Which involves obtaining information about the phenomenon being studied in logical form, both from the person being studied, members of the group being studied, and from surrounding people. In the latter case, the conversation acts as an element of the method of generalizing independent characteristics. The scientific value of the method lies in establishing personal contact with the object of research, the ability to obtain data promptly, and clarify it in the form of an interview.
The conversation can be formalized or informal. Formal conversation involves standardized formulation of questions and registration of answers to them, which allows you to quickly group and analyze the information received. Informal conversation is carried out on questions that are not strictly standardized, which makes it possible to consistently pose additional questions based on the current situation. During a conversation of this type, as a rule, closer contact is achieved between the researcher and the respondent, which contributes to obtaining the most complete and in-depth information.
The practice of psychological and pedagogical research has developed certain rules for using the conversation method :
Conversate only on issues directly related to the problem under study;
Formulate questions clearly and clearly, taking into account the degree of competence of the interlocutor in them;
Select and pose questions in an understandable form that encourages respondents to give detailed answers;
Avoid incorrect questions, take into account the mood and subjective state of the interlocutor;
Conduct the conversation in such a way that the interlocutor sees in the researcher not a leader, but a comrade who shows genuine interest in his life, thoughts, and aspirations;
Do not conduct the conversation in a hurry, in an excited state;
Choosing a place and time for the conversation so that no one interferes with its progress will maintain a friendly attitude.
Usually the conversation process is not accompanied by recording. However, the researcher can, if necessary, make some notes for himself, which allow him, after finishing his work, to completely reconstruct the entire course of the conversation. A protocol or diary, as a form of recording the results of the study, is best filled out after the end of the conversation. In some cases they can be used technical means its registration is a tape recorder or voice recorder. But at the same time, the respondent must be informed that the conversation will be recorded using appropriate technology. In case of refusal, the use of these funds is not recommended.
Currently, in the scientific literature, clearly insufficient attention is paid to the analysis this method research. At the same time, it is recognized that through conversation one can obtain very valuable information, which sometimes cannot be obtained by other methods. The form of conversation, like no other method, must be mobile and dynamic. In one case, the purpose of the conversation - to obtain this or that important information - may be hidden, since this achieves greater reliability of the data.
In another case, on the contrary, an attempt to obtain objective information using indirect questions can cause a negative, skeptical reaction from the participants in the conversation (such as “playing smart”). The likelihood of such a reaction is especially high in people with high self-esteem. In such situations, the researcher will receive more reliable information with a position like: “You know a lot, help us.” Such a position is usually supported by an increased interest in obtaining information. This tends to encourage people to be more open and sincere.
Calling a person to be frank and listening to him is a great art. It is natural that people’s frankness must be valued and the information received must be handled with ethical care. The frankness of the conversation increases when the researcher does not take any notes.
In a conversation, the researcher communicates with a specialist. In the process of this communication, certain relationships between two individuals are formed. They are made up of small touches, nuances that bring two people together or separate them as individuals. In most cases, the researcher strives for rapprochement in communication with the respondent’s personality. However, there are times when the rapprochement and achieved frankness need to be “curtailed” and again come to a certain distance in communication.
For example, sometimes one or another respondent, having sensed the sincere interest of the researcher (and interest in most cases is psychologically regarded as internal agreement with what the interviewee is telling him), begins to impose his, as a rule, subjective point of view, strives to eliminate the distance in communication, etc. .d. In this situation, going for further rapprochement is unwise, since ending the conversation with complete harmony in communication, even if purely external, can lead to negative consequences.
Therefore, it is psychologically advisable for a researcher to end a conversation with such people by creating a certain distance, by disagreeing with something. This will protect him from an excessive negative reaction from his interlocutor in the future. Creating these subtle facets of communication is a real art, which should be based on the researcher’s knowledge of human psychology.
Observation - basic empirical method purposeful systematic study of man. The observed does not know that he is the object of observation.
Observation is carried out using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure:
a) selection of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;
b) observation program: a list of those aspects, properties, features of the object that will be recorded;
c) a method of recording the information received.
When observing, a number of requirements must be met: the presence of an observation plan, a set of signs, indicators that must be recorded and assessed by the observer; preferably several expert observers whose assessments can be compared, building a hypothesis that explains the observed phenomena, testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations.
Based on observation, an expert assessment can be given. The results of observations are recorded in special protocols, certain indicators and signs are identified that should be identified during observation of the behavior of the subjects in accordance with the observation plan. Protocol data is subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing.
Observation has several options. External surveillance is a way of collecting data about a person’s psychology and behavior by directly observing him from the outside. Internal observation, or self-observation, is used when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly presented in his mind.
Free observation does not have a pre-established framework, program, or procedure for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature during the Observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer.
Distinguish the following types observations: cross-section (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes over a number of years), selective and continuous, and a special type - participant observation (when the observer becomes a member of the study group).
Advantages of the method:
1. The wealth of information collected;
2. The naturalness of the operating conditions has been preserved;
3. It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means;
4. It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects.
Flaws:
1. Subjectivity;
2. Inability to control the situation;
3. Significant time investment.
Method of introspection (introspection). The subject carefully observes the dynamics of the states he experiences at each stage of executing the instructions. The subject, who has undergone special training, describes how he feels when he finds himself in a particular situation.
Introspection has two disadvantages:
1. Extreme subjectivity, since each subject describes his own impressions or experiences, which very rarely coincide with the impressions of another subject;
2. The sensations of the same subject change over time.
Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method of obtaining information based on verbal communication.
One type of survey is a conversation. Conversation like psychological method provides for direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the subject of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. Types of interviews: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires.
History ( lat. from memory) - information about the past of the person being studied, obtained from himself or - with an objective history - from people who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to obtain answers from the interviewee to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.
Advantages and disadvantages of the conversation method.
Contents and plan of the conversation. A conversation is a widespread empirical method in psychology and pedagogical practice of obtaining information about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. Responses are recorded either by tape recording or shorthand. A conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since a teacher or researcher subjectively evaluates the student’s answers and behavior, while influencing the student with his behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and questions, determining one or another degree of openness and trust-mistrust of the subject.
Organizing the conversation. There are a number of requirements for conversation as a method. The first is ease. You can't turn the conversation into a question. A conversation brings the greatest results when the researcher establishes personal contact with the person being examined. It is important to carefully think through the conversation, present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks, problems to be clarified. The conversation method involves, along with answers, asking questions by the subjects. Such a two-way conversation provides more information on the problem under study than just the subjects’ answers to the questions posed.
Types of tests and types of tasks in tests. Test (from English - sample, test, check) is a standardized technique for psychological measurement and diagnosis of the severity of mental and behavioral properties and personality states. A test is a standardized, often time-limited, test designed to establish comparable quantitative and qualitative individual psychological differences.
By standardization we mean that these techniques must be applied in the same way at all times, from the situation and instructions given to the subject, to the way the data is calculated and interpreted. Comparability means that test scores can be compared with each other regardless of where, when, how, or by whom they were obtained. Of course, if the test was applied correctly. In psychodiagnostics, there are various classifications of tests.
They can be divided:
According to the characteristics of the test tasks used for verbal tests and non-verbal (practical) tests;
According to the forms of the examination procedure - group and individual tests;
By focus: intelligence tests, personality tests, special ability tests, achievement tests, creativity tests;
Depending on the presence or absence of time restrictions - speed tests and performance tests;
According to the method of implementation - blank, manipulative, hardware, computer, situational-behavioral;
On psychometric grounds, tests are divided into those based on individual difference scales and criterion-referenced tests;
According to the purpose of application, school readiness tests, clinical tests, vocational selection tests and others are distinguished. - by composition - monometric and complex (test batteries).
Criteria-Based Tests (KORT) are intended to determine the level of individual achievements relative to some criterion based on a logical-functional analysis of the content of tasks. Specific knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful completion of a particular task are usually considered as a criterion (or objective standard). The criterion is the presence or absence of knowledge. This is the main difference between CORT and traditional psychometric tests, the assessment of which is based on the correlation of individual results with group results (orientation to the statistical norm). An essential feature of CORT is that in them individual differences are reduced to a minimum (individual differences affect the duration of assimilation, and not the final result).
Speed tests - a type of diagnostic techniques in which the main indicator of test subjects’ work productivity is the time to complete (volume) of test tasks. Typical speed tests usually include a large number of homogeneous tasks (items). The volume of material is selected in such a way that in the allotted time (constant for all subjects) not one of the subjects has time to cope with all the tasks. Then the indicator of productivity will be the number of correctly completed tasks. Example: proofreading test, intelligence tests. An indicator of the effectiveness of performing speed tests can also be a direct measurement of the task completion time (Schulte table).
Performance tests are focused on measuring or ascertaining the result achieved by the test subject when performing a test task. The speed of work is not taken into account or is of secondary importance. A time limit may apply but serves the purpose of standardizing the study or to save time. These are most personality methods, questionnaires, projective tests, questionnaires.
Verbal tests . In them, the material of test tasks is presented in verbal form. This implies that the main content of the subject’s work is operations with concepts, mental actions in verbal and logical form. Verbal tests are often aimed at measuring the ability to understand verbal instructions, skills in operating grammatical language forms, and mastery of writing and reading.
Tests reflecting verbal factors of intelligence most closely correlate with the criteria of general culture, awareness, and academic performance. The results of verbal tests are very sensitive to differences in the linguistic culture of the subjects, level of education, and professional characteristics. Difficulties arise in adapting verbal tests to the conditions of examining subjects of a different nationality.
Nonverbal tests (practical). In them, the material of test tasks is represented by non-verbal tasks. Nonverbal tests reduce the influence of language and cultural differences on the examination result. Completing the task in a non-verbal form also distinguishes the examination procedure for subjects with speech and hearing impairments, as well as persons without education. Practical tasks turned out to be convenient when conducting mass test studies.
Blank tests (they used to be called "pencil and paper tests"). The use of forms is common in almost all types of test methods. The subject is offered a special survey form, brochure, questionnaire, etc., which contains instructions and examples of solutions, work assignments and a form for recording answers.
Advantages: simplicity of examination technique, no need for special equipment. In subject tests, the material of the test tasks is presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, parts of geometric shapes, structures and nodes technical devices and so on. The most famous are Koos cubes, the test of complex figures from the Wechsler set, and the Vygotsky-Sakharov test. Subject tests are mostly administered individually. Hardware tests require the use of special equipment to conduct research and record the data obtained.
Used to assess psychophysiological properties, study reaction time, typological features nervous system, to study the characteristics of perception, memory, thinking. The advantages of hardware tests include higher accuracy and objectivity of examination results, and the ability to automate the collection of primary data. To the disadvantages - high price necessary equipment and the complexity of technical support for a psychodiagnostic laboratory. In most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.
Computer tests - an automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer. Test tasks are presented on the display screen, and the test subject enters answers from the keyboard; The examination protocol is immediately created as a data set on magnetic media. Standard statistical packages make it possible to very quickly carry out mathematical and statistical processing of the results obtained in different directions.
If desired, you can obtain information in the form of graphs, tables, diagrams, profiles. Using a computer, you can obtain an analysis of data that is almost impossible to obtain without it: the time it takes to complete test tasks, the time it takes to obtain correct answers, the number of refusals to make a decision and seeking help, the time spent by the test taker thinking about an answer when refusing a decision; time to enter an answer /if it is complex/, etc. These features of subjects are used for in-depth psychological analysis during testing.
Individual tests - interaction between the experimenter and the subject occurs one on one.
Advantages: the ability to observe the subject (facial expressions, involuntary reactions), hear and record statements not provided for in the instructions, record functional states.
Used in working with infants and children preschool age, in clinical psychology - testing of persons with somatic or neuropsychic disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. Typically requires a lot of time and high level qualifications of the experimenter. Group tests allow you to simultaneously examine a group of subjects (up to several hundred people). (This is not a socio-psychological diagnosis.)
Advantages:
Mass character;
Speed of data collection;
The instructions and procedure are quite simple and the experimenter does not require high qualifications;
The uniformity of the experimental conditions is observed to a greater extent; - processing of results is usually more objective, often on a computer.
Flaws:
Limiting the possibility of observation;
There is less opportunity to achieve mutual understanding with the subject, to interest him, to secure cooperation - undetected illnesses, fatigue, anxiety, anxiety can affect the completion of the task.
Intelligence tests. Refers to general ability tests. Designed to measure the level of intellectual development (mental potential). Manifestations of intelligence are diverse, but they have something in common that allows them to be distinguished from other behavioral features. This commonality is the activation in any intellectual act of thinking, memory, imagination, all those mental functions that provide knowledge of the surrounding world. Accordingly, intelligence as an object of measurement is understood as those human characteristics that are related to cognitive properties.
This is reflected in numerous tests to assess various intellectual functions (tests logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, arithmetic, spatial visualization, etc.). These tests are quite clearly separated from other methods for measuring individual psychological characteristics - personality tests aimed at measuring behavior in certain social situations, interests and emotions of an individual.
In most intelligence tests, the test taker is asked on a special form to establish the logical relationships of classification, analogy, generalization, and others specified by the instructions between the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are composed. He communicates his decisions either in writing or by marking one of several options available on the form. The success of the test subject is determined by the number of correctly completed tasks, and the IQ is calculated from this number.
The success of the test subject is related to the fact (by G. Eysenck ):
To what extent in his previous experience has he mastered the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are constructed;
To what extent have they mastered exactly those mental actions that are necessary to solve test problems;
And can he arbitrarily actualize these actions;
To what extent are the mental stereotypes developed by the subject in his past experience suitable for solving test problems?
Thus, the test results reveal not the mental potential of the test subject, but rather those features of his past experience and training that inevitably affect his work on the test. This circumstance served as the basis for calling the results obtained when using intelligence tests “test” or “psychometric” intelligence.
Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.
Achievement Tests - assessment of the achieved level of development of abilities, skills and knowledge. Unlike intelligence tests, which measure the influence of experience and general ability, achievement tests measure the influence of special programs education, professional and other training on the effectiveness of teaching a particular set of knowledge, the formation of various special skills. Thus, achievement tests are aimed at assessing a person's achievements after completion of training. Achievement tests used in school psychodiagnostics have noticeable advantages compared to the existing assessment of student performance.
Their indicators focus on measuring mastery of key concepts, topics and elements of the curriculum, rather than a specific body of knowledge, as is the case in traditional school assessments. Achievement tests, thanks to a standardized form of assessment, make it possible to correlate the student’s level of achievement in the subject as a whole and in its individual essential elements with similar indicators in the class or in any other sample of subjects. This assessment is more objective and less time consuming (as it is often a group test) than traditional school assessments.
They cover a larger number of topics. Tests provide an opportunity for an unambiguous objective assessment of the student, while exams do not provide such an assessment. For example, in 1994 in Moscow, out of 50,000 graduates, 110 received gold medals, and in Novosibirsk, out of 8,000, 55 graduates received gold medals. Ratio 1:4.
Creativity test - techniques designed to study and evaluate the creative abilities of an individual. Creativity is the ability to produce new ideas and find unconventional ways to solve problematic problems. Factors of creativity - fluency, clarity, flexibility of thinking, sensitivity to problems, originality, inventiveness, constructiveness in solving them, etc. If solving creativity tests can be taken as one of the evidence of the presence of creative abilities in a person, then not solving them is not proof of the absence such.
The most famous tests for measuring the cognitive aspect of creativity were developed by Joe Guilford and his colleagues (1959) and Paul Torrance (1962). In domestic research, based on identifying a unit of measurement of creative abilities called “intellectual initiative,” an original “creative field” methodology has been developed. D.B. Epiphany (1983).
Special ability tests - techniques designed to measure the level of development of certain aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions, primarily ensuring effectiveness in specific, fairly narrow areas of activity. Unlike intelligence tests, which are aimed at broad areas of activity, special ability tests are aimed at specific areas of activity and often serve as a supplement to intelligence tests.
They emerged for the purpose of professional selection and career guidance abroad. In foreign psychodiagnostics, the following groups of ability tests are distinguished: sensory, motor, technical (mechanical) and professional (counting, musical, reading speed and reading comprehension, etc.). Complex batteries of abilities are most widespread abroad.
Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.
The tests consist of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made answer options. When calculating test scores, the selected answers receive an unambiguous quantitative interpretation and are summed up. The total score is compared with quantitative test norms, and after this comparison, standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.
The popularity of the test method is explained by the following main advantages (below, traditional oral and written exams are taken as a comparison):
1. Standardization of conditions and results. Test methods are relatively independent of the qualifications of the user (performer), for whose role even a laboratory assistant with secondary education can be trained. This, however, does not mean that in order to prepare a comprehensive conclusion on a battery of tests, it is not necessary to involve a qualified specialist with a full-fledged higher psychological education.
2. Efficiency and efficiency. A typical test consists of a series short assignments each of which usually takes no more than half a minute to complete, and the entire test usually takes no more than an hour (in school practice this is one lesson); A group of subjects is tested simultaneously, thus saving significant time (man-hours) on data collection.
3. Quantitative differentiated nature of the assessment. The granularity of the scale and the standardization of the test allow us to consider it as a “measuring instrument” that gives quantification measurable properties (knowledge, skills in a given area). In addition, the quantitative nature of the test results makes it possible to apply in the case of tests a well-developed psychometric apparatus, which makes it possible to assess how well a given test works on a given sample of subjects under given conditions.
4. Optimal difficulty. A professionally done test consists of tasks of optimal difficulty. In this case, the average test taker scores approximately 50 percent of the maximum possible number of points. This is achieved through preliminary tests - a psychometric experiment. If during the test it becomes known that approximately half of the examined contingent can cope with the task, then such a task is considered successful and is left in the test.
5. Reliability. This is perhaps the most important advantage of the tests. The “lottery” nature of modern exams with the drawing of “lucky” or “unlucky” tickets is known to everyone. The lottery for the examinee here results in low reliability for the examiner - the answer to one fragment of the curriculum, as a rule, is not indicative of the level of mastery of the entire material. In contrast, any well-constructed test covers the main sections of the curriculum (the area of knowledge being tested or the manifestations of some skill or ability). As a result, the opportunity for “tail-leaders” to become excellent students, and for an excellent student to suddenly “fail,” is sharply reduced.
6. The most important social consequence of the above advantages of the test method is fairness. It should be understood as protection from examiner bias. Good test puts all subjects on equal terms.
7. Possibility of computerization. In this case, this is not just an additional convenience that reduces the human labor of qualified performers during a mass examination. As a result of computerization, all testing parameters are improved. It is possible to ensure information security. It is possible to create a “bank of test tasks”, which can technically prevent abuse by unscrupulous examiners. The choice of tasks offered to a particular subject can be made from such a bank by the computer program directly during testing, and presenting a given test subject with a certain task in this case is as much a surprise for the examiner as for the subject.
8. Psychological adequacy. This is the most important psychological consequence of optimal complexity. The presence in the test (compared to traditional exam options) of a larger number of short tasks of average difficulty gives many test takers (especially anxious, unconfident ones) a chance to believe in themselves and activate a psychologically optimal “to overcome” attitude. When such a subject remains face to face with one or two very complex and large tasks and does not see how he can cope with them at all, then he loses heart and does not reveal all his capabilities.
And if there are a lot of tasks and some of them clearly begin to “give in” (the test subject is confident that he can cope with them), the person during the testing process becomes encouraged and begins to “fight” for the maximum result. The property of optimal complexity not only ensures the measuring (discriminating) power of the test, but also ensures the optimal psychological mood of the subjects. A test situation of optimal complexity is an optimal stimulus - people experience normal level stress (tension) necessary in order to show the highest result. Lack of stress (if light dough), and even more so an excess (in the case of a difficult one) distorts the measurement results.
Disadvantages of testing:
1. The danger of “blind”, automatic errors. The blind faith of unqualified performers that the test should work correctly automatically sometimes gives rise to errors and incidents: the test subject did not understand the instructions and began to answer in a completely different way than required by the standards of the instructions, the test subject for some reason used distorting tactics, a “shift” occurred in the application stencils-key to the answer form (for manual, non-computer scoring), etc.
2. The danger of profanity. The apparent ease of conducting tests attracts people who do not want to get seriously acquainted with psychodiagnostics.
3. Loss individual approach, "stressogenicity". The test is for everyone. It is quite possible to miss the unique individuality of a non-standard person (especially a child). The test subjects themselves feel this, and it makes them nervous - especially in the situation of certification testing. People with reduced resistance to stress even experience a certain violation of self-regulation - they begin to worry and make mistakes in basic questions for themselves.
4. Loss of an individual approach, “reproduction”. Knowledge tests are designed to identify ready-made, standard knowledge. Most tests are not aimed at creative, constructive activities.
5. Lack of trust. The testing procedure can give the test subject the impression that the psychologist has little interest in him personally, in his problems and difficulties. Dialogical methods in this regard have an undoubted advantage.
6. Inadequate complexity. Sometimes unskilled “testologists” impose on a child tests that are too difficult for his age. He has not yet developed the necessary concepts and conceptual skills to adequately comprehend how general instructions to the test, and the meaning of individual questions.
Tests cannot be made the only comprehensive method of any diagnosis; they require the parallel use of other diagnostic methods. The best guarantee against profanity and profanity is a serious and qualified interest in what experimental and scientific work the test developers have done, how fully this work and its results are reflected in the accompanying documentation. These are, first of all, issues of reliability, validity and representativeness.
Questionnaires as a standardized self-report.
Questionnaires are a large group of techniques, the tasks of which are presented in the form of questions or statements, and the task of the subject is to independently report some information about himself in the form of answers. Theoretical basis This method can be considered introspectionism - the psychology of introspection. The questionnaire method was initially considered as a type of self-observation. But given the given answer options, this self-observation, which is given a standardized character, in many formal characteristics comes close to objective testing.
A research instrument that asks respondents to answer a variety of written questions. A group of psychodiagnostic techniques in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements. Designed to obtain data from the words of the subject (standardized self-report).
Types of questionnaires.
A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, but requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a lot of time to conduct the research. The responses of subjects obtained during an oral survey depend significantly on both the personality of the person conducting the survey and on individual characteristics who is answering the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the interview situation.
A written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account in advance the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions and, based on this, change them. A free survey is a type of oral or written survey in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.
Personality questionnaires.
Standardized questionnaires, with the help of which the degree of expression of the subjects’ personality traits or other personality characteristics is clearly and quantitatively assessed. As a rule, there are no “right” or “wrong” answers in personality questionnaires. They only reflect the degree of agreement or disagreement of the subject with a particular statement. Based on the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires) and with free answers (open questionnaires).
In closed questionnaires, options for answering the question are provided in advance. The test taker must choose one of them. The most common is a two- or three-alternative answer choice (for example: “yes, no”; “yes, no, I find it difficult to answer”). Dignity closed questions is the simplicity of the registration and data processing procedure, the clear formalization of assessment, which is important for mass surveys. At the same time, this form of response “coarsens” the information. Often, subjects have difficulties when it is necessary to make a categorical decision.
Open questionnaires allow for free responses without any special restrictions. Subjects give answers at their own discretion. Standardization of processing is achieved by assigning random responses to standard categories. Advantages: obtaining detailed information about the subject; conducting a qualitative analysis of responses. Disadvantages: difficulty in formalizing answers and their assessments; difficulties in interpreting the results; the procedure is cumbersome and time consuming.
Personality Trait Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality traits. Directly observable personality traits act as the source material for constructing questionnaires. In contrast to the construction of typological questionnaires, this approach requires the grouping of personality traits and those not surveyed. In personality trait questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out gradually in the severity of traits. Example: (16 personality factors) - Cattell questionnaire, USC.
Typological questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality types as integral entities that cannot be reduced to a set of traits (or factors). This approach requires grouping the subjects themselves, and not their personal characteristics. In typological questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out on the basis of comparison with the corresponding /average/ personality type. Example: G. Eysenck, MMPI.
Motive Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires designed to diagnose the motivational-need sphere of the individual, which makes it possible to establish what a person’s activity is aimed at (motives as the reasons that determine the choice of direction of behavior) and how the dynamics of behavior are regulated.
Interest Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure interests and the choice of professional activity. Interest questionnaires, depending on the saturation of personal indicators, can be classified as both personal questionnaires and questionnaires.
Values Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires designed to measure values and value orientations personality. Values are formed in the process of assimilation social experience and are found in interests, attitudes and other manifestations of personality.
Attitude Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure a person’s relative orientation in a one-dimensional continuum of attitudes.
Biographical questionnaires - a group of questionnaires to obtain data about a person’s life history. Most often, questions relate to age, health status, marital status, level and nature of education, special skills, career advancement and other relatively objective indicators. They help gather the information needed to reliably interpret test scores.
Question forms: open and closed (dichotomous and alternative). Forms for presenting results. Ways to increase the reliability of questionnaires (multiple duplication of questions, introduction of a “lie scale”, abandonment of direct questions, etc.).
Specifics of the questionnaire survey. Questioning is an empirical method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that make up a questionnaire. Preparing the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, or group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.
Questionnaires are used to obtain any information about a person that is not directly related to his psychological and personal characteristics. They require a strictly fixed order, content and form of questions, and a clear indication of the form of answers. Questionnaire surveys are classified according to the content and design of questions (open, closed, semi-open). Respondent is a person answering questions in a questionnaire or interview.
Features of interviewing. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to obtain answers from the interviewee to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions.
Conversation is a method of orally obtaining information from a person of interest to the researcher by conducting a thematically focused conversation with him.
In principle, conversation as a means of communication can be conducted not only orally, but also in writing. Let's say, a conversation with other people in the form of correspondence, a conversation with oneself in the form of a diary. But conversation as an empirical method involves oral communication. Moreover, this is communication of the person being studied, firstly, not with any other person, but with the researcher and, secondly, this is communication at the moment of research, i.e., actual communication, and not delayed in time. A written conversation does not satisfy both of these conditions at the same time. Even if the “written interlocutor” of the subject is the researcher, which is an extremely rare phenomenon in scientific practice, then the “interview” itself in the form of correspondence inevitably drags on in time and space and is interrupted by significant pauses. Theoretically, one can imagine conducting such a conversation (at least for psychotherapeutic purposes), but in practical work For researchers, such correspondence conversations are very problematic. Therefore, it is generally accepted to understand conversation as a method in the form of oral communication, and to study the written version of conversation as a method of communication using the methods of studying documents or products of activity. It is in this interpretation that we will consider the conversation method.
Conversation is widely used in social, medical, developmental (especially children's), legal, and political psychology. As an independent method, conversation is especially intensively used in advisory, diagnostic and psychocorrectional work. In activity practical psychologist conversation often plays the role of not only a professional method of collecting psychological data, but also a means of informing, persuasion, and education.
Conversation as a method is inseparable from conversation as a way of human communication. Therefore, the qualified use of conversation is unthinkable without fundamental general and socio-psychological knowledge, communication skills, and communicative competence. Since any communication is impossible without people’s perception of each other and without their awareness of their “I”, the method of conversation is closely related to the method of observation (both external and internal). Perceptual information obtained during an interview is often no less important and abundant than communicative information. The indissoluble connection between conversation and observation is one of its most characteristic features. Wherein psychological conversation, i.e., a conversation aimed at obtaining psychological information and having a psychological impact on the individual, perhaps, can be classified along with introspection to the most psychology-specific methods.
The researcher usually tries to conduct a conversation in a free, relaxed manner, trying to “reveal” the interlocutor, liberate him, and win him over. Then the likelihood of the interlocutor’s sincerity increases significantly. And the more sincere it is, the higher the adequacy of the data obtained in conversations and surveys to the problem under study. Most common reasons insincerity can be: fear of showing oneself in a bad or funny way; reluctance to mention other persons, much less give them characteristics; refusal to disclose those aspects of life that the respondent perceives (correctly or incorrectly) as intimate; fears that unfavorable conclusions will be drawn from the conversation; “unsympathetic” person conducting the conversation; misunderstanding the purpose of the conversation.
Usually very important for the successful development of a conversation has the most starting a conversation. His first phrases can arouse either interest and a desire to enter into a dialogue with the researcher, or, conversely, a desire to evade him. To maintain good contact with the interlocutor, the researcher is recommended to demonstrate his interest in his personality, his problems, and his opinions. But one should refrain from open agreement, much less disagreement, with the respondent’s opinion. The researcher can express his active participation in the conversation and interest in it through facial expressions, postures, gestures, intonation, additional questions, and specific remarks such as “this is very interesting!” . The conversation is always, to one degree or another, accompanied by observation of the appearance and behavior of the person being studied. This observation provides additional, and sometimes basic information about the interlocutor, about his attitude to the subject of conversation, to the researcher and the surrounding environment, about his responsibility and sincerity.
The specificity of psychological conversation, in contrast to everyday conversation, is inequality of interlocutors' positions. The psychologist here usually acts as the proactive party; it is he who directs the topic of the conversation and asks questions. His partner usually acts as the answerer to these questions. Such asymmetry of functions is fraught with a decrease in the confidence of the conversation. And emphasizing these differences can completely destroy the balance in the interaction between the researcher and the subject. The latter begins to “close himself off,” deliberately distort the information he communicates, simplify and schematize answers down to monosyllabic statements like “yes-no,” or even avoid contact altogether. “Therefore, it is very important that the conversation does not turn into an interrogation, since this makes its effectiveness equal to zero.”
Another one important feature psychological conversation is due to the fact that society has developed attitude towards a psychologist as a specialist in human soul and human relations. His conversation partners are often determined to receive immediate solutions to their problems and expect advice on how to behave in Everyday life and unambiguous answers to questions of spiritual life, including questions from the “eternal” category. And the psychologist leading the conversation must correspond to this system of expectations. He must be sociable, tactful, tolerant, emotionally sensitive and responsive, observant and reflexive, well erudite on a wide range of issues and, of course, must have deep psychological knowledge.
But the so-called guided conversation is not always effective, that is, a conversation in which the initiative is on the side of the researcher. Sometimes an unguided form of conversation is more productive. Here the initiative passes to the respondent, and the conversation takes on the character of a confession. This type of conversation is typical for psychotherapeutic practice, when a person needs to “talk it out.” Then such a specific quality of a psychologist as the ability to listen takes on special importance. This quality is generally one of the basic ones for fruitful and pleasant communication, but in this case it acts as a necessary and essential element professional activity of a psychologist. It is not for nothing that psychologists from time to time recall the saying of the founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Kition (336-264 BC): “We have been given two ears and one tongue in order to listen more and speak less.”
Listen in conversation– this does not mean simply not speaking or waiting for your turn to speak. This is an active process that requires increased attention to what is being discussed. we're talking about, and to the one with whom they are talking. Listening skills have two aspects. The first one is external, organizational. We are talking about the ability to focus on the topic of conversation, actively participate in it, maintaining interest in the conversation on the part of the partner, and then, as I. Atwater says, “listening is more than hearing.” “Hearing” is understood as the perception of sounds, and “listening” is understood as the perception of the meaning and meaning of these sounds. The first is a physiological process (according to Atwater, physical). The second is a psychological process, “an act of will, which also includes higher mental processes. To listen, you need desire." This level of listening provides correct perception and intellectual understanding of the interlocutor’s speech, but not sufficient for emotional understanding of the interlocutor himself.
The second aspect of listening is internal, empathetic. Even the most passionate desire to talk to another person does not guarantee that he will “get through” to us, and we will “hear” him, that is, we will delve into his problems, feel his pain or resentment, and truly rejoice at his success. Such empathy can vary from mild sympathy to strong empathy and even identification with a communication partner. In this case, perhaps, “hearing is more than listening.” We, listening carefully to the interlocutor, hear him inner world. The author of the famous client-centered psychotherapy, K. Rogers, especially paid attention to this moment in the conversation: “I experience pleasure when I truly hear a person... When I am able to really hear another person, I come into contact with him, and this enriches my life. .. I like to be heard... I can attest that when you are upset about something and someone truly hears you without judging you, without taking responsibility for you, without trying to change you, that feeling this makes it damn good! When I was listened to and when I was heard, I am able to perceive my world in a new way and continue on my way... The person who was heard first of all responds to you with a grateful look. If you have heard a person, and not just his words, then his eyes almost always become moist - these are tears of joy. He feels relieved and wants to tell you more about his world. He rises with a new sense of freedom. He becomes more open to the process of change... I also know how difficult it is when you are mistaken for a person you are not, or when people hear something you did not say. This causes anger, a sense of futility and frustration. I get terribly upset and withdraw into myself if I try to express something deeply personal, some part of my own inner world, and the other person does not understand me. I have come to believe that such experiences make some people psychotic. When they lose hope that someone can hear them, then their own inner world, which becomes more and more bizarre, begins to be their only refuge.”
Thus, the relationship between the concepts of “listening” and “hearing” is not unambiguous and dynamic. This dialectic must be taken into account professional psychologist when conducting a conversation. In some cases, the first level of communication is quite enough, and it may even be undesirable to “slide” to the level of empathy (for example, in order to maintain social distance). In other cases, you cannot do without emotional complicity; you cannot extract the necessary information from your partner. This or that level of listening is determined by the objectives of the study, the current situation, and the personal characteristics of the interlocutor.
Whatever the form of conversation, it always exists exchange of remarks. These remarks can be both narrative and interrogative in nature. It is clear that it is the researcher’s remarks that direct the conversation, determine its strategy, and the respondent’s remarks provide the required information. And then the presenter’s remarks can be considered questions, even if they are not expressed in interrogative form, and his partner’s remarks are answers, even if they are expressed in interrogative form. Experts believe that the overwhelming number of answers (up to 80%) in verbal communication reflects such reactions to the speech and behavior of the interlocutor as evaluation, interpretation, support, clarification and understanding. True, these observations relate mainly to “free” conversation, that is, to conversations in a natural setting with equal positions of partners, and not to research situations with asymmetry of the interlocutors’ functions. However, in psychological conversation these trends appear to be continuing.
When selecting (or assigning) people to the role of interlocutors in a study, information about gender characteristics in speech communication.“Analysis of tape recordings of conversations made it possible to establish significant differences in the behavior of men and women. When two men or two women talk, they interrupt each other approximately equally often. But when a man and a woman are talking, the man interrupts the woman almost twice as often. For approximately one third of the conversation, the woman collects her thoughts and tries to restore the direction of the conversation that was at the moment when she was interrupted. Apparently, men tend to focus more on the content of the conversation, while women pay more attention to the process of communication itself. A man usually listens attentively for only 10–15 seconds. Then he begins to listen to himself and look for what to add to the subject of the conversation. Psychologists believe that listening to oneself is a purely male habit, which is reinforced through training in clarifying the essence of the conversation and acquiring problem-solving skills. Therefore, the man stops listening and focuses on how to interrupt the conversation. As a result, men tend to give ready-made answers too quickly. They don't listen to the other person fully and don't ask questions to get more information before jumping to conclusions. Men tend to notice mistakes in the substance of a conversation and, instead of waiting, also good sayings, they are more likely to grasp at a mistake. A woman, listening to her interlocutor, is more likely to see him as a person and understand the feelings of the speaker. Women are less likely to interrupt their interlocutor, and when they themselves are interrupted, they return to the questions on which they were stopped. But this does not mean at all that all men are unresponsive and incorrect listeners, just as it does not mean that all women are sincere and responsive listeners.”
It is very important both when conducting a conversation and when interpreting it to take into account that certain types of remarks, behind which, naturally, there are certain mental characteristics of a person and his attitude towards the interlocutor, can disrupt the flow of communication until it ends. Sometimes such remarks are called communication barriers. These include: 1) order, instruction (for example, “speak more clearly!”, “Repeat!”); 2) warning, threat (“you will regret this”); 3) promise – trade (“calm down, I’ll listen to you”); 4) teaching, moralizing (“this is wrong”, “you should do this”, “in our time they did this”); 5) advice, recommendation (“I suggest you do this”, “try to do this”); 6) disagreement, condemnation, accusation (“you acted stupidly,” “you are mistaken,” “I can’t argue with you anymore”); 7) agreement, praise (“I think you’re right”, “I’m proud of you”); 8) humiliation (“oh, you’re all the same,” “well, Mr. Know-It-All?”); 9) abuse (“scoundrel, you ruined everything!”); 10) interpretation (“you yourself don’t believe in what you say”, “now it’s clear why you did this”); 11) reassurance, consolation (“everyone is wrong”, “I’m upset about this too”); 12) interrogation (“what do you intend to do?”, “Who told you this?”); 13) avoiding the problem, distraction, laughing it off (“let’s talk about something else,” “get it out of your head,” “ha-ha, it’s not serious!”).
Such remarks often disrupt the interlocutor’s train of thought, confuse him, force him to resort to defense, and can cause irritation and even indignation. Of course, reactions to these “barriers” are situational, and advice should not necessarily cause irritation, much less praise – indignation. But such negative reactions for communication are possible, and it is the responsibility of the psychologist to reduce the likelihood of their occurrence in a conversation to a minimum.
Conversation is a method of orally obtaining information from a person of interest to the researcher by conducting a thematically focused conversation with him.
Conversation is widely used in medical, developmental, legal, political and other branches of psychology. As an independent method, it is especially intensively used in practical psychology, in particular in advisory, diagnostic and psychocorrectional work. In the work of a practical psychologist, conversation often plays the role of not only a professional method of collecting psychological information, but also a means of informing, persuasion, and education.
Conversation as a research method is inextricably linked with conversation as a method of human communication, therefore its qualified use is unthinkable without fundamental socio-psychological knowledge, communication skills, and the communicative competence of a psychologist.
In the process of communication, people perceive each other, understand others and their own “I”, therefore the method of conversation is closely related to the method of observation (both external and internal). Nonverbal information obtained during an interview is often no less important and significant than verbal information. The indissoluble connection between conversation and observation is one of its characteristic features. At the same time, a conversation aimed at obtaining psychological information and having a psychological impact on the individual can be classified, along with self-observation, as the most specific methods for psychology.
A distinctive feature of conversation among other verbal communication methods is the free, relaxed manner of the researcher, the desire to liberate the interlocutor, to win him over. In such an atmosphere, the sincerity of the interlocutor increases significantly. At the same time, the adequacy of the data on the problem under study obtained during the conversation increases.
The researcher must take into account the most common causes of insincerity. This, in particular, is a person’s fear of showing himself in a bad or funny way; reluctance to mention third parties and give them characteristics; refusal to disclose those aspects of life that the respondent considers intimate; fear that unfavorable conclusions will be drawn from the conversation; antipathy towards the interlocutor; misunderstanding the purpose of the conversation.
For a successful conversation, starting a conversation is very important. To establish and maintain good contact with the interlocutor, the researcher is recommended to demonstrate his interest in his personality, his problems, his opinions. Open agreement or disagreement with the interlocutor should be avoided. The researcher can express his participation in the conversation and interest in it through facial expressions, postures, gestures, intonation, additional questions, and specific comments. The conversation is always accompanied by observation of the appearance and behavior of the subject, which provides additional and sometimes basic information about him, his attitude to the subject of conversation, to the researcher and the surrounding environment, about his responsibility and sincerity.
In psychology, the following types of conversation are distinguished: clinical (psychotherapeutic), introductory, experimental, autobiographical. During a clinical interview the main objective consists of providing assistance to the client, at the same time it can be used to collect anamnesis. An introductory conversation, as a rule, precedes the experiment and is aimed at attracting subjects to cooperate. Experimental conversation is conducted to test experimental hypotheses. An autobiographical conversation allows us to identify a person’s life path and is used within the framework of the biographical method.
There are controlled and uncontrolled conversations. A guided conversation is carried out at the initiative of a psychologist; he determines and supports the main topic of the conversation. An uncontrolled conversation more often occurs at the initiative of the respondent, and the psychologist only uses the information received for research purposes.
In a controlled conversation that serves to gather information, the inequality of the positions of the interlocutors is clearly manifested. The psychologist takes the initiative in conducting the conversation, he determines the topic and asks the first questions. The respondent usually answers them. The asymmetry of communication in this situation can reduce the confidence of the conversation. The respondent begins to “close himself off,” deliberately distort the information he provides, simplify and schematize answers down to monosyllabic statements like “yes-no.”
Guided conversation is not always effective. Sometimes an unguided form of conversation is more productive. Here the initiative passes to the respondent, and the conversation can take on the character of a confession. This type of conversation is typical for psychotherapeutic and counseling practice, when the client needs to “talk it out.” In this case, such a specific ability of the psychologist as the ability to listen takes on special importance. The problem of listening is given attention Special attention in the manuals for psychological counseling I. Atwatera, K.R. Rogers et al.
Hearing- an active process that requires attention both to what is being discussed and to the person with whom they are talking. Listening ability has two levels. The first level of listening is external, organizational; it ensures correct perception and understanding of the meaning of the interlocutor’s speech, but is not sufficient for the emotional understanding of the interlocutor himself. The second level is internal, empathic, this is penetration into the inner world of another person, sympathy, empathy.
These aspects of listening should be taken into account by a professional psychologist when conducting a conversation. In some cases, the first level of listening is sufficient, and moving to the level of empathy may not even be desirable. In other cases, emotional empathy cannot be avoided. This or that level of listening is determined by the objectives of the study, the current situation and the personal characteristics of the interlocutor.
A conversation in any form is always an exchange of remarks. They can be both narrative and interrogative in nature. The researcher’s remarks direct the conversation and determine its strategy, and the respondent’s remarks provide the information sought. And then the researcher’s remarks can be considered questions, even if they are not expressed in interrogative form, and his interlocutor’s remarks can be considered answers, even if they are expressed in interrogative form.
When conducting a conversation, it is very important to take into account that some types of remarks, behind which there are certain psychological characteristics a person and his attitude towards the interlocutor can disrupt the flow of communication until it ends. Extremely undesirable on the part of a psychologist conducting a conversation in order to obtain information for research are remarks in the form of: an order, an instruction; warnings, threats; promises - trade; teachings, moral teachings; direct advice, recommendations; disagreement, condemnation, accusations; agreement, praise; humiliation; abuse; reassurance, consolation; interrogation; getting away from the problem, distraction. Such remarks often disrupt the respondent’s train of thought, force him to resort to defense, and can cause irritation. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the psychologist to reduce the likelihood of their appearance in a conversation to a minimum.
When conducting a conversation, there are techniques of reflective and non-reflective listening. Technique reflective Listening is about managing the conversation through the active speech intervention of the researcher in the communication process. Reflective listening is used to control the unambiguity and accuracy of the researcher’s understanding of what he heard. I. Atwater identifies the following basic techniques of reflective listening: clarification, paraphrasing, reflection of feelings and summarizing.
Clarification is an appeal to the respondent for clarification, helping to make his statement more understandable. In these requests, the researcher receives additional information or clarifies the meaning of the statement.
Paraphrasing is the formulation of the respondent’s statement in a different form. The purpose of paraphrasing is to check the accuracy of the interlocutor’s understanding. If possible, the psychologist should avoid exact, word-for-word repetition of the statement, since this may give the interlocutor the impression that he is not being listened to attentively. With skillful paraphrasing, the respondent, on the contrary, becomes convinced that he is being listened to attentively and is trying to understand.
Reflection of feelings is a verbal expression by the listener of the current experiences and states of the speaker. Similar statements help the respondent feel the researcher’s interest and attention to the interlocutor.
Summarizing is the listener's summing up of the speaker's thoughts and feelings. It helps to end the conversation, to bring the individual statements of the respondent into a single whole.
At the same time, the psychologist gains confidence that he adequately understood the respondent, and the respondent realizes how much he was able to convey his views to the researcher.
At unreflective When listening, the psychologist controls the conversation through silence. Here, non-verbal means of communication play a significant role - eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, choice and change of distance, etc. I. Atwater identifies the following situations when the use of non-reflective listening can be productive:
1) the interlocutor seeks to express his point of view or express his attitude to something;
2) the interlocutor wants to discuss pressing problems, he needs to “speak out”;
3) the interlocutor experiences difficulties in expressing his problems and experiences (he should not be disturbed);
4) the interlocutor experiences uncertainty at the beginning of the conversation (it is necessary to give him the opportunity to calm down).
Non-reflective listening is a fairly subtle technique; it must be used carefully so that excessive silence does not ruin the communication process.
Question recording the results conversations are resolved differently depending on the purpose of the study and the individual preferences of the psychologist. In most cases, delayed recording is used. It is believed that written recording of data during a conversation prevents the emancipation of the interlocutors, at the same time it is more preferable than the use of audio and video equipment.
Summarizing the above, we can formulate professionally important qualities of a psychologist that determine the effectiveness of using conversation as a method of psychological research:
– mastery of reflective and active listening techniques;
– the ability to accurately perceive information: listen and observe effectively, adequately understand verbal and non-verbal signals, distinguish between mixed and disguised messages, see the discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal information remember what was said without distortion;
– the ability to critically evaluate information, taking into account the quality of the respondent’s answers, their consistency, and the correspondence of the verbal and nonverbal context;
The ability to correctly formulate and ask a question in a timely manner, to promptly detect and correct questions that are incomprehensible to the respondent, to be flexible when formulating questions;
The ability to see and take into account the factors that cause a defensive reaction of the respondent, preventing his involvement in the interaction process;
Stress resistance, the ability to withstand receiving large amounts of information for a long time;
Attention to the level of fatigue and anxiety of the respondent.
Using conversation as a method of psychological research, a psychologist can flexibly combine its various forms and techniques.
The conversation method can be used at almost all stages of psychological research: both for initial orientation and for clarifying conclusions obtained by other methods, for example, the observation method.
Conversation- a method of obtaining the necessary information based on verbal communication. It is widely used in various spheres of human activity, being the main way of introducing a subject into a specific situation. Conversation- one of the methods of psychology, which involves obtaining information about the mental phenomenon being studied in a verbal logical form, both from the individual under study, members of the group being studied, and from surrounding people.
This research method is specific to psychology, because in other sciences, communication (communication) between the subject and object of research is impossible. Conversation- a dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the mental characteristics of the other.
Stages of a conversation
Drawing up a plan for the upcoming communication (collect information about the profession, communicative qualities of the interlocutor; find out the interlocutor’s attitude to the issues that will be discussed; the topic must be clearly defined and acceptable to the interlocutor; for the experimenter himself it is necessary to clearly find out what he wants to achieve during the conversation, what pursues a goal; the questions of the conversation should be thought out, but not strictly defined).
Creation external conditions to facilitate contact (think about where you and your interlocutor are sitting).
Establishing contact.
Adaptation. In the process of adaptation, the following points are highlighted: a) personal adaptation (to the one with whom the conversation is being conducted, cognition and adaptation); b) situational adaptation (getting used to the conditions, subject and purpose of communication); c) social adaptation (awareness and adaptation to a new social role in communication).
Monitoring the mental state of the interlocutor and his attitude towards the beginning of communication (how he behaves).
Actions to eliminate obstacles that arise in communication (incompleteness psychological adaptation; negative attitude of the interlocutor towards contact; the presence of mental states that make communication difficult (anger, grief, agitation).
Analysis after the conversation.
Types of conversation
Researchers distinguish clinical interview and targeted face-to-face interviewing - interview.
Clinical talk is not necessarily carried out with a clinic patient. This type of conversation is a method of studying an integral personality, in which, during a dialogue with the subject, the researcher seeks to obtain the most complete information about his individual personal characteristics, life path, the content of his consciousness and subconscious, etc. Typically, a clinical conversation is carried out in a specially equipped indoors, in the process of psychological consultation or psychological training.
Various schools and areas of psychology have their own strategies for conducting clinical interviews. During the conversation, the researcher puts forward and tests hypotheses about the characteristics and causes of individual behavior. To test these particular hypotheses, he can give the subject tasks and tests. Then the clinical conversation turns into a clinical experiment.
The data obtained during the clinical conversation is recorded either by the experimenter himself or by the assistant. The researcher may also record information after the interview from memory. However, both methods of recording information have their own disadvantages. If the recording is made during a conversation, the trusting contact with the interlocutor may be broken. In these cases, hidden audio and video recording helps, but this raises ethical problems. Recording from memory leads to the loss of some information due to incompleteness and memorization errors caused by fluctuations in attention, interference and other reasons. Some information is lost or distorted due to the fact that the researcher may evaluate some of the subject's messages as more significant and ignore others. If the conversation is recorded manually, then it is advisable to encode the speech information.
A targeted survey is called interview . The interview method has become widespread in social psychology, personality psychology, and labor psychology, but its main area of application is sociology. Therefore, according to tradition, it is classified as sociological and socio-psychological methods.
An interview is defined as a “pseudo-conversation”: the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, do not lose sight of the plan and conduct the conversation in the direction he needs. Establishing a trusting relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee is critical. The next chapter of this manual will be devoted to methods of constructing interviews and recommendations for conducting them. Let us only note that in social psychology interviews are classified as one of the types of survey methods.
Another type is correspondence survey, survey. The questionnaires are intended for subjects to fill out independently, without the participation of the researcher. This method is also given attention in the manual.
I would like to note that any individual conversation should not be reduced to a pointless conversation. It is a purposeful form of personality study and requires compliance certainconditionscarrying out.
One of the first conditions for a highly effective conversation is careful preparation for its conduct. Before the conversation begins, it is necessary to clearly define the main goal, think through the sequence of asking questions, and study all available information, including the results of a psychodiagnostic examination.
Another requirement of the conversation is its ease. Care must be taken that the interview takes place in a calm and confidential atmosphere, in the absence of unauthorized persons and without interruption. All questions should be simple and understandable, they should be posed in such a way that they contribute to the development of a single, holistic story of the respondent about himself and his life.
The conversation should not turn into a simple survey. Preliminarily outlined questions cannot limit the content of the conversation - they are only the main guidelines for its general direction. At the same time, it is advisable to adhere to a certain plan, especially for a novice psychologist.
All information received about the personality characteristics of the subject and your conclusions should be written down only after the conversation. It should be remembered that as a result of the conversation, it is important not only to obtain the necessary information about the individual, but also to have a positive psychological and pedagogical impact. At the end of the conversation, it is advisable to express wishes, give useful advice and recommendations.