home Treatment and prevention Man: taxonomy and characteristic features in the structure of the body. The place of man in zoological taxonomy

Man: taxonomy and characteristic features in the structure of the body. The place of man in zoological taxonomy

History of taxonomy- This is mainly the history of classifications.

In the 17th century After the invention of the microscope, many discoveries were made that, at first glance, erased the differences between living and nonliving matter. Thus began a discussion about the origin of life, in which some considered the possibility of spontaneous generation of living things from non-living things (the emergence of worms or insect larvae from rotting meat), while others proclaimed: “all living things only come from living things,” i.e. they denied spontaneous generation. Without touching on the details of this discussion, let's say that the experiments of Redi in the 17th century, and then Spallanzani in the 18th century. and finally Pasteur in the 19th century. The doctrine of the spontaneous generation of living things from non-living things was finally refuted. Living things arise only from living things, forming a series of transitions from simple to complex. These transitions, showing connections between living organisms, served as the basis for the creation of new classifications. These connections must be based on similarities between individual organisms. However, similarities may vary. In some cases, it is based on external similarity caused by a similar lifestyle. Thus, the ability to fly, due to the presence of wings, could unite insects, birds and bats (and in the past, flying reptiles), which clearly does not fit into any one system. In other cases, despite all the differences between animals such as an elephant, a kangaroo or a mouse, they all belong to the same class of mammals and have such similar features as fur, a four-chambered heart and feeding their young with the secretion of the mammary glands. Here the similarity is based on family ties, and it should form the basis for uniting all mammals into one taxon. This taxon is assigned a class rank.

One of the outstanding evolutionists and taxonomists of the 20th century. Ernst Mayr wrote: “The history of taxonomy is as old as humanity.” Already in primitive society, people distinguished edible plants from inedible ones and probably gave them their own names. The same applies to animals, some of them served as a source of food or skins for humans, from which primitive clothing was made, while others had to be feared, such as predators or poisonous snakes. Man gave separate names to all the animals in his environment, just as tribes living on islands in the ocean do in our time.

The founder of biological classification is considered to be the ancient Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC). In particular, he specially studied the animals that inhabit the Mediterranean Sea. Aristotle taught to use the structure of their body parts, lifestyle, habits, etc. to characterize animals. He identified such main groups of animals as fish, birds, whales and insects, and among the latter - winged and wingless. Terms such as Coleoptera or Diptera (Coleoptera and Diptera) have survived from the time of Aristotle to the present day. His division of animals into two large groups is known - animals with blood and without blood (in modern taxonomy - vertebrates and invertebrates). From the standpoint of today's science, we can say that Aristotle made successful attempts to unite similar species into groups of a higher rank - genera, using for this purpose such characteristics as bipedalism or quadrupedalism, the presence of hair or feathers, the presence or absence of shells in mollusks, etc. d.

Although this was already a step forward, Aristotle cannot be considered the creator of a consistent classification of animals. Nevertheless, he introduced the idea of placing animals on a certain gradation scale depending on the degree of their complexity or, as was then considered, “perfection.” Thanks to Aristotle, and then his followers, up to Linnaeus, the so-called typological or essentialist way of thinking took root in taxonomy. The meaning of this method is that all the variability of nature is reduced to a certain constant number of basic types at different levels. According to this point of view, all members of a certain group of organisms (taxon) reflect a single natural essence or, in other words, correspond to the same type. Therefore, variability is not of fundamental importance, taxa are constant, and the gaps separating them are clearly distinguishable. Why some properties of organisms are more significant and others are not is unknown. What a “natural essence” is is also unclear. If the “natural essence” of mammals is viviparity, then where should we place the oviparous platypus and echidna? Since the essential characteristics of the adherents of typological thinking were mutually exclusive (winged - wingless, four-legged - six-legged), this principle was subsequently used as the basis for dichotomous identifying keys.

Aristotle's list included about five hundred species of animals, and his student Theophrastus (372-287 BC) - one of the first botanists of antiquity - created a classification of plants, which included approximately the same number of species. The description of new species continued, and by 1700 tens of thousands of plant and animal species had been described. The problem arose of grouping similar species. When it concerns a few of them, the task turns out to be feasible. It is clear that the two species of elephants - African and Indian - belong to one higher group, which is now called a genus. But developing a system for tens of thousands of species is very difficult. The first attempt in this direction was made by the English naturalist John Ray (1628-1705). In the book “Systematic Review of the Genera of Quadrupeds and Reptiles” (1693), Rey proposed his classification based on the principle of combining species according to a set of external characteristics. He divided mammals into two groups: animals with fingers and animals with hooves, ungulates - into one-hoofed (horse), two-hoofed (cow) and three-hoofed (rhinoceros). Among two-ungulates, he identified ruminants with non-shedding horns (goats), ruminants with regularly shed antlers (deer) and non-ruminants.

The principle underlying Rey's system turned out to be fruitful for its time and was developed in the works of the Swedish naturalist Carla Linnaeus(Linne) (1707-1778). By the beginning of his work, the number of known species exceeded 70,000 and continued to grow. Studying the flora and fauna of first Scandinavia and then other parts of the globe, Linnaeus described a huge number of species, and later built his own classification system. In 1735, he published the book “System of Nature,” which outlined the system he created for classifying plants and animals.

It was Linnaeus who is considered the founder of biological systematics, or taxonomy, which studies the diversity of species of living organisms. Linnaeus' system was that he grouped closely related species into genera, closely related genera into orders, and closely related orders into classes. All known animal species were placed into six classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects and worms. The characteristics that formed the basis of the classification were the following: for mammals - a four-chambered heart, warm and red blood, viviparity and feeding of young with milk; for birds - feather cover and the ability to lay eggs. The class “reptiles” (reptiles and amphibians) was characterized by cold blood and gill (for amphibian larvae) breathing, insects - by the presence of “white blood”, a heart without atria and articulated limbs. Finally, worms, according to Linnaeus, differed from insects in having unarticulated limbs. He also included crustaceans, spiders and centipedes in the class of insects, and included all other invertebrates in the class of “worms”. Linnaeus's book "System of Nature" went through 13 editions. The 10th edition of 1758 is considered classic. Modern taxonomy recognizes only the Linnaean names adopted in this edition.

Each species in Linnaeus had a double name in Latin: the first word in it is the name of the genus to which the species belongs, and the second is the specific name. This form of binomial (two-name) nomenclature turned out to be very convenient and has been preserved to this day. Thanks to it, as well as the Latin names of animals and plants, an international language for designating living organisms appeared, which made it possible to avoid discrepancies and other misunderstandings. The scientific name of man - Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) - was also given by Linnaeus.

Linnaeus classification, in which classes were divided into smaller divisions - families, genera and species - created the image of a kind of branched tree. Therefore, later biologists called such classifications the “tree of life.”

Naturally, when looking at such a diagram, the thought might arise that such an organization is not accidental. In other words, it could be assumed that two closely related species could have descended from a common ancestor, and two close ancestors from an even more ancient and primitive one. For Linnaeus, such a question did not exist. He argued that “... there are as many species as were first created by the immortal Being,” since the basis of everything, as religion teaches, was the act of creation. Linnaeus was a man of his time, and the act of creation was an axiom for him. This doctrine also did not allow the extinction of species, therefore Linnaeus’ system is a reflection of the act of creation, it is based on external signs and does not reflect possible family ties. Nevertheless, Linnaeus's merits are beyond doubt. Since the adoption of Linnaeus' classification, taxonomy has become the basis of all work in zoology. Without the systematics and materials collected by hundreds of taxonomists of the Linnaean school, Charles Darwin would not have been able to make his generalizations.

In the second half of the 18th century. French naturalist Jean Baptiste Lamarck(Lamarck) (1744-1829), who began as a botanist and even compiled a guide to the plants of the French flora, built according to a dichotomous system, proceeds to the study of animals. This brought him wide fame. As a zoologist, Lamarck did a lot: he divided animals into vertebrates and invertebrates, gave a new classification of animals, studied a number of groups of invertebrate animals, but most importantly, he proposed his theory of evolution, according to which animals and plants change over time, and more highly organized forms descended from less highly organized ones. He recognized the action of the external environment on organisms as the initial path of evolution. Changes in the environment cause changes in the functions of organs, and this entails changes in the organs themselves. In addition, Lamarck recognized “inner drives” in animals, which, for example, led to the appearance of horns in ruminants, and membranes between the toes in ducks and geese. The resulting changes are inherited by the offspring, passed on through a number of generations and lead to the formation of new forms. Lamarck's evolutionary views were also reflected in his system of animals: it was built in the order of progressive series of steps. He divided animals into 14 classes (instead of Linnaeus’ 6 classes), in the Linnaean group of “worms” he identified three main classes - flat, round and ringed, established the class of ciliates, etc. Lamarck classified the radiates as one class - jellyfish, starfish and even a nocturnal protozoan. But the main thing he did was: for the first time, he set forth the doctrine of evolution, in which nature in all its diversity appeared in continuous development and change. Lamarck's theory caused confusion and was not accepted by many, mainly because the factors and driving forces of evolution had not been established. But, as the famous popularizer of science A. Azimov said: “... after all, she was the first to open the floodgates” (see the book: A Brief History of Biology. M., 1967. P. 44).

The French zoologist made a significant contribution to the development of zoological systematics Georges Cuvier(Cuvier) (1769-1832). Cuvier studied the structure of various animals, became the founder of comparative anatomy and the author of the principle of correlation of organs and body parts. Along with this, he was interested in fossil animals (he is considered the father of paleontology), and became closely involved in the system of animal organisms. Cuvier improved Linnaeus' classification system by combining the Linnaeus classes into larger divisions. Subsequently they were called types. He, like Lamarck, called one of these divisions “vertebrates.” But in the group of invertebrates, he identified three subgroups: arthropods, soft-bodied and radiata. Thanks to his studies in comparative anatomy, he based his principle of classification on those features that indicated the relationship between structure and function. He also included in his system extinct animals known from prints and fossils, since they possessed characteristics that made it possible to place them in one of the established types and even determine their place within a class or order. Cuvier established a connection between fossil forms and the layers of the earth's crust in which they were found: he showed that during the transition from an ancient to a younger layer, the structure of fossil animals became more complex. It was even possible to trace gradual, i.e. evolutionary, changes. However, Cuvier's theoretical views were in conflict with the facts obtained. Instead of the process of evolution of living forms, he, recognizing the act of creation and the immutability of species, proposed a theory of catastrophes. According to this theory, the Earth periodically underwent enormous catastrophes that destroyed all life, after which, as a result of the next act of creation, new organisms appeared, sharply different from those that existed before. Therefore, evolution was not required to explain the presence of fossil organisms.

The theory of catastrophes suffered a crushing defeat only at the beginning of the 19th century. as a result of the work of geologists Hatton and Lyell, who proved gradual and non-catastrophic changes in the surface of our planet. Thus the ground was prepared for the creation of the scientific theory of evolution and evolutionary systematics.

During the first half of the 19th century. zoologists successfully worked to clarify individual groups of animals identified by previous researchers. This was facilitated by a rapid and continuous increase in the number of known species as a result of the acquisition of new materials during the exploration of Africa, Australia or South America. Narrow specialists in specific taxa appeared - ornithologists, entomologists, etc. n. As a result, new classification methods were developed, based on the study of the correlation of some features with others. Scientists also assessed the gaps between taxa, which made it possible to establish a hierarchical structure of categories based on the degree of similarity. Nevertheless, the theoretical views of the taxonomists of that time were still far from recognizing the reasons for the changes. Most of them continued to recognize the orderliness of nature as the result of an act of creation, and each taxon as a set of variants of some basic type that carries its essence. But only Charles Darwin(Darwin) (1809-1882) expressed a new point of view, which, after a number of years of conflict of opinions and fierce discussions, was recognized as the cause of evolutionary changes in living organisms.

Darwin argued that natural groups exist because the members of each such group (i.e., species) are descended from a common ancestor. If earlier taxonomists arbitrarily established taxa, it now became clear that their “creation” was the result of evolution. Darwin's evolutionary theory made it possible to explain the discontinuity of variability in nature and explained the course of phylogeny, which consists of branching and subsequent divergence. The division of taxa should be based on branching (“common descent”), but the rank of a taxon depends on the degree of change that has occurred in a particular category.

Of particular importance for the development of taxonomy was the development of practical rules for finding taxonomically valuable characters. They consisted in the fact that related forms, including those that differ greatly in lifestyle, should always have characteristic features. First of all, you need to look for stable complexes of several characteristics. In modern taxonomy they are called linked or correlated. Darwin's theory of evolution gave meaning to the classification work carried out by empirical taxonomists. The search began for missing links between taxa whose common origin remained unknown. A stimulus was given to work on phylogeny, which led to the development of comparative morphology and embryology. In this regard, the work of Ernst Haeckel(Haeckel) (1834-1919), especially the phylogenetic tree of organisms he proposed in 1866, the image of which began with a common root and then branched into three trunks - plants, protists and animals. Each of the trunks, in turn, branched into new, smaller branches, ultimately leading to the currently existing classes.

By the end of the 19th century. the fact of evolution became generally accepted, and taxonomists focused on describing and classifying newly discovered species. This work continues today. Every year, thousands of species new to science are described, taxa of supraspecific rank are revised, and their boundaries are clarified. All these are traditional works necessary to understand the inexhaustible biological diversity of the organic world of our planet. What unexpected discoveries happen in our time is evidenced by the descriptions of the most primitive multicellular animal - Trichoplax or the discovery of a special animal world at the bottom of the deep trenches of the Atlantic Ocean, including a new type of invertebrates - vestimentifera - accompanying crustaceans and other organisms that were completely unknown until recently science.

In the first half of the 20th century. taxonomists came to the conclusion that the idea of a species as an unchanging unit needed to be reconsidered. The fact is that samples of individuals taken from different parts of the species range revealed certain differences. The study of these population samples showed that population variability has a different range, and certain changes (in size, color, pattern and other morphological indicators) are often associated with the location of the population in the species' range, or populations of the same species in the same area differ in food preferences or behavior.

All this led to the idea of a polytypic species consisting of different populations, and the study and comparison of populations belonging to the same species became the main task of population systematics. New taxonomy led to a revision of the species concept. Taxonomists began to supplement the morphological features clearly visible in museum specimens with features of living organisms relating to behavior, ecological features, physiology and biochemistry. Thanks to this, systematics became a biological and even experimental science. This concerned mainly the experimental analysis of isolating mechanisms, due to which each species is a closed genetic system that prevents the crossing of different species. According to Mayr, thinking in population concepts served as one of the main sources of population genetics, which, in turn, influenced the further development of population systematics. Together they have greatly contributed to clarifying our understanding of evolution at the species level.

The modern period in the development of systematics as a biological science is characterized by some features. First of all, the entire theory of systematics is revised, as evidenced by the work of Hennig, Bloch, Socal and Sneath and others. The second feature is the introduction of molecular research methods, important for understanding evolution at the molecular level. The development of comparative ethology and the use of the results of this science in the taxonomy of animals is also of considerable importance.

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Has its own characteristics. They are connected with the biosocial basis of Homo sapiens.

Man: taxonomy

On the one hand, man is an object of living nature, a representative of the Animal Kingdom. On the other hand, this is a social person who lives according to the laws of society and strictly obeys them. Therefore, modern science considers the systematics of man and the features of his origin from both a biological and a social position.

Human taxonomy: table

Representatives of the taxa to which modern humans belong have a number of similar structural features. This is evidence of the presence of their common ancestor and a common path of evolution.

Taxonomic unit	Similarities and characteristic features
Type Chordata	Formation of the notochord and neural tube at the initial stages of embryonic development
Subphylum Vertebrates	Formation of the inner which is the spine
Class Mammals	Feeding the young with milk, the presence of a diaphragm, differentiated teeth, pulmonary respiration, warm-bloodedness, intrauterine development
Order Primates	Five-fingered limbs, opposable thumb, 90% chimpanzee gene identity
Family Hominidae	Brain development, ability to walk upright
Rod Man	The presence of an arched foot, a free and developed upper limb, the presence of curves of the spine, articulate speech
Homo sapiens species	Intelligence and abstract thinking

Type Chordata

As you can see, the place of man in the taxonomy is clearly defined. The heterotrophic type of nutrition, limited growth, and the ability for active movement determine its belonging to the Animal Kingdom. But according to its characteristics, it is a representative of this systematic unit also includes the classes Bony and Cartilaginous fish, Reptiles, Amphibians and Birds.

How can such different organisms belong to the same type? It's all about their embryonic development. In the early stages, they develop an axial cord - the chord. The neural tube forms above it. And under the chord is the intestine in the form of a through tube. There are gill slits in the pharynx. As these embryonic structures develop in humans, they undergo a series of metamorphoses.

The spine develops from the notochord, and the spinal cord and brain develop from the neural tube. The intestine acquires a through structure. The gill slits in the pharynx become overgrown, as a result of which the person switches to pulmonary breathing.

Class Mammals

A typical representative of the class Mammals is man. Systematics classifies it into this taxon not by chance, but by a number of characteristic features. Like all representatives of mammals, humans feed their young with milk. This valuable nutrient is produced in specialized glands.

The taxonomy of Homo sapiens classifies it as a group of placental mammals. During intrauterine development, this organ connects the body of the mother and the unborn child. In the placenta, their blood vessels intertwine, and a temporary connection is established between them. The result of this work is the implementation of transport and protective functions.

The similarity between humans and other representatives of mammals also lies in the structural features of organ systems and the course of physiological processes. These include enzymatic digestion. Biologically active substances are secreted by the liver, salivary glands and pancreas. A common feature is the presence of differentiated teeth: incisors, canines, large and small molars.

The presence of a four-chambered heart and two circles of blood circulation determines the warm-bloodedness of a person. This means that his body temperature does not depend on this indicator in the environment.

Homo sapiens species

According to the most common hypothesis, humans and some species of modern monkeys have the same ancestor. There is a number of evidence for this. The Hominid family is characterized by an important feature - upright walking. This trait was certainly associated with a change in lifestyle, which led to the release of the forelimbs and the development of the hand as an organ of labor.

The process of becoming a modern species took place in several stages: the most ancient, ancient and first modern people. These phases did not replace each other, but coexisted and competed with each other for a certain period.

The most ancient, or ape-people, knew how to independently make tools from stones, make fire, and lived in a primary herd. The ancients, or Neanderthals, communicated using gestures and rudimentary articulate speech. Their tools were also made of bone. Modern people, or Cro-Magnons, built their own homes or lived in caves. They sewed clothes from skins, knew pottery, tamed animals, and grew plants.

Man, whose taxonomy is determined by the totality of anatomy, physiology and behavioral reactions, is the result of long-term evolutionary processes.

Linnaeus, the creator of the new taxonomy, did not bypass the human species in his system. Already in the first edition of "Systems of Nature" "Systerna naturae" he included man along with monkeys in a group he called Anthropomorphia, or anthropoid.

As S. Horstadius points out, in 1760 Linnaeus wrote a dissertation on anthropoids for a Russian student, emphasizing in it the similarities between apes and humans. He believed that man differs from monkeys primarily in his ability to accumulate experience and pass on his individual experience from generation to generation with the help of speech, writing and printing.

The dissertation on anthropoids in the manuscript had the subtitle: “Relatives of Man.” In this work, Linnaeus suggested that, for example, the Hottentots might turn out to be crosses between humans and some kind of cave monkeys. Linnaeus crossed out the subtitle “Relatives of Man” before sending the work to print. We must not forget that Linnaeus, holding the position of dean of the theological faculty, preferred not to place this subtitle in the printed work.

Linnaeus's views, as we have already indicated above, changed over time. In the end, he came to the conclusion that new species could arise as a result of crossing. If, however, Linnaeus suggests that the Hottentots may be the result of the crossing of people with monkeys, then at the same time he believes that both people and monkeys appeared thanks to an act of creation. Thus, Linnaeus does not propose the evolutionary development of man from some animal form.

However, the very fact of classifying humans along with monkeys into one systematic group, albeit without hidden evolutionary thought, was of great importance. Haeckel emphasized this during the anniversary celebrations in honor of Linnaeus in 1907.

Since the time of Linnaeus, the long-standing classification system of the creator of modern taxonomy has been supplemented and corrected more than once. Modern taxonomy classifies a person as a type (phylum) chordates (Chordata).

One of the subtypes of chordates are vertebrates (Vertebrata), which the taxonomist divides into separate classes (Classis). Man, along with other mammals, belongs to the class of mammals (Mammalia). The class of mammals is in turn divided into numerous orders (Ordo). One of the orders to which humans belong is the order of primates (Primates).

The systematic classification of the order of primates according to Simpson is as follows: the order of primates includes two suborders, namely lemurs or prosimians (Prosimii) and monkeys (Anthropoidea), that is, forms similar to humans. Suborder Anthropoidea divided into three superfamilies: broad-nosed monkeys (Ceboidea), narrow-nosed monkeys (Сercopithecoidea) and finally the anthropoids (Hominoidea). The superfamily of anthropoids is divided into two families, that is, the family Pongidae, which includes the great apes: gibbon, orangutan, chimpanzee and gorilla, and the human family (Hominidae).

Prosimians are animals that differ sharply from each other. Many modern taxonomists classify the so-called tupai as prosimians. (Tupaiidae), which other authors classify as insectivores (Ipsectivora). Tupai live in the News region. Other prosimians live in the East and Africa, and especially many of their species are currently found in Madagascar.

Ceboidea or Cebidae- these are broad-nosed monkeys with a wide bridge of the nose, which at first lived only in South America; they later penetrated into Latin America and southern Mexico.

Cercopithecoidea called narrow-nosed monkeys, With narrow cartilaginous bridge of the nose, can also be called Old World monkeys. They currently live in warm areas of Asia and Africa. In Europe, on Gibraltar, there lives one species of monkey - Magot from the genus Macaca (Masasa), which is under protection, imported from Morocco and Algeria.

Apes, that is Pongidea, are divided into two subfamilies - Hylobatinae And Ponginae. Hylobatinae that is, gibbons, live in southeast Asia, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. From representatives of the subfamily Ponginae orangutans are known from Sumatra and Borneo. In taxonomy they are called Pongo or Simla pigmeus. There are two subspecies of orangutans. Chimpanzee (Pan) lives in western and central Africa, and the gorilla (Gorilla) found only in some places in western and central Africa. Apes are relatively large animals, do not have a tail and differ from other animals by the highest level of intelligence.

Thus, zoological taxonomy classifies humans, together with apes, as belonging to the same family. Hominoidea. It is this systematic classification that is dictated primarily by the similarity of structure, that is, the anatomical characteristics of humans and apes.

Rice. 69. Scull A) gorillas and b ) modern man; by Le Gros Clark.

The anatomical similarity goes so far that a medical student could, during many exercises in the dissecting room, learn human anatomy by dissecting great apes. This far-reaching anatomical similarity cannot be caused by some random coincidence, but indicates a blood relationship between apes and humans. This conclusion is clear and convincing for the naturalist, especially since the similarities also appear in other characteristics, such as embryological, physiological, serological, pathological and others.

Individual bones of the human skeleton correspond to homologous bones of the skeleton of an ape, such as a chimpanzee. The similarity between the long bones of the hand of humans and chimpanzees is so great that at first glance it is difficult to distinguish a human bone from a homologous monkey bone. It is clear that homologous bones of humans and apes may differ in both size and structural details, but this does not change the main conclusion about the similarity due to the commonality of many genes indicating kinship, that is, origin from a common trunk, humans and apes.

Anatomical similarity cannot be explained by random convergence of characters; it also manifests itself in very conservative characters, such as the formation of the surface of molars. Despite the fact that humans and apes eat different foods, the surface of their molars has the same shape. If there are similarities in many anatomical characters, then the family ties between these two groups are obvious, and taxonomists did the right thing by uniting humans and apes into one systematic group.

This conclusion does not mean, however, that man evolved through evolution from any variety of modern apes. Our animal ancestor is not the gorilla, chimpanzee or orangutan. Both the lineage of development of modern apes and the lineage of humans represent two branches descending from a common trunk. This trunk was, according to most scientists, the long-lived and long-extinct primordial apes, which were sharply different from those currently living Pongidae. As a result of the fact that both branches developed from a common trunk, the gene pool of humans and modern Pongidae shows some common signs. Common genes explain to us the hereditary soil from which similar traits develop.

In addition to the similarities, there are certain differences, since both branches developed independently of each other over many millions of years. The authors believe that the branch leading towards humans and the branch leading to modern Pongidae separated from the common trunk about twenty million years ago, in the Miocene era. Due to the fact that the differences increased gradually, the difference between the fossil forms of apes and humans was less than between modern humans and modern Pongidae. Living apes are very well adapted to life in tropical forests. They have more sharply emphasized characteristics that could be called animal characteristics than their ancient ancestors, who were also our ancestors.

The English anatomist and evolutionist, Le Gros Clark, draws attention to the erroneous use of the terms “man” and “ape”, without indicating whether in this case we are talking about fossil forms or those living at the present time. When comparing the fossil forms of primitive man with the fossil forms of apes, we note different relationships than when comparing modern man with modern apes.

From the point of view of evolution, it is very instructive to study the vestigial organs found in modern man. As is known, only since the time of Darwin has a logical explanation for the presence of vestigial organs been found. These organs most often have no function and are of no importance. In evolutionary ancestors, however, these organs were well developed and functional.

The sparse hair growth of the human body currently has no protective significance. The third molar, called the wisdom tooth, as a result of the gradual shortening of the jaws in primitive man and in man of a later period, became a vestigial organ that does more harm than good. According to Keith's research, almost one fifth of the population of England does not develop this tooth at all. The muscles that move the auricle are also vestigial organs.

In the human body, the anatomist finds approximately 70 different organs of this type. The presence of vestigial organs indicates the conservative action of heredity, although selection gradually acts towards their complete disappearance.

“The presence of such a large number of vestigial organs in the human body should be considered, according to Hoebel, a certain type of anatomical lag from the race of evolutionary development.

The first of the anthropologists, Hooton, drew attention to the fact that in addition to the presence of vestigial organs, the human body has numerous anatomical deficiencies, which negatively affects the proper function of many organs. Human ancestors began to walk upright even before their bodies were fully adapted to it. The abdominal organs, instead of resting in a basket of ribs, put pressure on the abdominal wall and often lead to a hernia. The human intestine is too long; it is rather adapted to digesting mainly plant foods, which our animal ancestors mainly ate. As a result of the very strong development of the brain, the heart is forced to do additional work by sending and supplying blood to a large mass of brain tissue in the direction opposite to the direction of gravity.

Thanks to this lag in the development of anatomical features, which was delayed in adapting ancient structures to new needs, and the presence of numerous rudimentary organs, a person can, according to Wollisa, be compared to some kind of museum of antiquities. This name is correct, since it is these “antiquities” of our body that are one of the proofs of the evolutionary development of man from the animal trunk.

Very strong data on the evolutionary origin of man have been obtained in the field of serology, using the precipitation method. It turned out that by examining human serum and the serum of great apes, one can detect their serological relationship. Similarities between human antigens and antigens Pongidae can only be explained by genetic relationship, that is, blood relationship.

Comparative genetic data lead to the same conclusion. Apes have blood types similar to humans. It also turned out that both humans and apes have genes that determine the perception or lack of perception of the bitter taste of phenylthiourea. On this basis, we can assume that this property arose a very long time ago, among the common ancestors of humans and Pongidae, since otherwise it would be difficult to explain the presence of these signs in humans and apes.

When, after the publication of “The Origin of Species,” the question of the origin of man came to the forefront of all discussions, opponents of evolution and its attribution to man tried to prove the presence in the human body of signs unique to him. Thorough anatomical studies by T. Huxley showed that the human brain, apart from its size, is essentially no different either macroscopically or microscopically from the brain of great apes, for example, from the brain of a gorilla.

The difference in magnitude is not as significant as it might seem. The maximum cranial capacity of a gorilla is 685 cm3, while the smallest cranial capacity of a person of normal intelligence may be somewhat less than 900 cm3. The quantitative difference of these 200 cm3 cannot explain the enormous difference that exists in the mental abilities of man and monkey. It is therefore necessary to recognize, as it seems to us, that these special qualities of the human mind depend on a complex functional organization of the brain that is not manifest in its structural organization (Le Gros Clark).

It is clear that a number of anatomical features can be pointed out that are exceptional features of modern man. These signs include: the structure of the genital organs, the red border of the lips, the shape of the female breast, sparse body hair and others. In listing these characteristics, we take into account those that modern monkeys do not have, but modern humans do. How our distant ancestors behaved in this regard remains unknown.

Comparing the human structure with modern representatives Pongidae, we compare man with forms that have achieved a high degree of specialization and adaptation to the special conditions of life in the trees. Representatives of that primitive tribe of monkeys, which many millions of years ago gave rise to the evolutionary lines that developed in the direction of human forms and modern apes, probably did not have such strongly pronounced signs of the representatives living today Pongidae.

True, fossil remains Pongidae, are few in number, but those that have been discovered indicate the correctness of this assumption. However, each species has its own distinctive characteristics, otherwise it would not be a separate species. Therefore, the species of Homo sapiens must have its own anatomical characteristics. The presence of these characteristics not only does not contradict the evolutionary origin of the human race, but, on the contrary, is an inevitable manifestation of speciation.

Man stands at the highest stage of development of living organisms. The structure of its body and the functions of individual organs are in many ways similar to those of other animals. Like them, the human body consists of organs, tissues and cells. Metabolism, excitability, growth, development and other properties inherent in living organisms are also present in humans. But, while remaining an animal, man exists not only in nature, but also in society. He has instincts, but he is guided primarily by reason. The presence of consciousness further distinguishes it from other organisms.

You already know about the classification of all living organisms according to related characteristics into systematic groups. Man belongs to the animal kingdom.

Signs of similarity between humans and animals according to systematic groups

Systematic groups Human characteristics

During embryonic development, a notochord, a neural tube, and gill slits in the pharynx appear.

The spinal column develops and paired limbs appear. The heart is located on the ventral side. The central nervous system is represented by the brain and spinal cord. The brain consists of 5 sections: terminal, intermediate, middle, posterior (pons and cerebellum) and medulla oblongata.

There is hair and mammary glands. They are viviparous and feed their offspring with milk. There are numerous sweat glands on the skin. The chest cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. Milk and permanent teeth are divided into groups (incisors, canines, small and large molars). There are seven cervical vertebrae. The middle ear contains three auditory ossicles (hammer, incus and stapes).

The baby develops inside the mother's body in the uterus. The fetus is nourished through the placenta.

5.Prnmata Squad

6.Superfamily Apes

7.Gomshshdy family

8.Rod Man

9.View

Homo sapiens

Relatively large brain, five-fingered grasping hand with flat nails and opposable thumb (Fig. 5).

The fore and hind limbs are almost equal in length, with 32-36 teeth. They breed all year round, usually giving birth to one young. Absence of tail and ischial calluses, similar shape of the auricle. Large brain with developed grooves and convolutions. Large, highly developed frontal region. 4 blood groups. Differences in the structure of male and female individuals.

The characteristics of this and subsequent systematic groups are interpreted differently.

It appeared approximately 2 million years ago.

Within the species there are several main races.

The most complete characteristics of a person in zoological taxonomy are as follows:

kingdom Animals -» type Chordata -» subtype Vertebrates -» class Mammals -♦ subclass Placentals -* order Primates -* suborder Great Apes -» superfamily Apes -» family Homnidae -» subfamily People themselves-¥ genus Man - "species Homo sapiens -" modern man

Man as a biological species appeared at the last stage of the historical development of living organisms. Currently, all people living on earth belong to the same speciesHomo sapiens( Homosapiens).

The origin of man and periods of his historical development

Periods of human historical development are studied by scienceanthropology(from Greekanthropos- Human). Particular attention is paid to the signs of similarities and differences in the structure of man and his ancestors. It is also important to study the remains of skeletons of human ancestors who lived in ancient times. In the formation of man, a decisive role was played by upright walking, the gradual improvement of the hand (Fig. 5) as an organ of labor, the complication of the brain and forms of behavior that emerged during life. As a result of comparative studies, 4 stages were identified in the origin and historical development of man.

1.According to modern scientific data, the first was the speciesA skilled man( Homohabilis). It appeared approximately 2 million years ago. Its body structure is more similar to humans than to apes. There is a clear similarity in the structure of the teeth. Height was 120-150 cm, weight was about 20-50 kg. The brain part of the skull was smaller than the facial part, its volume was up to 650 cm*.

2.Scientists combine the most ancient people (Pithecanthropus, etc.) into one species -Homo erectus( Homoerectus). Compared to Homo habilis, Homo erectus is larger (160-170 cm). The volume of the skull is larger (800-1000 cm3). In appearance, representatives of this species are close to modern humans. The most important achievement is the mastery of fire. The age of the remains is 1 million 500 thousand years.

3.Ancient people (Neanderthals) lived 0.5 million 70 thousand years ago. The brain part of their skull is large, 1300-1500 cm3. The shoulders were broad and the muscles were well developed. They lived in small groups in caves and grottoes. Situated in the open air, they built shelters from poles, bones of large animals, and laid skins on top of them. They developed speech and developed tool making (Fig. 6).

4.Man of the modern type -Homo sapiens( Homosapiens) appeared no later than 40 thousand years ago. It is characterized by a larger brain volume, a high cranial vault, a well-developed mental protuberance, the absence of a supraorbital ridge, and a straight forehead.

It cannot be said that the process of evolutionHomosapiensstopped and no more biological changes will occur. Scientists note that people become more graceful in build, the size of their jaws and teeth decreases, their torso becomes shorter, etc.

The main features of modern man:

1. As a result of life activity and upright walking, bends appeared in the spinal column (see p. 17). The muscles of the lower extremities are well developed.

2. Large volume of the brain, the structure of the cerebral cortex is especially complicatedha(convolutions and furrows appear).

3. The thumb of the hand is completely opposed to the rest, the foot with a massive and adducted thumb (Fig. 5).

4. The lower jaw became more complex, the chin protuberance became largermoreexpressed.

5. The period of childhood has lengthened. Puberty has been delayed. Average life expectancy has increased, etc.

1 . Name the signs that allow us to classify a person as a living organism.

2.What systematic groups exist in the classification of animals?

3.Name some features of humans that are characteristic of other organisms.

1.What sections is the brain of vertebrates divided into?

2.Why do humans belong to the class Mammals?

3.Name the signs that are unique to humans.

1.By what characteristics does a person belong to the Vertebrate subtype?

2.What characteristics are similar between humans and great apes?

Name the signs of the subclass Placental

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"Anthropology"

The place of man in zoological taxonomy

Basic biological characteristics of the species Homo Sapiens

Krasnoyarsk 2009

Introduction

The problem of the origin of Homo sapiens on our planet is the subject of lively debate today. There are thousands of scientific and “amateur” theories of the origin of man, among which the theory of anthropogenesis, or the origin of man as a result of a complex evolutionary-historical process, as well as the theory of creationism, or the creation of man by superpowers, are still dominant.

A reasonable person? the highest stage of evolutionary development on Earth, a social being whose distinctive feature is consciousness formed on the basis of social and labor activity.

In 1735, C. Linnaeus, in his “System of Nature,” published the position of Homo sapiens in the animal world, which gave rise to the development of the doctrine of anthropogenesis - the process of the evolutionary-historical formation of man. Linnaeus identified taxonomic (Greek taxis - construction, arrangement in order + nomos - law) features - categories, characteristics of living organisms, allowing one to evaluate their location in taxonomy - an ordered set of objects in a single structural system. In accordance with this classification, human species belong to the class (classis) Mammals (Mammalia), order (ordo) Primates, family (familia) Anthropoids, genus (genus) Humans.

Subspecies of Homo sapiens, the appearance of the ancients and the diversity of modern ones. There is a well-known classification of subspecies of Homo sapiens, which can be conditionally divided into two stages - ancient subspecies and modern races. All human races belong to the same species (H. sapiens) and roughly correspond to zoological subspecies. Crossbreeding, which occurs when even very distant races come into contact, confirms the species unity of man. Racial classifications were usually based on external morphological (physical) characteristics of skin color, hair shape, development of tertiary hair, and facial structure. The combination of these characteristics makes it possible to distinguish between three large races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Equatorial (Negro-Australoid). There are other multinomial and multi-level options for racial classification. Genetically, the races came from the same nest, and relatively recently on the scale of evolution. The primary development and separation of populations from each other began about 100 thousand years ago in Africa, from where one branch emerged and began to divide into continental branches.

In my work, I will try to describe in more detail the theory of anthropogenesis, find out whether man belongs to the zoological system (if so, what place he occupies in it) and what basic biological characteristics are endowed with Homo sapiens.

ANTHROPOGENESIS (from anthropo... and...genesis), the origin of man, his formation as a species in the process of formation of society - sociogenesis; Anthropogenesis is also called the corresponding branch of anthropology. Problems of anthropogenesis are the subject of natural and social sciences about man and the Earth.

Of utmost importance in the development of the theory of anthropogenesis is F. Engels’s initial position on the leading role of social factors and labor in the formation of man. Another cornerstone of the doctrine of anthropogenesis is the general theory of evolution, the greatest achievements of which include the simial (from the Latin simia - monkey) hypothesis of human origin from highly developed monkeys of the Tertiary period, formulated for the first time by Charles Darwin, the argumentation of which has expanded significantly and been replenished with many new facts from the field comparative biochemistry, immunology, karyology, ethology of primates, molecular anthropology, etc. These materials fully confirmed the greatest closeness of humans to African apes (pongids), primarily chimpanzees.

Modern man - H. sapiens (H. sapiens sapiens) appeared no later than 40 thousand years ago (according to the dating of the skull from the Nia cave, North Kalimantan); The great antiquity of this taxon is also possible, the ancestors of which were, apparently, the early progressive Neanderthals - H. neanderthalensis (H. sapiens neanderthalensis). According to popular belief, the line of “sapiens” separated long before the late Mousterian era (53 - 33 thousand years BC), as evidenced by some already quite “sapient” finds of fossil people of that time (for example, in Staroselye in the Crimea, in Veternice in Yugoslavia, Qafzeh in Israel, etc.). The first sapiens were, apparently, a mixture of varieties of a polymorphic species that had not yet broken up into separate races; perhaps this was the very beginning of their formation, although there are disagreements about the antiquity of racial differences, the territory and the number of centers of sapienation.

Hominid evolution was not a linear process, characterized by both convergence and divergence; it was accompanied by mixing and intense gene flow between populations, which led, especially in the later stages of anthropogenesis, to network-type evolution. This means that variations in the rates of change in different lines and in the same phyletic series at different times are probable, since in the presence of general patterns of hominid development, the conditions for their implementation could still significantly depend on a number of environmental factors.

The role of labor as the main factor in anthropogenesis was also different at different stages. In the primitive hominid community, the progress of social organization was still largely dependent on human biological changes; however, the process of anthropogenesis was accompanied by a gradual narrowing of the scope of natural selection due to the emergence and development of societies, patterns and the creation of a cultural environment. From about the middle of the Late Paleolithic, the physical type of modern man remained relatively stable; on the contrary, the very slow evolution of culture before the appearance of this taxon gave way to development at an ever-increasing pace, reaching its first culmination in the Neolithic. In modern society, selection acts as a mechanism for maintaining the formed morphofunctional organization within the limits of the species reaction norm (stabilizing selection) or as a factor of intraspecific polymorphism (disruptive selection).

The biological development of modern humans usually manifests itself in the form of multidirectional changes in morphofunctional characteristics, as well as the structure of morbidity, rates of development, etc.

The place of Homo sapiens in the zoological system:
	Cellular (Cellularia)
Subdomain	Eukaryotes (Eucaryota, seu Nuclearia)
Overkingdom	Multicellular (Metabionta)
	Animals (Animalia, seu Zoobiota)
Sub-kingdom	Multicellular animals (Metazoa, seu Metazoobionta)
Supersection	Eumetazoa, or True multicellular organisms (Eumetazoa)
	Bilateral, or Bilaterally symmetrical (Bilateria)
Subsection	Deuterostomia
	Chordata
	Vertebrates, or Cranials (Vertebrata, seu Craniota)
	Mammals, or Beasts (Mammalia)
Subclass	True beasts, or viviparous (Theria)
Infraclass	Higher animals, or Placentals (Eutheria, seu Placentalia)
	Primates
Suborder	Anthropoids, or Monkeys (Simioidea)
	Narrow-nosed monkeys (Catarrhini)
Superfamily	Humanoid primates, or Hominoids (Hominoidea)
Family	Humans, or Hominids (Hominidae)
Subfamily	People, or Homininae (Homininae)
	Man (Homo)
	Homo sapiens

Let's look at this table in more detail.

Chordata (lat. Chordata) are a type of deuterostome animals, which are characterized by the presence of a mesodermal axial skeleton in the form of a chord, which in higher forms is replaced by a spine. In terms of the structure and function of the nervous system, the chordate phylum occupies the highest place among animals. Chronologically, chordates are the youngest phylum.

Vertebrates are the highest subphylum of chordates. Compared to the lower chordates - the skullless and tunicates - they are characterized by a significantly higher level of organization, which is clearly expressed both in their structure and in their physiological functions. Among vertebrates, there are no species that lead a sessile (attached) lifestyle.

Mammals (lat. Mammalia) are a class of vertebrate animals, the main distinguishing features of which are viviparity (with the exception of the infraclass cloacal) and feeding their young with milk.

Placental, higher animals (lat. Eutheria, Placentalia) are the most common infraclass of mammals, which is also considered the most highly developed. Other infraclasses are marsupials (Metatheria) and cloacals (Protheria). A distinctive feature of placentals is birth in a relatively developed stage.

Primates (lat. Primates, from lat. primas, genitive case primatis - one of the first (in the sense of “higher”)) are a detachment of placental mammals, including, among others, monkeys and humans.

Primates are characterized by five-fingered, very mobile upper limbs (hands), opposable thumbs and nails. The body is covered with hair, and lemurs and some broad-nosed monkeys also have undercoat, and therefore their hairline resembles fur. Many species are characterized by robes, manes, beards, mustaches, etc.

Among the narrow-nosed, there are three main groups:

Parapithecoidea - a completely extinct group of narrow-nosed monkeys;

monkeys (Cercopithecoidea) - a large group of narrow-nosed primates living in Africa, Asia and Europe (Gibraltar);

Hominoids (Hominoidea) are the highest apes, to which modern humans systematically belong.

Apes, hominoids or anthropoids (lat. Hominoidea or Anthropomorphidae) are a superfamily of narrow-nosed monkeys (Catarrhini) with a body structure similar to that of humans.

According to the latest anthropological data and the generally accepted theory of the origin of species, all monkeys of the Old World (narrow-nosed monkeys) are divided into two large superfamilies: apes and apes. Many anatomical features distinguish the first and second. Apes are characterized by a larger body, lack of a tail, cheek pouches and ischial calluses (gibbons have them, but they are small). Apes have a fundamentally different way of moving through trees: instead of running along branches on all four limbs, they predominantly move on their hands, under the branches. This method of locomotion is called brachiation. Adaptation to it caused a number of anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a mobile shoulder joint, and a chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction.

Hominids (lat. Hominidae) are the family of the most progressive primates, including humans.

Hominins (lat. Homininae) are a subfamily of hominids (Hominidae), which includes Homo sapiens and some extinct species of humans, as well as gorillas and chimpanzees.

Homo sapiens (lat. Homo sapiens) is the only living species of the genus Homo of the family of hominids of the order of primates. In addition to a number of anatomical features, it differs from modern anthropoids in a significant degree of development of material culture (including the manufacture and use of tools), the ability for articulate speech and abstract thinking. The collection of human individuals is called humanity. Man as a biological species is the subject of study of physical anthropology. The diversity of cultures, forms of social life and social organization is the subject of the social and human sciences.

Biological characteristics of Homo Sapiens

The emergence of humans was associated with a number of significant anatomical and physiological modifications, including:

· structural transformations of the brain

Enlargement of the cerebral cavity and brain

development of bipedal locomotion (bipedalism)

· development of grasping hand

prolapse of the larynx and hyoid bone

· reduction in the size of fangs

appearance of the menstrual cycle

Reduction of most of the hairline.

One of the main problems that immediately confronted scientists was the identification of the line of primates that gave rise to hominids. Throughout the 19th century. Therefore, several hypotheses have been put forward about this. Some of them rejected the idea that humans are closely related to living apes and linked the origin of the hominid line with one or another more primitive primate. Others, on the contrary, suggested that humans, chimpanzees and gorilla are closely related, having descended from a common ancestor - a species that existed for a significant period of time until it split into three modern forms. These disagreements highlighted a fundamental problem: how to develop acceptable criteria for recognizing organisms that were a step or steps in the development of hominids, and how to identify such steps from the entire body of data on ancient primates.

Hominids have a number of differences at the anatomical and biomolecular level that allow them to be given a special place among primates. Some of these differences are primary, while others are secondary, i.e. arose as an adaptation to the conditions created as a result of the appearance of primary differences.

Locomotion on two legs. Upright walking is the most important sign of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupeds, or, as they sometimes say, “four-armed.” Although some apes, such as baboons, have adapted to a terrestrial existence, they nevertheless move on all fours. And apes, particularly gorillas, which primarily live on the ground, walk in a characteristic partially straightened position, often leaning on their hands.

The vertical position of the human body, of course, turned out to be associated with many secondary adaptive changes. These include changes in the proportions of the arms and legs, modifications to the foot, sacroiliac joint and spinal curves, and the connection of the head to the spinal column.

Brain enlargement. The next primary difference that puts humans in a special position in relation to other primates is their extremely enlarged brain. Compared, for example, to the average size of a chimpanzee's brain, the modern human brain is three times larger; even in Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, it was twice as large as in chimpanzees. However, size is not the only feature of the human brain: its various areas have undergone specialized development, the number of nerve cells has increased and their arrangement has changed. These, as well as some other modifications, endowed the human brain with its increased capabilities. Unfortunately, fossil skulls do not provide sufficient comparative material to evaluate many of these structural changes. Unlike other traits noted above as adaptive to upright posture, brain enlargement does not have a direct connection with it, although an indirect relationship between upright posture and brain development is quite likely.

Structure of teeth. The third of the basic changes concerns the structure of teeth and their use. The transformations that have occurred are usually associated with changes in the way ancient humans fed. If their cause can still be discussed, then the nature of the changes is firmly established. These include: reduction in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. the gap that includes the protruding canines in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; development of a parabolic dental arch, in which the anterior section has a rounded shape and the lateral sections expand outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.

During the evolution of hominids, brain enlargement, changes in cranial joints and transformation of teeth were accompanied by significant changes in the structure of various elements of the skull and face and their proportions.

Differences at the biomolecular level. The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their relationships with other primate families. The results are not yet indisputable. The methods used include the following: immunological analysis, i.e. comparison of the immune response of different species of primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which allows one to assess the closeness of relationship by the degree of matching of paired bases in double strands formed by DNA strands taken from different species; electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, therefore, the proximity of these species is assessed by the mobility of the isolated proteins in an electric field; protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein, for example hemoglobin, in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of a given protein, and, moreover, to calculate over what time such changes could occur, and thereby assess the degree of relatedness of the species being compared and how long ago they separated.

These methods have shown the very close relationship and, therefore, relatively recent separation in the course of evolution of such species as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, one protein sequencing study found that the differences in DNA structure between chimpanzees and humans were only 1%.

You can search for a long time for differences and similarities between humans and primates so similar in structure to them, so that we don’t take the musculoskeletal system, digestive, respiratory, endocrine system, etc., we will encounter similarities and a number of differences everywhere. The human body is a complex system; its origin and evolution covers many life phenomena.

The biological heritage of people was formed during the historical development of the organic world, therefore it reflects the processes and results of evolutionary transformations at various levels of living nature (molecular genetic level, cellular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic).

During the work we had to answer some questions. Now we can say with certainty that man is part of the zoological system. Although it does not occupy any special place in its taxonomy, Homo sapiens belongs to the kingdom of animals, mammals, and the order of primates, the only one living in our time from the genus Homo.

Of course, to a person who does not have a special education and does not particularly think about it, it may seem that a person should undoubtedly occupy a special place, the highest level in the hierarchy. Many are indignant at the idea of our descent from monkeys, but this does not mean that our ancestors were macaques. We are talking about a very similar structure of our body and the organisms of some primates. The body of any living creature is a historically established, integral, ever-changing system that has its own special structure and development.

And human development was influenced by many factors; biological, geographical, environmental. If we take modern people now, some develop faster, some slower. All people are different in their abilities, mental and sexual development. And what a diversity of races and nationalities on Earth! Despite the fact that there are no two completely identical individuals in the world, we all belong to the same species - Homo sapiens.

A significant feature that sets us apart from the rest of the animal world is our brain. Our nervous system is a unique system that has not yet been fully studied. People of many professions need knowledge about the structure, operating principles, and functions of the brain. The structure of the human body actually has a great resemblance to the body structure of some primates, but it is we who have become the most intelligent creatures, we have learned to adapt nature to ourselves, all our actions are aimed at obtaining a positive result, at identifying the benefits of everything we do, namely people are trying in every way to make their life easier. All this is possible only with such a nervous system.

We should not, of course, forget that we will always be part of that wild nature, and that, despite our intelligence, we will not be able to live without the environment.

Bibliography

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2. Anthropology Textbook Edition 4; Khrisanfova E.N., Perevozchikov I.V. Publishing house: Moscow State University, 2005. - 400 p.

3. Biology: Anthropology: Textbook for university students / Kharitonov V.M., Ozhigova O.P., Godina E.Z. and others - M: Vlados, 2003. - 272 p.

4. Anthropology: textbook. manual / Khomutov A.E., - Phoenix, 2006. - 378 p.

5. Anthropology / Roginsky Ya.Ya., Levin M.G., - M., 1963.

6. Anatomy of the central nervous system: Textbook for students of specialty 020400 Psychology / V.G. Nikolaev, E.P. Sharaikina, V.P. Efremova. - Krasnoyarsk: SibSTU, 2004. - 119 p.

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