcendental-psychological approach to the teachings of I. Kant, i.e., in place of objective truth they put transcendental values, which, although they exist ideally, have meaning for people and influence their thinking and behavior . Moreover, a “practical” interpretation of social factors close to life has higher value than theoretical schemes.
In other words, antipositivists, in contrast to positivists who recognized the world as an objective reality, argued that the laws by which nature and society develop are different, that it is impossible to get to the essence of social laws, that the essence underlying social processes and phenomena is, in principle, unknowable.
If the natural sciences are characterized by a generalizing (generalizing) method of cognition, then the social sciences are characterized by an individualizing method, meaning the establishment of individual, unique facts of reality. These unique, original social facts can be identified by correlation with stable ideal ideas-values.
V. Dilthey believed that the world and life are created by people’s ideas. And the task of an anti-positivist sociologist is not to try to reveal the essence of social facts, but to understand them.
The concept of “understanding sociology” was developed by the German sociologist Max Weber. Understanding as direct comprehension is contrasted by M. Weber with the indirect, inferential knowledge and explanation characteristic of the natural sciences. What is important is not objective knowledge, but understanding of social actions. In place of the assessment of social phenomena, M. Weber puts forward the principle of freedom from value judgments. This principle means that the reliability and truth of social phenomena and their significance for social behavior are completely different and sometimes incompatible things. It follows that there is no bad or good, positive or negative social action, that any social behavior should be understood from its correlation with the social values that are inherent in a given social group(principle of attribution to values).
“Understanding sociology” actively developed in the first half of the 20th century. in Europe (including Russia) and in the USA. Its supporters are G. Simmel, A. Virkandt, F. Znaniecki, G. Blumer, E. Hughes, R. Merton, T. Parsons, P. Struve, N. Kareev and others.
One influential branch of antipositivism was anthropological, founded by Max Scheler (1874–1929). He believed that man occupies a special position on the “ladder of beings.” He lacks some necessary instincts, for example, the ability to navigate in the forest, in the dark, a poorly developed sense of smell, touch, etc. Man has severed his direct connection with nature, and as a single being, an individual, he is not self-sufficient. He compensates for his shortcomings with culture, that is, with the knowledge and skills that he receives from society.
The further development of civilization will only increase the gap between man and nature. This entails the task of developing social institutions - family, school, church, state, which saturate the individual with culture and regulate his behavior.
The crisis of positivism in the 80s. XIX century gave impetus to the development of not only various directions of antipositivism. Around the same years, sociological science was influenced by developing psychology. Sociologists, supporters of the psychological approach, sought to explain social events based on mental phenomena. This current of sociology can be divided into the following areas:
psychological evolutionism(L. Ward, F. Giddins), who considered the development of society as part of cosmic evolution, in contrast to natural evolution, based on technical (purposeful), conscious control of social processes. The social influence of people becomes possible on the basis of the so-called “consciousness of the race”, “telesis” - a mental feeling of the common goals of the development of human civilization;
instinctivism(W. McDougal), who sought the basis of life in instincts and emotions, which are manifestations of the individual’s mental make-up;
mass psychology(G. Le Bon, G. Tarde), who sought to explain the behavior of large unorganized groups of people with the help of such group properties as the anonymity of an individual in a crowd, suggestibility, and mental contagion. Hence the uncontrollability, irrationality, and rapid changes in the mood of the crowd;
behaviorism(E. Thorndike, D. Watson) explains the behavior of animals and humans, which is a set of motor and verbal reactions, as a response to stimuli (impacts) of the external environment. The methodological basis of behaviorism was the position of positivism that sociology should be based on experience, experiment. From this, behaviorists conclude that sociology (and psychology) should study behavior, and not the psyche and consciousness. According to behaviorism, each person has a certain number of “behavior patterns” (breathing, eating, etc.). Over these elements, more complex ones are built on during the learning process. Learning is based on the principle of trial and error, but effective effective reactions are reinforced. Thus, by adjusting stimuli, it is possible to obtain certain reactions of individuals and groups. However, the results of behaviorists turned out to be inadequate for the efforts expended. The main disadvantage of this theory was the exclusion of consciousness from the chain of human behavioral acts.
In the 20s XX century the positivist tradition is being revived. Neopositivism is based on the achievements of technical and natural sciences, new developments in philosophy, logic, and the sociology of science.
The principles of neopositivism are as follows:
naturalism, i.e., the subordination of social phenomena to natural laws;
scientism, that is, the methods of sociology must be accurate, strict, objective, like the methods of the natural sciences;
behaviorism, i.e., the motivation for social behavior can only be explored through overt behavior;
verificationism, i.e. the truth of scientific statements must be established on the basis of experience and experiment;
quantification, i.e. all social phenomena must be described and expressed quantitatively;
objectivism, i.e. sociology should be free from value judgments and ideological schemes.
Neopositivist attitudes are shared by such prominent sociologists as P. Lazarsfeld, G. Zetterberger, G. Blaylock, K. Popper, J. Holton, R. Keith, T. Benton.
Chapter V. Sociology of knowledge 1. The essence of the sociology of knowledge and its boundaries a) Definition of the sociology of knowledge and its sections Sociology of knowledge is a recently emerged sociological discipline. As a theory, it seeks to establish and develop the doctrine of the so-called
Chapter 1 Subject and history of sociology 1.1. Subject, functions and methods of sociology The science of sociology owes its name to its creator Auguste Comte (1798–1857). The term "sociology" consists of two roots. The first comes from the Latin societas, i.e. “society”, the second - from
1.1.2. Functions of Sociology The term “function” is translated from Latin as “execution”. In sociology, this term is understood as the role, purpose, and specific activity of an element of the system. Sociology as a science is not only an element of the system of sciences, but also a particle
1.1.3. Methods of sociology Sociology uses general scientific methods for its research, such as analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, systems approach etc. In addition, sociology has developed its own specific research methods: observation; study
ABOUT ALEXANDER ZINOVIEV AND HIS SOCIOLOGY Nothing is given to people as hard as the truth about themselves. At one time, people were deeply shocked and outraged by the discovery of Copernicus. They did not want to admit that (their) Earth is the center of the universe, and its periphery is just one of many
“Opinion rules the world.” The history of peoples as the history of culture and civilization All educational thought, which rejected the theological understanding of history, was faced with the task of finding on earth, in the material world, what determines the actions of people as historical
Brief lecture notes on sociology
Lecture 1. Subject of sociology
Sociology translated into Russian means “the science of society.” The key concept of sociology is “community”, i.e. group, collective, nation, etc. Communities are different levels and like, for example, family, humanity as a whole. Sociology studies various problems related to community, i.e. social problems. Sociology is the science of social structure, social interaction, social relationships, social interconnections, social transformations. Sociology also studies people's attitudes towards various problems of society and studies public opinion. Sociology, as a science, has a certain structure. Depending on the content, sociology consists of three parts: 1. General sociology. 2. History of sociology and modern sociological theories. Works on sociology of past years are not an archive, but an important source of scientific knowledge and information about important social problems. Various sociological theories of our time allow us to interpret problems in different ways, to find new facets and aspects of the phenomena being studied. If previously there was the only true, infallible Marxist-Leninist sociology, now there is no ultimate truth. Various theories compete with each other, trying to more accurately and completely reflect reality. 3. Methodology of sociological research. This part discusses the tasks of how and in what ways to conduct research.
Depending on the type of community that sociology studies, the science is divided into macrosociology and microsociology. Macrosociology studies society as a whole, large social groups such as class, nation, people, etc. Microsociology studies small communities such as a family, work collective, student group, sports team. Depending on the level of consideration of social problems, sociology is divided into: 1. social philosophy, which examines the most general social patterns. 2. Middle level theory. Here, individual social processes are theoretically considered, for example, the social development of a team; individual social and demographic groups, for example, youth, workers; individual social phenomena, problems, for example, crime, strikes. A middle-level theory that studies a single problem, phenomenon, or process is called industrial sociology. There are dozens of branch sociologies, for example, sociology of youth, sociology of crime, sociology of the city, etc. 3. Empirical and applied sociology. Specific problems of individual communities are addressed here. These problems are studied empirically, that is, experimentally, using surveys, observations and other methods. Applied means necessary, useful for the specific needs of economics, politics, culture. Applied sociology serves as the basis for the creation of social technologies, that is, special developments that contain recommendations on how to act, what to do, what to say in specific problem situations.
Sociology studies social dynamics, i.e. forms and methods of development of society. A revolution is distinguished as a relatively quick, radical disruption of the social system. Evolution is the slow, gradual development of society, when each new stage appears after objective conditions have matured. Transformation is the process of transition from one stage of development of society to another. Currently, Ukraine is experiencing a social transformation, that is, a transition from a planned economy and an authoritarian political system to a market economy and a democratic system.
Thus, sociology is a science that seeks to study social relationships comprehensively. Knowledge of sociology allows us to more rationally take into account people's behavior in various problematic situations in society.
Sociology is closely related to other sciences. Sociology and mathematics. Sociology is a specific science about society. It seeks to support its provisions with quantitative data. In addition, sociology bases almost all conclusions on probabilistic judgments. For example, if a sociologist claims that an engineer is more cultured than workers, this means that this judgment is true with a probability higher than 50%. There may be many specific examples where some worker is more cultured than a certain engineer. But the probability of such cases is less than 50%. Thus, sociology is closely related to probability theory and mathematical statistics. For the purposes of social modeling, the entire mathematical apparatus is used. Mathematical programming and computer technology are used to process sociological information. Psychology. By studying human behavior, sociology is in close contact with psychology. General problems are concentrated within the framework of social psychology.
Philosophy provides sociology with knowledge of the most general laws of society, social cognition, and human activity. Economics allows us to study more deeply the causes of social relations and various situations in the life of society. Social statistics, social phenomena and processes. Sociological marketing allows you to more effectively regulate market relations. The sociology of labor studies a broad area of human relations in production. Geography is related to sociology, when the behavior of people and ethnic communities is explained taking into account their environment. It matters whether people live on the ocean, river, in the mountains, in the desert to explain the nature of social communities. There are theories linking social conflicts with the period of restless sun, cosmic factors. Sociology is associated with legal disciplines in explaining the causes of crime, social deviations, and studying the personality of criminals. There are branch sociological disciplines: sociology of law, sociology of crime, criminology.
Sociology is connected with history in explaining historical roots social phenomena. There is also the sociology of history, when sociological problems are studied using the material of past centuries. For example, social relationships and features of social behavior are studied. Sociology is associated with various types of activities through its specific methods of studying public opinion. The role of sociology in society. In determining the role of sociology in society, there are two positions that have their own tradition. Thus, O. Comte believed that the positive science of society should be useful and used for the purposes of progress. Whereas G. Spencer believed that sociology should not interfere in the course of social processes. A sociologist must observe and analyze society and draw conclusions about its patterns. There is no need to interfere in public affairs. Evolution itself will pave the way for society to progress without outside interference. In modern sociology, a positivist attitude towards sociology is more common. It must serve the cause of transforming society, social reforms, promote optimal social governance. In a democratic society, government administration and the adoption of important decisions for society should be carried out based on public opinion, which is studied by sociology. Without sociological research, public opinion will not be able to perform its inherent functions of control and consultation. Sociology will give public opinion an institutional status, thanks to which it becomes an institution of civil society. Sociology allows us to understand the processes occurring in society. An important feature of modern society is awareness of the goals and consequences of one’s activities, understanding of the essence and properties of society, which allows one to be conscious about one’s activities. This distinguishes modern society from traditional society, within which social processes are spontaneous and unconscious. Thus, the role of sociology in society is as follows. 1. Sociology contributes to the democratic transformation of society through the study of public opinion and contributing to its institutionalization. 2. Sociology promotes a deeper understanding of the essence of social processes, which allows for a conscious approach to social activity. 3. Sociology increases the level of rationality of social activity at all levels of social organization.
Lecture 2. Culture of sociological thinking
An important task of a sociology course is to develop a culture of sociological thinking. It is also an important component of the culture of a modern leader. The culture of sociological thinking depends on the extent to which the specifics of sociology have been mastered. The professional awareness of a sociologist and the ability to actively use basic research methods are important. An important aspect of sociological thinking involves the ability to handle quantitative data, write research documents, conduct empirical research, process it, and be able to interpret the results. It is necessary to understand that sociology is based on quantitative data and that the results obtained are probabilistic in nature. Objectivity, the absence of the desire to adjust the results to the ordered parameters or pre-prepared conclusions characterize the sociologist’s culture of thinking. The specificity of sociological thinking presupposes an interest in mass processes and phenomena, in those patterns that are inherent not in an individual, but in a group, collective, or community. What is important is the sociologist’s interest in the interconnections of social phenomena and processes inherent in different, intersecting planes of social space, for example, in the connections between economic, political, social, and cultural processes. Interest in public opinion and attention to the procedural aspects of its study, such as sampling, sampling error is an important component of sociological thinking. The sociologist strives for the comparability of their results with the data of similar studies. The culture of sociological thinking is alien to narrow empiricism, and excessive abstractness of judgments without a certain correspondence with positive knowledge is also unacceptable. The specificity of sociology involves a combination of social responsibility, interest in the fate of society and the rigor of analytical judgments based on scientifically proven empirical data. A sociologist must comply with ethical requirements, such as respect for respondents, confidentiality, and not act to the detriment of respondents.
Lecture 3. Methodology of sociological research
1. Methods of sociological research
2. Sociological research program
3. Questionnaire in sociological research
The methodology of sociological research answers the question of how to conduct research, using what methods. Compliance with the requirements of the methodology ensures the scientific level of the research, increases its reliability, and inspires confidence in the research of consumers of sociological information. The first thing a sociologist begins a study with is drawing up a program. The program outlines the rationale for the research problem, formulates the goals, objectives and working hypotheses of the research, determines the object of the study, sample and research methods. It also contains a work plan for the study and a program for processing the information received. Working hypotheses are the scientist’s assumptions about the possible patterns of the phenomena being studied. Hypotheses are needed to correctly and accurately compose research documents such as questionnaires. With the help of research, a sociologist tests hypotheses and expresses tentative assumptions in quantitative form. There are two types of hypotheses: essential and factorial. Essential hypotheses reveal the content of the phenomena under study. Factor hypotheses are assumptions about the causes of the phenomena being studied, about the factors affecting the dynamics of the processes being studied. There are methods of survey, observation, document analysis, statistics, social experiment, social modeling. The object of research is the community that, according to the goals, interests the sociologist. If the public opinion of the population of the republic on any issue is studied, then the object will be the adult population of Ukraine. All persons included in the object of study are called the general population. In sociological research, as a rule, not the entire population is surveyed, but only a part of it, which is called a sample. So, a sample is a part of the population that consists of specific units of observation in a given study. The sample size is determined using probability theory. The statistical minimum sample size is 30 people. When studying the public opinion of the republic, it is enough to survey 1200 - 2000 people. For a city scale, it is enough to interview approximately 500 - 800 people. To study individual labor collectives sometimes the sample is determined to be 10% of the total workforce. More accurately, the sample is calculated using special formulas. It is important not only to determine the size, but also the composition of the sample. There are several ways to determine the composition of respondents. All these methods must ensure representativeness of the sample. Representativeness or representativeness of a sample is the correspondence of the social and demographic structure of the sample to the structure of the population. For example, if the general population contains 40% pensioners, 20% youth, 50% women, 30% workers, then the sampling structure should also contain these social groups in the same proportions. The most reliable way is to sample by place of residence. It is done in the following way. The sociologist is given a sampling step, for example, the number 10. A list of all streets in the city is taken in alphabetical order. Every tenth street is selected. Every tenth house on this street is chosen. If the house is for one family, the sample is over. If the building is multi-apartment, then every tenth apartment is taken. One person from the family is interviewed at will. Interviewing random passers-by on the street is considered unreliable. In some cases, if necessary, the program may contain a software package for processing information on a computer. Research methods are selected in accordance with the nature of the problem being studied. Survey method. There are several varieties of this method. The most common is a questionnaire survey using a questionnaire. The next option for a survey is an interview, which can be conducted without a pre-prepared questionnaire, but according to a special plan. The sociologist talks with the respondent, asking questions during the conversation. In marketing sociological research, a survey method such as a focus group is often used. When discussing the desired consumer qualities of a future product in a group of 30 potential buyers. Social statistics. By analyzing statistical data, comparing them by year, region and other indicators, a sociologist can draw important conclusions. Document analysis. In sociology, a document is understood as any recorded information: newspapers, magazines, letters, television and radio messages, etc. Quantitative and qualitative processing of documents is called content analysis in sociology. Words, phrases, and fragments of a certain topic are highlighted in the text of the document. Then the sociologist calculates the frequency of these text fragments and, on the basis of this, a conclusion is drawn about the degree of public attention to a particular problem. Observation method. It can be included when a sociologist becomes involved in the activities of a community and observes the processes that interest him as if from the inside, taking part in them himself. Non-participant observation involves distancing the sociologist from the phenomenon being studied on the basis of a view, so to speak, “from the outside.” Social experiment method. There are two communities. One of them is control, the other is experimental. By changing any parameters in the experimental group, a sociologist studies the effect of such influence. Social modeling method. Certain social phenomena are described in a mathematical, quantitative form, and then, using a computer, changes in these phenomena are simulated, including one or another parameter. Questionnaire and questionnaire survey. A questionnaire is a questionnaire that has a certain structure. The questionnaire has a title and an introduction. The introduction contains information about the purposes of the study, who is conducting the study, brief instructions on how to fill it out, an indication that the questionnaire is anonymous and a short, polite formula is desirable. The source of the questions are the research objectives, working hypotheses (both essential and factor), wishes of the customer, questions from questionnaires, previously conducted similar studies. At the end of the questionnaire there are questions about the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondent (passport), such as gender, age, education, occupation, etc. Types of questions. An open question does not contain ready-made answer options. A closed question contains pre-prepared answers. The respondent must select one or more options. 2. Alternative or expanded questions. The alternative question requires a yes or no answer. An extended question, such as a “menu”, contains several answer options. A scale question allows you to measure the intensity, strength, and degree of importance of a particular answer option. The scale may look like sentences such as: “To a large extent,” “to a moderate extent,” “to a small extent.” Methodology is a broad branch of sociological knowledge, mastery of which allows one to conduct reliable, scientifically based sociological research.
Lecture 4. Society and its social structure
1. The essence of society, social institutions and organizations
2. Social structure of society
3. Social mobility
Society is the totality of all methods of interaction and forms of association of people, having a common territory, common cultural values and social norms. Society is a term that denotes the collectivist integrity of the population of a particular country. The social structure of society is a set of social groups, classes, social institutions and social organizations. A social institution is a stable, organized, generally accepted form of relationships between people, established to perform one of the functions of society. Sustainable means existing for quite a long time in a more or less constant, standard form. Organized means existing in the form of a specific organization, a stable group, formalized, having boundaries. Generally accepted means accepted in agreement with the majority. Each institution has its own set of rules of behavior and roles to perform the corresponding social function. Examples of institutions: family, education, army, police, banks, law, etc. Social organization is the social component of any organization, that is, a network of relationships between people, the structure of organization members according to social characteristics, norms, values and interests. There are many theories of social structure. The main difference between these theories is in the principles of social division taken as a basis. Let us highlight two main groups of theories: class and social stratification. The theory of classes is developed by Marxism. According to this theory, classes differ in relation to ownership of the means of production. For example, capitalists are the owners of the means of production, but workers do not have this property. There is a social gap between the classes; they are divided by irreconcilable hostility, which leads to revolution. According to another group of theories, a set of social layers of society is identified and called social stratification (stratification, from the word “strata”, which in geology is called “layer”). In social stratification there are three main layers: upper, middle and lower social classes. Each layer consists of a number of professional groups. To classify a particular profession as a particular social class, you should find out the presence of three main indicators: income, level of education and prestige of the profession. All three indicators are combined into one socio-economic occupational index. A certain value of the socio-economic index corresponds to each social class. As you can see, the indicator of attitude towards property does not matter here. One class smoothly passes into another with a change in the value of the socio-economic index of occupation. The main reason for the division or differentiation of society is the difference in social status and interests. But besides this, social groups differ in lifestyle, way of thinking, social behavior, culture, etc. By studying social structure, we actually cover the entire society. Society is characterized by a certain type of social structure. Thus, the most optimal, from the point of view of social stability, is a social structure in which the majority of the population belongs to the middle class. In other words, the overwhelming majority of society has income sufficient for a decent existence. If the majority of the population belongs to the lower class, the middle class is small, and the top of society is many times richer than the rest, then such a society is unstable. The social structure of Ukraine is not yet optimal, but the state sets a goal to increase the middle class and get closer to general civilizational standards. Sometimes social structure is understood as a general name for a number of different structures of society: socio-demographic, socio-professional, socio-cultural, etc. Based on this, various indicators of social differentiation are identified. For example, for the socio-professional structure, the level of qualifications and the division of workers into performers and managers are important; workers and engineers. For the socio-demographic structure, differences in social status and interests of people of different genders and ages are significant. Social structure is studied to understand the causes of events occurring in society. The relationship between social groups is the cause of many social phenomena. Sometimes the signs of social division (differentiation) are not one, but a set of indicators. Modern studies propose using lifestyle characteristics as indicators of social division. This is especially often done in marketing sociological research. For example, to identify population groups consuming a certain product, characteristics such as the structure of free time, musical tastes, area of residence, etc. are used. Social mobility. The social structure of society is constantly changing. People change their social status, i.e. social position. Social movement from class to class is called social mobility. The following types of social mobility are distinguished. 1. Vertical and horizontal mobility. Vertical mobility means social movement up or down the social ladder with changes in status. Horizontal mobility means moving without changing status, for example, changing a profession with the same socio-economic index, changing place of residence. 2. Group and individual mobility. Individual mobility means a change in social status by an individual due to personal efforts. Group mobility means a change in the status of an entire social group or class at once. Thus, as a result of the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, the nobility moved down from the highest rung of the social ladder. Individual mobility is inherent in democratic civilized states. Group mobility is a painful process, a consequence of social catastrophes. 3. Open and closed mobility. Open mobility is characteristic of democratic societies and means the absence of legislative difficulties in the process of social movements. Closed mobility is characteristic of totalitarian regimes, which create significant obstacles to social movement. 5. Objective and subjective mobility. Objective mobility means real social movement. Subjective mobility means a change in the way of thinking, habits, norms, aspiration to a different social status in consciousness. Research in the field of social structure is used to study political, cultural, and economic problems.
Lecture 5. Sociology of small groups
1. Sociology of small groups
2. Small group study methods
A small group is a contact group, i.e. a community of people who know each other and directly communicate with each other. For example, a family, a study group, a sports team, a work team. The characteristics of a small group are: 1. Small sizes, allowing you to communicate and know each other. 2. Joint activities. 3. Presence of a common leader. Small groups can be formal, that is, officially organized, and informal, that is, existing on the basis of ties of sympathy, for socio-psychological reasons, or on the basis of common activities that are not officially recorded. For example, a circle of close friends within a student group, a yard team, an amateur music group. The structure of the group is divided according to socio-psychological and functional characteristics. A group has a leader who leads the group; outsiders, i.e. rejected members of the group with whom members of the group with average status avoid communicating. Functions and characteristics of a leader: this is the most authoritative person who has the greatest amount of information. He is usually the best at doing the job the group is doing. He is the bearer of group norms of behavior. That is, he knows better than others what to do and how to do it, what can and cannot be done. He distributes functions among group members and resolves conflicts. An outsider has characteristics opposite to those of a leader. According to their functions, group members can be recognized as “fun people”, “constantly guilty”. “experts”, etc. The structure of the group is studied by sociometry, the author of which is the American sociologist J. Moreno. Group members are offered a questionnaire with a question like this: “Suppose you were tasked with selecting a group to complete an important task, which of your team members would you select for this group?” Based on the survey results, they determine who is the most authoritative, who is the most unpopular, and who occupies the middle position in the group. The results are presented in a table (sociomatrix) and in a graph (sociogram). On the graph, arrows depict connections between sympathy and antipathy. Social psychology recommends distributing workers in production in accordance with the connections of sympathy and antipathy. That is, so that people who are hostile to each other do not work nearby. If people work nearby who treat each other with sympathy or neutrality, then in such teams there is higher work efficiency, higher quality, less injuries in work units, and higher team stability.
Lecture 6. Sociology of personality
1. Sociology of personality
2. Personality in a system of social relationships
Man is a bio-social being. Personality is the social side of a person. A person in sociology is considered as a member of a social group. To live in a community, he develops social traits. The concept of personality characterizes the social side of a person. Social qualities of an individual include: self-awareness, value orientations, responsibility, goals of activity, social status, social roles, norms and values, level of education, activity, independence in decision-making, etc. For sociology, the social type of personality is important - it is a set of frequently repeated social qualities of people belonging to a certain social group. Value orientations are social, moral values that are important for a person, this is an orientation towards certain values, such as: material well-being, health, family, knowledge, respect for others, faith, free time, pleasure, freedom, etc. Depending on the type of significant values a person organizes and directs his activities. People differ in value orientations. Another important personality trait is self-esteem, self-awareness. If a person’s opinion about himself coincides with the opinions of others, then this is adequate self-esteem, which indicates the normal social development of a person. If a person considers himself better than others think of him, then this is inflated self-esteem. If such a difference is very strong, a person looks ridiculous in the eyes of other people, his claims are unjustified and he constantly fails in his affairs. If a person thinks of himself worse than those around him think, then this is low self-esteem. In this case, the person does not take responsibility, acts below his capabilities and does not achieve in life what he could achieve based on his abilities. Both low and high self-esteem make it difficult for a person to interact socially. An important problem is the socialization of the individual - this is the process of becoming a full member of society, a citizen of the country, possessing the necessary qualities for existence in society, such as conscience, responsibility, duty, sense of justice, patriotism, etc. Primary socialization occurs in the family. At this stage, parents play a decisive role. Further, during the period of secondary socialization, the social environment plays an important role. Socialization goes through the stages of imitation, when a person follows the examples of others. The adaptation stage means adapting one’s desires to the requirements of others. The highest level of socialization is internalization, that is, a state when a person internally feels the importance of social norms of behavior and cannot act otherwise than is required for a socially responsible person. The phenomenon of identification is important, that is, the feeling of being part of a community, family, country, nation, etc. Identity allows a person to feel like a full member of society. Loss of identity is a serious problem, which on a massive scale is characteristic of a social crisis. This condition reduces the activity of the individual and is the cause of deviant behavior, increased crime, and loss of meaning in life.
Lecture 7. Sociology of crime
Crime is a type of deviant behavior associated with serious violations of social norms. In general, the increase in crime is associated with an increase in anomie, that is, a state in society in which the importance of norms is reduced. Social norms are the rules of behavior accepted in society, attitudes towards others, criteria for assessing “good and bad”. The theory of anomie was developed by E. Durkheim and R. Merton. There are different norms-goals of human behavior and activity, as well as norms-means of achieving these goals. The types of anomie depend on what goals or means accepted in society are violated. So, a person can agree with the goals, but violate the means (this is typical for theft); agree with the means, but violate generally accepted goals (extreme bureaucracy, voluntarism); may not agree with either the goals or the means (this is typical for the marginal part of society, i.e. homeless people, tramps). A situation is possible when some norms are rejected, but new ones are proposed in their place. These are rebels, revolutionaries, those who seek to radically transform society. During a social crisis, anomie increases. To stabilize society, it is necessary to overcome anomie. Crime is also explained by a violation of socialization, when a person either has not learned generally accepted social norms or has learned negative norms that are unacceptable in society. This is due to the influence of the environment, with a violation of the structure of values. Reference groups play an important role in the development of a person, i.e. people who are important to a given person, whom he orients himself to and takes as an example from them. Sometimes a criminal group can become a reference group for a teenager. To re-educate a person is to achieve his reorientation to another reference group that has socially approved values and behavior. Re-education also means adjusting the results of socialization so that a person with deviant behavior accepts generally accepted norms as “correct”. Sometimes, due to drug addiction or alcoholism, a person loses previously learned norms - this is called desocialization. Having recognized the violation of norms as wrong, a person can try to follow generally accepted norms again, this is called resocialization. The task of society is to help the criminal take the path of resocialization. This is especially important during the period when a person is released after imprisonment. In civilized societies, there are social services that provide assistance to former prisoners, tramps, alcoholics, drug addicts who wish to take the path of reform. Sociology studies the social causes of crime and the personality of the criminal. According to the requirement of the Council of Europe, of which Ukraine is a member, the death penalty should be abolished, replacing it with long prison terms. This is motivated by moral and religious considerations. In connection with the social crisis in Ukraine high level crime. In addition to economic reasons, such reasons as drug addiction, alcoholism, increased migration, and weakening of the family are also important. In the financial sector, there is a lag between the level of legislation and the ability of criminals to commit major thefts.
Lecture 8. Social technologies
Social technologies are a system of procedures, methods, techniques for regulating social processes and phenomena. Unlike research procedures, technologies are aimed at shaping specific behavior or activity in specific situations of social life. The technological approach is the field of designing various means to solve social problems. Technological cognition is associated with the analysis of specific everyday situations to determine the means of achieving social results. Technology is a process of streamlining the system of means used and regulates the activities of people in relation to other people. Technology connects goals, means and streamlines activities to achieve the goal. Without understanding the processes taking place, it is impossible to develop technology for solving problems. Each phenomenon is unique, but in a series of similar phenomena there are repeating components. It is the presence of these similar features that makes it possible to develop a unified technology for regulating social processes. The uniqueness of social phenomena is taken into account in the fact that technologies are configured to solve specific problems in specific situations. Features of technology implementation depend on the specifics of the Environment in which this technology is implemented. Types of social technologies (according to the level of social activity): global, national, regional, at the level of local government, social organizations and individual units. Based on the nature of the impact, the following will stand out: formative technologies aimed at the formation of certain social processes; stimulating, aimed at maintaining social processes; restraining, setting boundaries for certain processes, limiting their occurrence and spread; destructive, i.e. destructive, aimed at eliminating negative social processes. Two more types can also be distinguished: 1) technology for preparing solutions (social diagnostics) and 2) technology for their implementation. In terms of content, technologies in the field of personnel support, i.e. certification, selection and training of personnel, are most often found.
Lecture 9. Sociology of public opinion
Public opinion is the collective judgment of people on socially significant issues. In a democratic society, government administration and the adoption of important decisions for society are carried out based on public opinion. Therefore, the study of public opinion is important task sociologists. Due to the fact that society is socially heterogeneous, there are social groups with different interests, and public opinion is also heterogeneous. The boundaries of differences of opinion coincide with the boundaries of social structure. In different social groups different image thoughts, different positions and opinions in relation to many problems of society. But on some issues, the majority of the population may have a common opinion. If more than half of people agree with a certain opinion, then we can talk about the presence of public opinion on this issue. Public opinion has controlling, consulting and directive functions. The controlling function lies in the fact that public opinion develops judgment on all socially significant problems and thereby, as it were, controls the state regarding whether it acts in the interests of society or not. If politicians, entrepreneurs and representatives of other institutions of society are interested in polling the population in order to take public opinion into account when making decisions, then in this case an advisory function is implemented. This function is important for sociological marketing, when the manufacturer of a product is interested in what product the consumer needs with what qualities. In the event of a referendum, elections of the President or the Verkhovna Rada, the results of a comprehensive survey of the population in accordance with the Constitution are of a mandatory, directive nature. For the functioning of the institution of public opinion, the following conditions are necessary: 1) political (which are democracy); 2) organizational (organizations for the study of public opinion); communication (information bodies that report the results of surveys). Public opinion on a certain problem is formed if: 1) this problem arouses interest among the population; 2) there is a certain level of awareness, awareness, and competence on this issue; 3) there is an incentive to express a formulated opinion. Public opinion: 1) cannot be usurped, that is, unreasonably, without polls, arrogate to oneself the right to speak on behalf of society; 2) it cannot be manipulated, that is, used arbitrarily, in the selfish interests of politicians or businessmen; 3) it cannot be distorted to suit the opportunistic needs of various institutions. Public opinion can be shaped by targeted efforts through persuasion, suggestion, influence through the mechanisms of fashion, and mental infection in the crowd. Truthful, accessible, comprehensive information allows you to correctly form public opinion. It can be studied through surveys, studying documents based on sample research.
Lecture 10. Sociology of culture
1. Sociology of culture
2. Family as a social institution
The sociology of culture is a special sociological theory that studies the patterns of the functioning of culture in society: its place and role in society, the content, forms and directions of cultural activity, the cultural level of different social groups, cultural needs and the level of their satisfaction, the state, content and effectiveness of activities social institutions and cultural institutions, the qualitative composition of personnel in the field of culture, the situation on the artistic culture market, characteristics of the public and the repertoire of cultural institutions, management problems in the field of culture. The problems of the connection between culture and social structure, cultural dynamics, the causes of conflicts in the sphere of culture and ways to solve them are studied. The sociology of culture has its own branches of research. Thus, sociology of literature, sociology of cinema, music, theater, etc. Sociology of culture also means the totality of norms and values of society and the individual. Indicators of the level of cultural development are: the number of cultural products, the presence of world samples of works of art, the combination of the latest in form of works with traditional culture, the high prestige of cultural activities and cultural figures, their high earnings, the prestige of domestic culture abroad, the wide participation of amateur artists, musicians and etc. in cultural life, the presence of sophisticated works of art and the expansion of the audience capable of perceiving sophisticated works. Signs of a person’s level of culture are the time spent and material resources for the purposes of cultural activity, the presence of artistic taste, assimilation of the experience of the past and the ability to create new examples of culture. An important means of transmitting the cultural values of society is the family. A family is a group of people related by marriage and blood. The modern family is monogamous, that is, a person has one marriage partner. In history there were polygamous families, when a person had several marriage partners. It is important to maintain equality between husband and wife in the distribution of family responsibilities and in relationships with each other. Each family member has their own family roles. Correct observance and understanding of them prevents conflicts. The family has the following functions: reproductive (birth of children), cultural and educational, moral, economic, socio-psychological. An important issue is family stability.
Lecture 11. Stages of development of sociology as a science
The history of sociology can be divided into two periods. The first is typical for social theories that have not yet emerged as a separate science. The second period begins in the middle of the 9th century, when the French scientist Auguste Comte founded an independent science of society, calling it “Sociology”. From this time until the end of the twentieth century, the emergence of the independent science of sociology took place. An important role at this time was played by the English sociologist G. Spencer, who developed the theory of social evolution. An important role was played by the work of German sociologists F. Tönnies, who drew attention to the difference between community and society, and G. Simmel, who substantiated the peculiarity of social cognition. The pre-war period was characterized by the emergence of empirical sociology and the development of various sociological schools. The works of E. Durkheim, M. Weber, P. Sorokin and others played a major role at this time. In the post-war period, thanks to the works of Talcott Parsons, the sociological theory of “structural-functional analysis” arose, on the basis of which research was carried out for several post-war decades. Currently, postmodern sociological theory is being formed, in which the works of the English sociologist E. Giddens and the French scientist Pierre Bourdieu play an important role. The development of sociology in Ukraine and Russia is characterized by the participation of sociologists in solving pressing social problems. One of the first sociologists of the 19th century were populist thinkers K. Mikhailovsky, P. Tkachev, P. Lavrov. They developed ideas of identity Russian history and the impossibility of measuring it by Western standards. The late Slavophiles M. Danilevsky and K. Leontyev prophesied the decline of Western civilization and the flourishing of Russian society. Prominent sociologists were P. Lilienfeld and E. De Roberti. The most prominent sociologist at the turn of the century was M. Kovalevsky, a Ukrainian by birth. In his works “Modern Sociologists” and “Sociology” he developed the ideas of social progress and explored the factors of social development. A prominent sociologist was Pitirim Sorokin, who developed empirical research. Marxist sociology (Struve, Plekhanov, Lenin, Stalin) played a major role in Russian sociology of the twentieth century. A striking personality of the early twentieth century was the Ukrainian Bogdan Kistyakovsky, who in his work “Society and the Individual”, “Russian Sociological School” studied the classification of social sciences, criticized subjective sociology, and developed the psychological direction in sociology. He actively contributed to the development of sociology in Russia and Ukraine; on his advice, M. Weber’s books were published in Kyiv.
Lecture 12. Sociology of Emile Durkheim
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - French sociologist, one of the founders of modern sociology. Editor of the first sociological journal, founder of the first faculty of sociology. Author of 200 works on sociology. The most famous works: “On the Division of Social Labor”, “Suicide”, “Method of Sociology”. Durkheim asserted the principle of empirical (based on experience) validity of sociological theory. His approach is called “sociological realism” or “sociologism,” in which a social phenomenon or society is defined as a unique reality that differs from a simple sum of individuals. The laws inherent in society, therefore, cannot be derived from the laws of individual consciousness and psychology. Social facts cannot be deduced from the laws of individual consciousness. Social phenomena can only be explained with the help of another social phenomenon. Sociology studies social facts that should be studied as things. They exist objectively and do not depend on individuals. Society has a coercive influence on the individual and is morally superior to the individual. Social facts are material and spiritual, the latter making up the collective consciousness. An important problem is to achieve solidarity in society, which can be mechanical (i.e. forced, characteristic of archaic and totalitarian societies) and organic (i.e. free, characteristic of modern democratic societies). The growth in the number of people and the differences between them stimulates progress and gives impetus to the division of labor. This causes conflicts in which the weak either die or are transformed. The division of labor can become the basis of solidarity. Durkheim analyzes the social causes of suicide, for example, anomie, that is, the absence and weakness of norms in society. Other reasons of a social nature are altruism, egoism, fatalism, i.e. excessive attachment or isolation from the immediate social environment. Durkheim's theory provided the impetus for the founding of structural functionalism. research into the social sources of religion, the social foundations of education and ethics.
Lecture 13. Sociology of Max Weber
Max Weber (1864-1920) - German sociologist, historian, social philosopher. An important theme of it research work there was a problem of the origin and specificity of Western European capitalism, as a type of economic behavior, a management system, the basis of which is the calculation of expenses, profits and the rational organization of free labor. Weber's methodological tool was the theory of “ideal types,” according to which the desalinated phenomena of reality were reproduced in individual originality, logical consistency and cultural significance. An ideal type is a logical standard with which one can compare specific phenomena and thereby better understand their meaning and development trends. In his work “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” Weber showed. that rational economic behavior was formed under the influence of the professional ethics of Protestantism, i.e., the Christian religious ideology widespread in Europe and America. In his work “Basic Sociological Concepts,” Weber developed the doctrine of “understanding sociology,” which involves understanding the meaning of human activity and, on the basis of this, explaining human actions. The level of rationality of social action can vary from low (in a traditional society) to high (in a modern society). In terms of content, social action is guided either by social norms or by the expectations of the people around them. The ideal type of unification of people is carried out on the basis of one language or on the basis of common market relations. Weber studied the relationship between religion and social structure across a variety of religious schools and eras. Religious values are created by certain social groups, which influences the content of ethics. Religious and ethical ideas are capable of going beyond their social carriers and spreading among the broad masses and becoming the spiritual guidelines of civilization. such an idea in Western Europe is the ethics of “mastering the world.” Weber considered it necessary to combine democracy, human freedom with strong nation state. Weber analyzed the national liberation movement in Ukraine, and believed that Ukraine's independence was a stumbling block for Russian democracy. The concepts of the world process of rationalization, the theory of social action, the ideas of political sociology, comparative historical sociology, and the sociology of religion had a great influence on the development of sociology of the twentieth century.
Lecture 14. Sociology of Pitirim Sorokin
Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968) - American sociologist of Russian origin, founder of the sociological department of St. Petersburg University, author of the monographs “System of Sociology” and “Crime and Punishment, Feat and Reward”, where he develops general theory normative human behavior. In 1922, he, along with hundreds of other Russian scientists and representatives of the intellectual elite, were sent abroad. In the United States, he at one time headed the American Sociological Association. The range of his scientific interests in America is very wide. He is the author of the books “Sociology of Revolution”, “Social Mobility”, books on rural sociology, the author of five volumes of the book “Social and Cultural Dynamics”, where he develops with the help statistical methods general trends in world culture. In his work “The Crisis of Our Time,” Sorokin writes: “We seem to be between two eras: the dying sensual culture of our radiant yesterday and the future ideological culture that will be created tomorrow.” “Ideational,” as explained by P. Sorokin, is “a system of culture, based on the principle of the supersensibility and superintelligence of God, as the only reality and value, which serves as the basis and foundation of any culture.” “... the real crisis is not just economic or political turmoil, the crisis simultaneously affects almost the entire Western culture and society, all of its main institutions. This is a crisis of art and science, philosophy and religion, law and morality, way of life and morals. This is a crisis of forms of social, political and economic organization, including forms of marriage and family. In short, it is a crisis of almost the entire life, way of thinking and behavior inherent in Western society. This crisis consists of the disintegration of the fundamental forms of Western culture and society of the last four centuries." “...the real crisis is not the death throes of Western culture and society, that is, the crisis does not mean either destruction or the end of their historical existence, but represents only the destruction of the sensual form of Western society and culture, which will be followed by a new integration. The tragedy and chaos, horrors and grief of the transition period are finite, they will bring to life new creative forces in a new integral form. Sorokin paid attention to the problems of social structure, social mobility, social and cultural dynamics of social equality. He explored the social patterns of human happiness and love. Sorokin is the author of more than 50 books, which have been translated into many languages and constitute classics of world sociology.
Lecture 15. Sociology of T. Parsons
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) - an outstanding American sociologist of the post-war period, the author of the theory of structural functionalism, which is set out in the books “The Structure of Social Action”, “Theories of Society”, “The Social System”, etc. The author himself called his theory analytical realism or constructivism . Parsons criticized the overreliance on empirical research and believed that without theory it is impossible to correctly understand the facts. According to his views, any social system is based on the interaction of people. Sociological concepts are not copies of social phenomena, but generalizations of them. The important problem is the relationship between human activity and social order. Parsons poses the question: “How is social order possible if real structural elements of the social world are there separate individuals endowed with reason, feelings and will? How is free human activity possible in a structurally organized and orderly society that wants to subordinate the desires of people to a certain common interest? This problem is solved with the help of utilitarianism, according to which a person strives for his own benefit and acts rationally, counting on a reward. A model of economic man is being formed. Positivism is also important, i.e. a set of causal relationships that determine human activity in a certain situation. Next, idealism is important, which considers human activity from the point of view of its value-normative regulation, emphasizing the significance of a certain value or norm. These three phenomena are united in the concept of voluntaristic order, which acts as a consequence of the interaction of people endowed with reason and will. emotions. Parsons paid attention to psychoanalysis, with the help of which he explained “elementary social action.” By this he understood the totality of such elements as: situation, conditions of action, actor, goals.
Bibliography
To prepare this work, materials from the site http://kataev.iatp.org.ua were used
The science of sociology owes its name to its creator. Auguste Comte(1798–1857). The term "sociology" consists of two roots. The first comes from the Latin societas, i.e. “society”, the second comes from the Greek loros, meaning in in the narrow sense“word”, and in the broad sense – “teaching”, “science”. Thus, the term “sociology” is translated as “the science of society.”
Consequently, the object of study of sociology, as well as other social sciences, is human society.
But human society is also studied by other social and human sciences, for example, philosophy, history, economics, political science, etc. Each of them studies its own sphere of society, that is, it has its own subject of study. Sociology also has it.
Different sociologists have different views on the subject of their science. As the founder of sociology, O. Comte, believed, the subject of research by sociologists should be the laws of social development, from which practical recommendations would flow that would be useful in all sectors of human activity. O. Comte likened sociology to the natural sciences, sometimes calling it social physics. The laws of social development, like natural laws, are, in his opinion, strict, unambiguous and objective in nature, independent of the will of people.
Max Weber(1864–1920) considered the subject of sociology to be the so-called social action, that is, an action that correlates with the actions of other people and is oriented towards them. The subject of sociology in M. Weber is subjectified, “attached” to a person.
Emile Durkheim(1858–1915) took a different path. He declared the subject of the science of society to be social facts, by which he understood norms, laws, values, ideas of people, social institutions, organizations and generally ideas materialized in the form of, for example, buildings, structures, etc. Each generation of individuals finds its own set social facts that determine people's behavior. E. Durkheim's approach to the subject of sociology is objective, independent of specific person character.
The approaches of M. Weber and E. Durkheim are united by the fact that they, like the overwhelming number of other sociologists, consider a person’s behavior in society to be determined by the connections that he has with the people and objects around him, his previous experience of communication, education, upbringing, place in public life, public institutions, etc.
> the subject of sociology is social connections, public relations.
1.1.1. The place of sociology in the system of sciences
The theoretical basis, the foundation of sociology is philosophy, within the framework of which sociological problems were solved for 2.5 thousand years, until in the 19th century. did not become an independent science. It is from philosophy that sociology draws paradigms, concepts, approaches, individual ideas, methods and terminology. History, ethics, and legal science have had and continue to have a great influence on the development of sociology. The sciences closest to sociology in terms of age, historical development, and in relation to philosophy as the ancestor can be considered psychology and political science. Sociology has very close ties with such sciences as economics, ethnography, and anthropology. Sociology has less close, although no less significant for its development, connections with physiology, mathematics, statistics, geography and other sciences (Fig. 1).
1.1.2. Functions of sociology
The term "function" in Latin means "execution". In sociology, this term is understood as the role, purpose, and specific activity of an element of the system. Sociology as a science is not only an element of the system of sciences, but also a part of the all-encompassing system of human society. What functions does sociology perform in society?
Epistemological(theoretical-cognitive) function allows you to obtain new sociological knowledge, create and clarify theories, concepts, and develop a general view of society and its social connections.
Information The function makes it possible to obtain sociological knowledge not only for specialists, but also for the public.
Management function does not mean that sociologists directly control society. Their task is to develop recommendations for social management, to explain social phenomena, to search for their causes and possible solutions.
Organizational the function of sociology is to organize various groups: in production, in the political sphere, in military units, on vacation, etc.
Prognostic function allows you to predict the future. It is especially valuable for those who draw up and approve long-term plans and make responsible decisions regarding the distant future.
Propaganda the function of sociology makes it possible to form social ideals, values, create images of heroes of society, and certain social relations. This function is especially active in education, politics, the activities of the media, and the military sphere.
The presence of these functions shows the significance, usefulness of sociology for society, its functionality.
1.1.3. Methods of sociology
Sociology uses general scientific methods for its research, such as analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, systems approach, etc.
In addition, sociology has developed its own specific research methods:
observation;
study of documentary sources;
testing;
sociometry;
social experiment.
Thus, sociology has all the signs of a science: the object and subject of research, its structure and functions, research methods. Sociology does not duplicate or cancel other sciences. This is an independent science and academic discipline that occupies a worthy place in the system of scientific knowledge.
1.2. History of sociology
The study of social phenomena and processes has a long tradition. Already in the works of philosophers of the Ancient world, the first attempts were made to solve problems such as building an ideal state and improving the social structure of society (Plato), political stability in small (Aristotle) and super-large states (Polybius, Cicero), education and socialization of the individual (Socrates) and etc.
Social problems in the era of antiquity were solved within the framework of such sciences as history, philosophy, sophistry, ethics, law, as well as in literature, poetry and mythology. In the Middle Ages, complex social issues were dealt with mainly by theology, which took a lot from Antiquity, but at the same time was based primarily on Christian dogmas. The problems of everyday life were solved on the basis of traditions, habits and prejudices.
In modern times, with the expansion of the geographical and intellectual boundaries of the known world, the range of social problems has also expanded significantly. They become especially acute during the era of rapid development of capitalism at the beginning of the 19th century. The third estate, which represented the most active and enterprising part of society, required, in addition to religious ones, scientific ideas about society.
The idea of the possibility of developing natural laws of existence was first expressed by Saint-Simon(1760–1825) from the standpoint of the “physical” (i.e. natural) sciences, contrasting them with theology and metaphysics. Disciple and follower of Saint-Simon O. Comte developed the idea of his teacher and developed the concept of positive science, which should take the place of theology and old philosophy. He believed that a positive science of society should be based on the same principles as physics, physiology, and biology, and at first he called it “social physics.” In his major work, “The Course of Positive Philosophy,” consisting of six volumes published successively from 1830 to 1842, Comte creates a coherent theory of the origin of the science of society, proves the need for its construction on positive principles, determines its place in the hierarchy of sciences and, finally, , gives it its name. If Saint-Simon can be considered the “forerunner” of sociology, then we can rightfully call Comte its “father.”
By analogy with physics, Comte divides his “social physics” into social statics, that is, the science of the structure, structure of society, and social dynamics, the task of which is to study the process of development of society. Society is considered by O. Comte as a single whole, consisting of interconnected parts. These parts - social institutions (family, religion, state) - by their existence contribute to “universal consent”, the unification of society. They help overcome people’s selfishness and the division of labor that separates them, educate the younger generation in an altruistic spirit, and pass on the traditions, experience and moral standards of older generations. Social dynamics, according to Comte, should study the theory of social progress.
In the literature one can find discrepancies regarding the origins of the science of sociology. If we are talking about science, then the most accurate date of its foundation should be considered 1826, when Comte began giving public lectures on the course of positive philosophy. Most authors point to 1830 as the beginning of the publication of the “Course...”, others consider (for example, A. Radugin and K. Radugin) the year of birth of sociology to be 1839, since then the 3rd volume of the “Course...” was published, in which Comte first used the term "sociology".
It must be taken into account that in his philosophical worldview Comte was an idealist. For him, the world is first thought, then exists. Consequently, the development of society begins with the appearance of ideas of progress in the minds of people. Comte identifies progress with the development of human knowledge, which passes through three stages; each of them corresponds to a certain state of society (the law of three states). “The first stage,” notes Comte, “although at first necessary in all respects, must henceforth be regarded as purely preliminary; the second is in reality only a modification of a destructive nature, which has only a temporary purpose - to gradually lead to the third; It is precisely at this last, the only completely normal stage, that the structure of human thinking is in the full sense final.” Let's present this law in the form of a table (Table 1).
Table 1
O. Comte's law of three states
It is positive science, according to O. Comte, that is “the only solid basis for social transformation that will put an end to the critical state in which the most civilized peoples have been for so long”2. This science will help make the transition to an industrial, peaceful society.
The development of science and knowledge goes from simple to complex, from general to specific. Each new science, O. Comte believed, has a higher order of the phenomena being studied and includes the previous one as a necessary part. The hierarchy of sciences (the law of classification of sciences) is as follows (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Law of classification of sciences
The place of sociology, according to O. Comte, is at the top of this hierarchy, because it studies the most complex phenomena of interaction between individuals. The law of three states is combined with the law of classification of sciences in the sense that positive thinking, formed in mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology, should cover the social sphere and lead to the creation of a positive science about society - sociology. Comte considers the subject of this science to be society as a whole, the history of its development and transformation. Moreover, the laws of this development are precise and strict, just like the laws of mathematics, physics, and chemistry. These laws, according to O. Comte, can not only show the essence of society and its past, but also predict the future (the principle of historical determinism). But Comte's determinism is idealistic. If for the philosophers of the Ancient World the state of society is determined by the form of the state, for K. Marx - by the method of production, then for O. Comte - by the way of thinking. It is precisely by changing the way of thinking, while human nature remains unchanged, that Comte explains the historical movement of human civilization.
In the 40s XIX century The materialist direction of sociology arose, the founder of which was K. Marx (1818–1883). He was familiar with the works of Saint-Simon and O. Comte and agreed with them that the world is an objective reality and that it is possible to discover the exact laws of its development. But the development of human society, according to K. Marx (in this he differs from the positivists), does not occur on the basis of the development of knowledge and spirit; it is determined by material production (materialistic determinism). It is material production that determines the so-called relations of production, that is, the connections between people that arise in the production process. All connections in society (social relations) are derivatives of production relations. The basis of any society is the economic basis, which determines the political superstructure, spiritual life, all processes occurring in society, including the development of science, which is determined by the needs of material production. “It is not the consciousness of people that determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness.” For K. Marx, man is an active social being whose behavior changes depending on the reality around him. With changes in society, not only the way of thinking changes, but also the very nature of man, from which his way of action follows. Consequently, Marx believed that by developing production and changing social relations and everyday life, it is possible to change a person. Thus, society moves to a new, higher level (socio-economic formation). “Not a single social formation perishes before all the productive forces for which it provides sufficient scope have developed, and new higher relations of production will never appear before the material conditions of their existence have matured in the depths of the old society itself.”
K. Marx's views on society influenced the development of social sciences in the 20th century, but in the sociology of the 19th century. Positivism continued to dominate. Positivist sociologists, unlike metaphysical philosophers, represented the surrounding world, including nature, as an objective reality. Human society for them is a continuation, a historical part of nature. The same natural laws of movement and development operate in it, which no longer move inorganic matter, not plants and animals, but people. But there is no fundamental difference in the manifestation of natural laws in human society. Thus, the principles of positivist sociology are:
naturalism. For positivism, human society is part of nature;
organicism. A positivist sociologist understands human society as a living organism, each organ of which functions in such a way as to ensure the integrity and development of the system as a whole;
evolutionism. Society, according to positivists, is in constant motion and development. The driving forces of these changes are natural laws: the struggle for existence, natural selection, etc.
It follows that sociology should be the same “natural science” as astronomy, physics, biology, and human society develops according to natural laws. There are no specific “sociological” laws, and the methods of sociology must, in contrast to the speculative methods of metaphysics, be precise, strict, quantitatively described and experimentally verifiable.
A follower of O. Comte, the English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the creator of the biological trend in positive sociology, based his doctrine of society on an analogy with an organism developing according to the laws of evolution.
In his work “Foundations of Sociology” (1886), Spencer argues that the evolution of society consists in its differentiation (as in animals and plants - an increase in the number of species). At the same time, evolution pushes individual parts-organs of society towards greater integration, because this is the only way to preserve an integral social organism.
However, there are differences between animal society and human society. Thus, an animal individual is “concrete”, that is, it is really individual, and a human individual is “discrete”, since it has abstract thinking and freedom of action. It follows that progress consists in society moving from a state in which the individual is subordinate to the whole to a state in which the social organization serves the individuals that compose it. Moreover, in the first state of society, integration is forced, and in the second, it is voluntary. The behavior of people, like animals, according to Spencer, is determined by the law of force.
Another difference between animal society and human society is that the “regulatory system” of human society is based on “fear of the living and the dead,” that is, on respect for such social institutions as the state and the church. Everyday communication is regulated by “ceremonial instructions,” that is, traditions and norms reflecting the statuses and roles of people. In the economic system of society, the role of natural selection of the organic world, discovered by Charles Darwin, is played, according to G. Spencer, by competition.
This is where the direction of sociological positivism, called “social Darwinism,” originates. Darwinian sociologists explained the development of individualistic tendencies in society by the survival of the fittest (instinct of self-preservation), and the strengthening of social solidarity, morality and morality by the manifestation of the altruistic instinct of procreation.
Social Darwinism gave food for thought to many sociologists and served as a sociological basis for such diverse currents of political thought as anarchism (P. Kropotkin), socialism (E. Evans, W. Clifford), fascism (B. Mussolini, A. Hitler).
Another English sociologist, Henry Buckle (1821–1862), founded the geographical branch of positivist sociology. He presented the progress of human society not as predetermined by providence or as the result of the free will of historical figures, but as a manifestation of natural factors. Such factors are: climate, food, soil, landscape. In the south, food is cheaper, the soil is more fertile, and the climate is more favorable for life. Hence the large population in the countries of the East, the poverty of the bulk of it and the enormous wealth of a few rulers. The landscape of temperate latitudes forms a rational, logical type of activity. This explains that “in Europe the dominant trend was the subordination of nature to man, and outside Europe the subordination of man to nature.”
Positivism gave a powerful impetus to the formation and development of sociology. But he viewed society mechanistically, that is, as being, despite the internal struggle for existence, in an equilibrium state, which was determined by the balance and strict functioning of organ parts within the framework of certain tasks. Despite O. Comte’s slogan “Order and progress,” society for the positivists remained essentially unchanged. They were unable to explain many social phenomena of the second half of the 19th century, including revolutions, the growth of the labor movement and class struggle. All this by the 80s. XIX century led to a crisis of positivism.
Antipositivism (1880–1920) did not seek to explain the world of social phenomena by the biological struggle for existence or the influence of the natural environment. On the contrary, the founders of antipositivism, German philosophers and sociologists Wilhelm Windelband (1848–1915), Heinrich Rickert (1863–1936), Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911), saw their task as distinguishing between nature and human society, which, in their opinion, lives according to its own laws other than natural and physical ones. Not to explain society from the point of view of the universal laws of the physical world, but to understand the meaning of social phenomena, structures and processes - this is what they saw as their task. Antipositivists considered the main thing not to acquire objective knowledge about society, but to understand social facts. They chose neo-Kantianism as the philosophical basis for this understanding. Neo-Kantians criticized the philosophy of Immanuel Kant “from the right”, from the standpoint of subjective idealism. They considered the main achievement of I. Kant’s epistemology to be the subjectivity of the world and the existence of “things-in-themselves,” and the main misconceptions were the objective nature of the latter. V. Windelband and G. Rickert proceeded from the transcendental-psychological approach to the teachings of I. Kant, i.e., in place of objective truth they put transcendental values, which, although they exist ideally, have meaning for people and influence their thinking and behavior . Moreover, a “practical” interpretation of social factors close to life is more important than theoretical schemes.
In other words, antipositivists, in contrast to positivists who recognized the world as an objective reality, argued that the laws by which nature and society develop are different, that it is impossible to get to the essence of social laws, that the essence underlying social processes and phenomena is, in principle, unknowable.
If the natural sciences are characterized by a generalizing (generalizing) method of cognition, then the social sciences are characterized by an individualizing method, meaning the establishment of individual, unique facts of reality. These unique, original social facts can be identified by correlation with stable ideal ideas-values.
V. Dilthey believed that the world and life are created by people’s ideas. And the task of an anti-positivist sociologist is not to try to reveal the essence of social facts, but to understand them.
The concept of “understanding sociology” was developed by the German sociologist Max Weber. Understanding as direct comprehension is contrasted by M. Weber with the indirect, inferential knowledge and explanation characteristic of the natural sciences. What is important is not objective knowledge, but understanding of social actions. In place of the assessment of social phenomena, M. Weber puts forward the principle of freedom from value judgments. This principle means that the reliability and truth of social phenomena and their significance for social behavior are completely different and sometimes incompatible things. It follows that there is no bad or good, positive or negative social action, that any social behavior should be understood from its correlation with the social values that are inherent in a given social group (the principle of reference to values).
“Understanding sociology” actively developed in the first half of the 20th century. in Europe (including Russia) and in the USA. Its supporters are G. Simmel, A. Virkandt, F. Znaniecki, G. Blumer, E. Hughes, R. Merton, T. Parsons, P. Struve, N. Kareev and others.
One influential branch of antipositivism was anthropological, founded by Max Scheler (1874–1929). He believed that man occupies a special position on the “ladder of beings.” He lacks some necessary instincts, for example, the ability to navigate in the forest, in the dark, a poorly developed sense of smell, touch, etc. Man has severed his direct connection with nature, and as a single being, an individual, he is not self-sufficient. He compensates for his shortcomings with culture, that is, with the knowledge and skills that he receives from society.
The further development of civilization will only increase the gap between man and nature. This entails the task of developing social institutions - family, school, church, state, which saturate the individual with culture and regulate his behavior.
The crisis of positivism in the 80s. XIX century gave impetus to the development of not only various directions of antipositivism. Around the same years, sociological science was influenced by developing psychology. Sociologists, supporters of the psychological approach, sought to explain social events based on mental phenomena. This current of sociology can be divided into the following areas:
psychological evolutionism(L. Ward, F. Giddins), who considered the development of society as part of cosmic evolution, in contrast to natural evolution, based on technical (purposeful), conscious control of social processes. The social influence of people becomes possible on the basis of the so-called “consciousness of the race”, “telesis” - a mental feeling of the common goals of the development of human civilization;
instinctivism(W. McDougal), who sought the basis of life in instincts and emotions, which are manifestations of the individual’s mental make-up;
mass psychology(G. Le Bon, G. Tarde), who sought to explain the behavior of large unorganized groups of people with the help of such group properties as the anonymity of an individual in a crowd, suggestibility, and mental contagion. Hence the uncontrollability, irrationality, and rapid changes in the mood of the crowd;
behaviorism(E. Thorndike, D. Watson) explains the behavior of animals and humans, which is a set of motor and verbal reactions, as a response to stimuli (impacts) of the external environment. The methodological basis of behaviorism was the position of positivism that sociology should be based on experience, experiment. From this, behaviorists conclude that sociology (and psychology) should study behavior, and not the psyche and consciousness. According to behaviorism, each person has a certain number of “behavior patterns” (breathing, eating, etc.). Over these elements, more complex ones are built on during the learning process. Learning is based on the principle of trial and error, but effective effective reactions are reinforced. Thus, by adjusting stimuli, it is possible to obtain certain reactions of individuals and groups. However, the results of behaviorists turned out to be inadequate for the efforts expended. The main disadvantage of this theory was the exclusion of consciousness from the chain of human behavioral acts.
In the 20s XX century the positivist tradition is being revived. Neopositivism is based on the achievements of technical and natural sciences, new developments in philosophy, logic, and the sociology of science.
The principles of neopositivism are as follows:
naturalism, i.e., the subordination of social phenomena to natural laws;
scientism, that is, the methods of sociology must be accurate, strict, objective, like the methods of the natural sciences;
behaviorism, i.e., the motivation for social behavior can only be explored through overt behavior;
verificationism, i.e. the truth of scientific statements must be established on the basis of experience and experiment;
quantification, i.e. all social phenomena must be described and expressed quantitatively;
objectivism, i.e. sociology should be free from value judgments and ideological schemes.
Neopositivist attitudes are shared by such prominent sociologists as P. Lazarsfeld, G. Zetterberger, G. Blaylock, K. Popper, J. Holton, R. Keith, T. Benton.
1.3. Sociology in Russia
In Russia, sociology began to gain its position in the 60s. XIX century, when the scientific community and the reading public were able to get acquainted with the translations of O. Comte’s books and articles. The spread of positive sociology was hampered by censorship of Comte's ideas in Russia and a general decline in interest in positivism abroad after the death of its founder. In the 1860s. in France and others developed countries The “second reading” of O. Comte begins - a process that has captured Russia. Articles about positive sociology and its founder, written by V.V. Lesevich, D.I. Pisarev, P.L. Lavrov, appear in the Russian magazines “Sovremennik”, “Russkoe Slovo”, “Otechestvennye zapiski” and others. In 1867, the book “Auguste Comte and Positive Philosophy” was published in St. Petersburg, in which works about Comte by English sociologists G. Lewis and J. Mill were published.
The first Russian sociologists, according to the historian of sociology and one of the founders of this science in Russia N. I. Kareev, were P. A. Lavrov, N. K. Mikhailovsky and S. N. Yuzhakov. Their contribution to the development of this new science was the formation of their own approach to the study of social phenomena - a subjective method that consisted in looking at society through the prism of the behavior of its members, especially active, developed, purposeful people (“heroes”), as opposed to the passive masses (“crowds”) "). One of the main works of N.K. Mikhailovsky was called “Heroes and the Crowd” (1882). The first Russian sociologists were also interested in the problems of the emergence of a human personality from an animal (for example, P. A. Lavrov “Before Man”, “Scientific Foundations of the History of Civilization”), the problems of the division of labor and the progress of society (N. K. Mikhailovsky “What is progress? "), the relationship between organic natural and social processes in the development of society, the influence of the economic sphere on progress (S. N. Yuzhakov “Sociological Studies”).
IN late XIX– early 20th century sociology in Russia has already had certain achievements. Gradually, such directions as geographical (represented by the works of N. Ya. Danilevsky “Russia and Europe” and L. I. Mechnikov “Civilization and Great Historical Rivers”), psychological (P. L. Lavrov, N. K. Mikhailovsky, E.V. De Roberti), materialistic (G.V. Plekhanov “On the development of a monistic view of history”, P.B. Struve “Critical notes on the question of the economic development of Russia”, M.I. Tugan- Baranovsky “Economic factor and ideas”; note that Struve and Tugan-Baranovsky soon moved away from the apologetics of economic determinism and Marxism). During this period, Russian sociology not only experienced the influence of long-existing sciences, but also began to influence the development of law (works of B. N. Chicherin, V. I. Sergeevich, S. A. Muromtsev), history (V. O. Klyuchevsky , S. M. Solovyov, N. I. Kostomarov), philosophy (N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, K. D. Kavelin), other humanities and social sciences.
Thus, the first stage - the stage of the formation of sociology in Russia - can be considered the time of dissemination of sociological ideas, the formation of directions of sociological thought, its rooting in the system of Russian science. This stage lasted from the mid-60s to the mid-90s. XIX century
The second stage of the development of Russian sociology was characterized by its institutionalization, i.e. recognition by the state and society, the creation of departments and departments, scientific institutions for training specialists and scientific and pedagogical personnel, the founding of scientific journals, societies, etc. This stage continued throughout -mid 90s XIX century until the mid-20s. XX century, until sociological institutions were closed and non-Marxist sociologists were expelled from Soviet Russia.
At this stage, Russian sociology developed in close contact with foreign, primarily European. Russian sociologists of the “second wave” M. M. Kovalevsky, E. V. De Roberti, P. F. Lilienfeld are now well known in Europe, they are elected to foreign academies and scientific societies, participate in the work of the International Institute of Sociology (Kovalevsky was elected its president), organize the School of Social Sciences in Paris, where for the first time a sociology course is taught for the Russian public. In 1908, on the basis of the Medical-Surgical Academy, V. M. Bekhterev founded the private Psychoneurological Institute, where the first department of sociology in Russia was created, consisting of M. M. Kovalevsky (head) and E. V. De Roberti, to whom P. A. Sorokin and K. M. Takhtarev joined later. Since 1912, a sociological section worked at the history department of St. Petersburg University, but only six years later it became possible to create departments of sociology at Petrograd and Yaroslavl universities. After the death of M. M. Kovalevsky (1916), the Russian Sociological Society named after him was created, which sets as its main tasks the development of sociological science, sociological education and the dissemination of sociological knowledge. In addition to professional sociologists, its members then included: physiologist I. P. Pavlov, psychologist V. M. Bekhterev, economist N. D. Kondratyev, lawyers V. A. Maklakov and L. I. Petrazhitsky, historians E. V. Tarle and P. N. Milyukov, publicist A. V. Peshekhonov.
The famous sociologist and historian, academician A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky was elected chairman. In 1917, the awarding of academic degrees in sociology began. Finally, in 1919, the Sociological Institute was created in Petrograd, which received the status of a research institution.
So, at the second stage of its development, Russian sociology went through a process of institutionalization. Unfortunately, in the 1920s. The Soviet government begins to treat sociological science more and more warily and even hostile. Since 1922, leading sociologists, along with representatives of other non-Marxist sciences, have been expelled from the USSR or sent to “re-education” in camps. Departments are closing and the teaching of sociology in universities is being stopped. In 1923, the Sociological Society named after. M. M. Kovalevsky.
The next, third stage, which lasted from the mid-1920s. until the mid-1950s, was the “blackest” in the history of Russian sociology. In essence, she was forced out scientific communism and Marxist-Leninist philosophy, it was labeled “bourgeois science.”
The new institutionalization of sociology began after the condemnation of Stalin's “cult of personality.” In 1958, by decision of the CPSU Central Committee, the Soviet Sociological Association (ASS) was created, whose members, under the leadership of party functionaries, represented Soviet sociology abroad, fought against the influence of “bourgeois” science and trained sociologists in the USSR. In 1961, a scientific sector for research into new forms of work and life appeared at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences (headed by G. V. Osipov); At the same time, a laboratory for concrete social research was created at Leningrad University (headed by V. A. Yadov). During the 1960s. sectors and laboratories for solving applied sociological problems appear in Novosibirsk, Sverdlovsk, Tartu. In 1968, the Institute of Concrete Sociological Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences (ICSI) was founded in Moscow (director - Academician A. Rumyantsev, who in the 1970s was removed from his post for insufficiently tough opposition to “bourgeois” sociology). Finally, in 1974, the magazine " Sociological research" So, in the post-war period, there was a partial institutionalization of sociology in the USSR, but it did not become widespread in society, and the development of this science continued to be restrained by party bodies.
The fourth, modern stage - the stage of rapid development of Russian sociology - began in the mid-1980s. At this stage, sociology leaves the tutelage of the CPSU and historical materialism, becomes an independent science and academic discipline, taught in all universities in Russia since the 1989/1990 academic year. This is one of the fastest growing sciences, which is gradually eliminating the gaps in our knowledge about society and social relations, catching up with the national ones that have gone ahead sociological schools USA, UK, France, Germany, other developed countries.
Thus, in Russia sociology as an independent science arose in the first third of the 19th century. and has more than 160 years of history. This is a relatively young, but already quite mature science, which has different approaches to the subject of research (objective and subjective) and directions of research. The main directions in the history of sociology: positivism, the materialist direction (Marxism), anti-positivism (neo-Kantianism), which dominated in 1880–1920, the psychological direction and, finally, neopositivism.
Questions for self-control
What is the object of sociology?
How do M. Weber’s and E. Durkheim’s approaches to the subject of sociology differ?
Formulate the concept of the subject of sociology.
What is the structure of sociology?
What place does sociology occupy in the system of sciences?
What are the functions of sociology in society?
What methods does social science use?
When and how was sociology born?
What is the essence of O. Comte's law of three states?
What is the law of classification of sciences and how does it fit in with the law of the three states?
What are the main provisions of the materialist trend in the science of society?
Name the principles of positivism.
What are G. Spencer's views on society?
What is Social Darwinism?
Name the main provisions of the geographical direction in positivist sociology.
What is the philosophical basis of antipositivism?
What is the essence of “understanding sociology”?
What is the anthropological direction in anti-positivist sociology?
What is the psychological approach in sociology?
List the directions of the psychological approach and characterize each of them.
Name the principles of neopositivism and its main representatives.
Name the main stages in the development of sociology in Russia.
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