The Russian language as a whole is characterized by the opposition of hard and soft consonants.

Wed: small And crumpled, WHO And carried, sir And gray, mouse And bear.

In many European languages ​​there is no such opposition. When borrowed, a word usually obeys the pronunciation norms of the Russian language. So, before e in Russian there is usually a soft consonant: chalk, no. Many borrowed words begin to be pronounced in the same way: meter, rebus. However, in other cases, the pronunciation of the hard consonant is preserved in the borrowed word: adept[adept], amber[ambre], although this is not reflected graphically. Usually, after a hard consonant in Russian, e is written, and after a soft consonant, e. In borrowed words, as a rule, it is written e. Consonants can be pronounced both softly and firmly.

When pronouncing a borrowed word, several parameters must be taken into account.

1. The pronunciation of hard consonants is usually preserved by foreign surnames:

Shope[e]n, Volte[e]r.

2. The pronunciation of hard consonants is usually preserved in bookish, little-used words that have recently entered the Russian language:

de[e]-facto, apart[e]id, re[e]iting.

As the word becomes established in the language, the pronunciation of a hard consonant can be replaced by the pronunciation of a soft consonant (in accordance with the spelling). So, now it is possible to pronounce a consonant in two ways:

de[e/e]gradate, de[e/e]valuation, de[e/e]duction, de[e/e]odorant, de[e/e]kan.

3. The type of consonant located before e plays a certain role.

Thus, in borrowed words with the combination de, the process of softening the consonant regularly occurs (in accordance with the spelling):

decoration, de[e]clamation, de[e]mobilization.

The process of softening the consonant is quite active in words with combinations not, re:

abre[e]k, aggression[e]ssion, aquar[e]el, bere[e]t, re[e]gent, re[e]ter, referee, brun[e]t, shine[ spruce.

On the contrary, the combination te quite stably preserves the firm pronunciation of the consonant: ate[e]lye, bijute[e]ria, bute[er]rbrod, de[e]te[e]active, te[e]rier.

4. A certain role is played by the source of borrowing and the place in the word of the combination with e.

Thus, those words that are borrowed from French with final stressed syllable:

entre[e], meringue[e], corrugation[e], curé[e], paste[e]el.

5. In book words in which the letter e is preceded by a vowel rather than a consonant, the sound [j] is not pronounced.

Wed: in Russian words: ate, [j]ate; in borrowed words: die[e]ta, brown[e]s, proe[e]ct, proe[e]ctor, proe[e]ction, ree[e]str.

It is absolutely unacceptable to pronounce [j] in a word poet and its derivatives ( poetic, poetess).

note

The pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in borrowed words has social significance. If the norm is still the pronunciation of a hard consonant (for example, chimpanzee[e], gofre[e], computer[e]r, madem[dm]uaze[e]l), then the pronunciation of the soft consonant in such words ( chimpanzee[e], corrugation[e], computer[e]r, made[e]moise[e]el) can be perceived by listeners as a manifestation of the speaker’s low culture. At the same time, pronouncing a hard consonant where the pronunciation of a soft consonant has already become the norm can be perceived by listeners as a manifestation of philistinism, pretentiousness, and pseudo-intellectuality. So, for example, the pronunciation of hard consonants in words is perceived: academic[e]mik, bere[e]t, brunette[e]t, accounting[e]r, de[e]claration, de[e]magog, de[e]mokrat, coffee[e], te[e ]ma, te[er]rmome[e]tr, fane[e]ra, shine[e]l.

Difficulties arise in the pronunciation of a number of words due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text e And e , since only one is used to designate them graphic symbol – e . This situation leads to a distortion of the phonetic appearance of the word and causes frequent pronunciation errors. There are two sets of words to remember:

1) with a letter e and the sound [" uh]: af e ra, be e , live e , Grenada e r, op e ka, os e long, idiot e native, foreigner e nny, w e non-hater;

2) with a letter e and the sound [" O]: hopeless e payment e capable, man e vry, white e syy, bl e cool, w e personal, w e lch (option - w e lie), alone e ny.

In some pairs of words different meaning accompanied by different sounds of the stressed vowel: ist e kshiy (term) – but: ist e kshiy (blood), screams like a loud voice e nal – but: decree, announced e in the morning, etc.

§1.2. Some difficult cases of pronunciation of consonants

1. According to old Moscow standards, the spelling combination -chn- should always have been pronounced like [ shn ] in words: bakery, on purpose, cheap, fiddling, creamy, apple and under. Currently, the pronunciation has been preserved only in some words: of course, boring, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party. The vast majority of other words are pronounced [chn], as they are written: toy, creamy, apple, flour, snack bar, glass etc.

Pronunciation [ shn] preserved today also in female patronymics ending in -ichna: Nikitichna, Ilyinichna and so on..

According to old Moscow standards, the combination -wha- pronounced as [pcs] in the word What and in words derived from it: nothing, something etc.: currently this rule remains the same (except for the word something[Thu]). In all other words the spelling is - th- always pronounced as [thu]: mail, dream, mast.

2. In words man, defector on site zhch, in the shape of comparative degree adverbs tougher, harsher(And more scathingly) in place stch, as well as in place of combinations zch And sch customer, sandstone, cost accounting etc. pronounced [ sch]: mu[sh]ina, pere[sch]ik, zhe[sh]e etc.

3. When several consonants accumulate in some words, one of them is not pronounced: ucha[s"n"]ik, ve[s"n"]ik po[zn]o, pra[zn]ik, conscientious[s"l"]ivy, maximal[ss]ky and so on. .

4. Hard consonants before soft consonants can be softened:

a) necessarily softens n before soft ones h And With: face[n"z"]iya, pretension[n"z"]iya;

b) n before soft T And d softens: a["n"t"]ichny, ka[n"d"]idat.

Ppronunciation of borrowed words

Many borrowed words have spelling features that need to be remembered.

1. In some words of foreign language origin, unstressed O sound is pronounced [ O]: bO mond, threeO, bO ah, kakaO , biO stimulant, vetO , grossO , noO , adviceO , O Azis, RenO meh. Pronunciation of words PO ezia, creedO etc. with unstressed [ O] optional. Proper names of foreign origin also retain unstressed [ O] as an option literary pronunciation: ShO pen, VO lter, SacramentO and etc.

2. In some borrowed words, after vowels and at the beginning of the word, the unstressed [ uh]: uh guide,uh revolution, duuh lant and etc.

3. In oral speech, certain difficulties are caused by pronouncing a hard or soft consonant before a letter in borrowed words e: t[em]p or [t"e]mp? bass[se]ine or bass[s"e]yn? In some cases, a soft consonant is pronounced.

Soft Pronunciation:

In other cases, before e a hard consonant is pronounced.

Firm pronunciation:

4. Currently, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of words:

Both hard and soft pronunciation is possible.

In borrowed words starting with prefixes de- before vowels dis-, as well as in the first part of compound words starting with neo-, with a general tendency towards softening, fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard are observed d And n:

5. In foreign-language proper names, it is recommended to firmly pronounce consonants before e: De cart, Flobe r, miNot lly,"De Cameron",Re Egan.

6. In borrowed words with two (or more) e often one of the consonants is pronounced softly, while the other remains hard before e: gene zis[g"ene], relay[rel"e] and etc.

7. Solid [ w] is pronounced in words pairshu T[shu], broshu ra[shu]. In a word jury pronounced soft hissing [ and"]. Names are pronounced just as softly Julien, Jules.

8. When pronouncing some words, erroneous extra consonants or vowels sometimes appear. Should be pronounced:

incident, Not incident;

precedent, Not precedent;

compromise, Not compromise;

competitive, Not competitive;

emergency, Not h[e]extraordinary;

institution, Not institution;

future, Not future;

thirsty Not thirsty

Remember some words in which the consonant before e is pronounced firmly: anesthesia, décolleté, grotesque, degradation, decadence, delicacy, detective, computer, manager, mixer, service, stress, thesis, antithesis, nonsense, protection, sweater, thermos, sandwich, pace, tennis, tent, brown-haired, psychic, beefsteak, business, inert, atelier, identical, laser, interview, pastel, rugby, timbre, trend, phonetics, index, interior, meringue, relay, sexy. Words with a soft consonant before e: academic, beret, accounting, debut, anemia, brunette, clarinet, competence, context, cream, museum, patent, pate, press, progress, term, flannel, overcoat, essence, jurisprudence, yachtsman. In many cases, variant pronunciation is allowed: [d"]ekan and [de]kan, [d"]ekanat and [de]kanat, [s"]session and [se]siya, but [ve]lla and no[v" ]ella, ag[r"]ssia and additional ag[re]ssia, [d"]ep[r"]ession and additional [de]p[re]ssia, ba[ss"]ein and ba[sse ]yn, strategy [t"]egia and additional strategy [te]gia, lo[te]reya and additional lo [t "]reya. Pronunciation [chn ], [shn] in place of the spelling chn The competition of pronunciation options in place of the spelling combination chn has a long history, the echoes of which we feel when we have to choose one use or another: skuk[chn]o or skuk[shn]o, skvoor[chn]ik or skor[sh]ik? There is a gradual displacement of the Old Moscow pronunciation [shn] and a convergence of pronunciation with spelling, therefore the variants koria[sh]vy, bulo[sh]aya, gorn[sh]aya are outdated. At the same time, it should be remembered that some words retain as a mandatory pronunciation [shn] in place of the spelling chn: boring, boring, on purpose, of course, scrambled eggs, birdhouse, trifling, eyeglass case (case for glasses), laundry, mustard plaster, poor student, candlestick. The pronunciation [shn] is also standard in female patronymics: Kuzminichna, Fominichna, Ilyinichna. Pronunciation of [e] and [o] under stress after soft consonants and hissings In modern speech, one often hears a scam, guardianship instead of the scam, guardianship provided for by the norm. Why do such fluctuations occur? The long process of transition from [e] to [o], in writing denoted by the letter ё, in the stressed position after soft consonants before hard ones, is reflected in the state of the modern norm. In most cases, under stress in the position between a soft and hard consonant and after sibilants, the sound [o] is pronounced (graphically e). Compare, for example, sieve - lattice, star - starry, tear - tearful. Remember the words with this pronunciation: motley, gutter, worthless, smart, swollen, perch, marker, starter, oblivion, engraver, driver, priest, bigamy, bleeding. However, in many words, most often borrowed, there is no transition from [e] to [o] in the indicated position: guardianship (not guardianship!), scam (not scam!), stout, grenadier, bigamist, expired (day), pole, rod , spineless, carabinieri, sedentism, deadwood, simultaneous. The fluctuation of this orthoepic norm is evidenced by the possibility of variant pronunciation of some words. It should be borne in mind that the main, most preferable options are with e: whitish, faded, bile, bile, maneuver, maneuverable, fade. Options with e are recorded by dictionaries as acceptable, that is, less desirable to use: whitish, faded, bile, gall, maneuver, maneuverable, fade. GRAMMATICAL CORRECTNESS OF SPEECH Grammatical correctness of speech is determined by compliance with grammatical norms, that is, the correct choice of grammatical forms of words (morphological norms) and forms of connection of words in phrases and sentences (syntactic norms). MORPHOLOGICAL NORMS The morphological structure of the Russian language has been sufficiently studied both from the historical and from the structural-descriptive side. At the same time, in speech practice many questions arise about the correct use of certain forms of words. Why is the noun "coffee" masculine? Which form should you choose - “contracts” or “contracts”, “accountants” or “accountants”? What is the correct way to say: "go off the rails" or "go off the rails", "a pair of clips" or "a pair of clips"? Numerous grammatical violations both spoken and writing indicate the need for closer attention to these issues. Difficulties in forming nouns by gender The category of gender is quite stable, and we easily classify the noun “table” as masculine, and “desk” as feminine. But in a number of cases the gender of nouns has changed, and instead of the old forms film, rail, hall, the new film, rail, hall are used. Some nouns still retain variant design by gender, that is, parallel forms coexist in the language: banknote - banknote, aviary - aviary, dahlia - dahlia, hangnail - burr, duct - duct, lobster - lobster, mongoose - mongoose, arabesque - arabesque , shutter - shutter. Some options are rated as acceptable along with the main ones: key - additional. keys, clearing - extra. clearing, sprat - extra. sprat, giraffe - extra. giraffe. Fluctuation in design by gender is characteristic of many shoe names, but only one generic form corresponds to the literary norm: masculine - boot, felt boot, sneaker, high boots, slipper; feminine - shoe, sandal, anklet, slipper, sneaker, boot, sneaker, galosh. Incorrect: shoes, sneakers, slippers, sneakers, sandals. Difficulties in formatting by gender also arise when using a number of other nouns that have only one normative gender form. The masculine gender includes the nouns shampoo, roofing felt, tulle, epaulette, corrective, clips, rail (variant formatting by gender is preserved only in the genitive plural form - derail and derail). The feminine gender includes the nouns veil, corn, bean, reserved seat, cuff. Remember: the feminine form of tomato, common in the speech of Astrakhan residents, is not normative, and therefore only the masculine form of tomato should be used. Determination of the grammatical gender of indeclinable nouns 1. As a rule, indeclinable nouns denoting inanimate objects belong to the neuter gender: show, alibi, fiasco, flowerpot, baroque, interview, jury, variety show, entrechat, pince-nez, rugby, bikini, meringue, communiqué, role, aloe, taboo, rally, revue, necklace, cliche, dossier, cafe, argo. 2. In a number of cases, gender is determined by a more general generic concept: Bengali, Hindi, Pashto - masculine (“language”); kohlrabi (“cabbage”), salami (“sausage”) - feminine; sirocco, tornado (“wind”) - masculine; avenue (“street”) is feminine. 3. The gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names is also determined by grammatical gender common noun, expressing a generic concept (that is, according to the gender of the words river, city, lake, etc.): Sochi - masculine (city), Gobi - feminine (desert), Missouri - feminine (river). Wed: multi-million Tokyo (city), wide Mississippi (river), industrial Baku (city), picturesque Capri (island), deep Erie (lake). So, gender affiliation can also be motivated from the content side. It is no coincidence that many indeclinable nouns (words of foreign language origin) receive a dual description in dictionaries. For example, the word “tsunami” can be associated with the concept of “wave” and formalized in the feminine gender in Russian, or it can be classified as an inanimate noun and formalized in the neuter gender. Wed: tsunami - s.r. (Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language); and. and s.r. (Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language); avenue (connection with the word "street") - f.r. (Spelling dictionary of the Russian language), g. and s.r. (frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech”); penalty (connection with the word "kick") - m. and s.r. (Spelling dictionary of the Russian language). Literary language can retain, from a formal point of view, unproductive variants (coffee is masculine). Dictionaries have noted the variant gender of the noun coffee (m. and s.r.). Presumably, one of the reasons for the initial assignment of the word coffee to the masculine gender was the now lost tradition of using it with a different phonetic format - “coffee”. Second possible reason- the word belongs to the masculine gender in the French language, from which it was borrowed. 4. Indeclinable nouns denoting animate objects are masculine: funny pony, funny chimpanzee, big kangaroo, beautiful cockatoo, old marabou. The exception is words whose gender is determined by the generic concept: hummingbird - feminine gender (bird), iwasi - feminine gender (fish), tsetse - feminine gender (fly). Some animate indeclinable nouns may have parallel gender depending on the context. Wed: The old kangaroo looked around carefully. The kangaroo protected her cub. 5. Indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting persons, are masculine or feminine depending on the gender of the person designated: famous entertainer, rich rentier, old curé, talented drag queen, beautiful lady, elderly lady, great maestro, capable impresario. Bigeneric words are such words as protégé (my protégé, my protégé), vis-à-vis, incognito, hippie. Determination of the grammatical gender of abbreviations and compound words 1. The grammatical gender of an abbreviation (compound abbreviated word) is determined as follows: a) if the abbreviation is declined, then its gender is determined according to the grammatical sign: university - masculine, NEP - masculine, registry office - masculine (lost correlation with the gender of the core word "record"); b) if the abbreviation is not inflected, then its gender is determined by the gender of the main (core) word of the deciphered compound name: ACS - feminine gender (automatic control system), GEC - feminine gender (state examination commission ), hydroelectric power station - railway station (hydroelectric power station), SSU - micro-district (Saratov State University), ATS – f.r. (automatic telephone exchange), housing department - m. (housing and maintenance site), housing cooperative - m.r. (housing and construction cooperative). The difficulty of etymological deciphering of abbreviations, their formal similarity with whole words (such as cat, house, cancer) lead to loosening general rule speech practice and the emergence of options. Wed: VAK - zh.r. (Higher certifying commission) and acceptable m.r.; Ministry of Foreign Affairs - s.r. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and acceptable m.r. ROE - female (erythrocyte sedimentation reaction) and additional. s.r. However, fluctuations in the norm for determining the grammatical gender of an abbreviation based on the core word do not indicate the abolition of this rule, which continues to operate in the Russian language. 2. The grammatical gender of compound words such as sofa-bed, shop-studio, museum-apartment is determined by the semantic relationships between the parts compound word– the leading component is a word with more general meaning : museum-library – noun. husband. kind (the word museum denotes a broader concept, with the second part acting as a clarifying one); a chair-bed, a rocking chair of the neuter gender (one of the types of chairs is called, and the second part of the word is only specified). As a rule, the leading word comes first: exhibition-viewing, exhibition-sale, showcase-stand - these are feminine nouns; review-competition, sofa-bed, theater-studio, evening-meeting, lesson-lecture, rematch, factory-laboratory, car-workshop, salon-atelier, story-sketch - masculine gender; dress-robe, cafe-patisserie, atelier-studio - neuter. In some cases, the order of arrangement may not correspond to the semantic significance of parts of the word - alpha decay - husband. r., gamma radiation - cf. r., raincoat-tent, cafe-dining room - female. In case of difficulty, you should refer to the Orthoepic Dictionary or the Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language. Difficulties in using the case forms of nouns The use of forms of the nominative plural M. V. Lomonosov at one time unconditionally recommended for use only 3 words with the ending -a in the nominative plural: boka, eye, gender and gave a small list of words that allowed dual use of forms in -ы and -а: forests - forests, banks - banks, bells - bells, snows - snows, meadows - meadows. Common for literary language in the 19th century. there were shapes: trains, houses, sails, professors. A development trend clearly emerges: the number of forms per struck -a(s) is steadily increasing at the expense of forms with unstressed -s(-s). The formation of nominative plural forms in -a (-я) tends to: a) monosyllabic words: run - run, forest - forests, century - centuries, house - houses, silk - silks, tom - volumes, etc. But: cakes , syllables, soups, fronts, ports. Incorrect: cake, syllable, soup, front, port. b) words with singular stress on the first syllable: order - orders, pearls - pearls, cook - cooks, address - addresses, watchman - watchmen, monogram - monograms, boat - boats, stack - stacks, ham - hams, skull - skulls, orders - orders, etc. But: handwriting, grooms, valves, doctors. Taking into account their colloquial nature, parallel forms in -a (-z) of the following nouns are acceptable: turner - turners - turners, mechanic - mechanics, locksmith, cruiser - cruisers - cruisers, tractor - tractors, tractors, etc. In some cases, forms in - a(s) and na -ы(s) differ in meaning: images (artistic) - images (icons); tones (shades of sound) - tones (shades of color); bread (in the oven) - bread (in the field); bodies (cars) - bodies (mushrooms); omissions (oversights) - passes (documents); orders (insignia) - orders (knightly); bellows (blacksmith's; wineskins) - furs (dressed hides); sheets (paper) - leaves (on trees). The formation of nominative plural forms in -ы (-и) tends to: a) words with stress on the final syllable of the base: associate professor - associate professors, portfolio - portfolios, cut - cuts, auditor - auditors, percentage - percentages, steamship - steamships and etc. (there are a few exceptions such as sleeve - sleeve, cuff - cuff); b) words of foreign origin with the final part -er: officer - officers, driver - drivers, engineer - engineers, director - directors, conductor - conductors, actor - actors, etc. c) words of Latin origin with the final part -tor, denoting inanimate items: detectors, capacitors, reflectors, transformers. Words of Latin origin in -tor, -sor, -zor, denoting animate objects, may have the ending -ы in some cases (designers, lecturers, rectors, censors, authors, dispatchers), in others -a (directors, doctors, professors) . Taking into account their colloquial nature, variant forms in -a are acceptable for a number of nouns: proofreaders - proofreaders, instructors - instructors, inspectors - inspectors, editors - editors; d) three-syllable and polysyllabic words with stress on the middle syllable: accountants, pharmacists, speakers, librarians, composers, researchers. The forms of pharmacist and accountant are colloquial, not normative, and are not recommended for use. Using genitive plural forms Difficulties associated with the use of genitive plural forms in speech arise quite often. Which form to choose - grams (with a formally expressed ending) or grams (with a zero ending), hectares or hectares, manger or manger? Masculine nouns with a base on a hard consonant of the following groups tend to form forms with a zero ending: a) names of paired objects: (pair) boots, boots, stockings, (without) shoulder straps, epaulette, (shape of) eyes, legs, hands. Note that the spelling dictionary notes the variant forms of socks and sock; b) names of persons by nationality (words with stems starting with “r” ina “n”): (several) Bashkirs, Tatars, Moldavians, Georgians, English, Turks, Bulgarians, Gypsies, Romanians, Ossetians. But: Kalmyks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Yakuts, Uzbeks; fluctuations: Turkmen - Turkmens; c) some names of units of measurement usually used with numerals: (several) volts, amperes, watts, hertz, fluctuations: microns - micron, coulombs - coulomb, carats - carat, roentgens - roentgen. Only verbally colloquial speech shorter forms can be used in parallel with the main options: kilograms and kilograms, grams and grams, hectares and hectares; d) names of military groups: soldiers, partisans, hussars, dragoons. But: miners, sappers. Please note: for the names of fruits and vegetables, the normative forms in the genitive plural are, as a rule, forms with endings: oranges, tomatoes, tangerines, pomegranates, bananas, eggplants. Forms with zero inflection (kilogram of tomato, pomegranate) can only be used in oral conversation. For feminine nouns, the following forms are normative: earrings, apple trees, wafers, domain, drops, gossip, roofs, nannies, candles (the candle variant is found in stable combinations like “the game is not worth the candle”), sheets (it is acceptable to be simple, but not cold), beats. The existence of morphological variants can be determined by variation in stress or sound composition: ba" rzh (t barzha") and bar " rzhey (from ba" rzha), sa " zheney ( from sa "zhen) and soot “n, soot” (from soot), handfull (from a “handful”) and with a “handful” (from a “handful”). For neuter nouns, the normative forms of the genitive plural are shoulders, towels, saucers, porch, lace, mirrors, small mirrors, outbacks, coasts, potions, apprentices. For nouns used only in the plural, the following forms are normative in the genitive case: twilight, attacks, descendants, everyday life, “manger”, frosts, rakes and rakes, stilts and stilts. Difficulties in using some surnames 1. Foreign surnames in -ov , -in in the instrumental case have the ending -om (Darwin, Chaplin, Kronin, Virkhov) in contrast to Russian surnames ending in -om (Petrov, Vasiliev, Sidorov, Sinitsyn). : Vasilenko, Yurchenko, Petrenko - in Vasilenko, Yurchenko, Petrenko, before Vasilenko, Yurchenko, Petrenko 3. Russian and foreign surnames ending in a consonant sound are declined if they refer to men, and not declined if they refer to women: with Andrei Grigorovich - with Anna Grigorovich, Lev Gorelik - Irina Gorelik, Igor Korbut - Vera Korbut Difficulties in using forms of adjectives The forms of the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives, formed according to the type more humane, more beautiful, the most beautiful, do not meet the literary norm. There are two ways to form comparative and superlative forms in language: analytical (more humane, most beautiful) and synthetic, when the meaning is expressed using a suffix (more humane, most beautiful). The attempt to combine both of these methods leads to mistakes. Remember the correct options: thinner or thinner, thinnest or thinnest. Under no circumstances use forms of adjectives such as thinner or thinnest. How numerals are used in speech Of all the names (noun, numeral, adjective), numerals are more unlucky than others: they are increasingly used incorrectly in speech. For example, before our eyes they are losing the forms of indirect cases - they simply stop declining. Let's remember some rules for using numerals, and you will see that they are not so difficult. 1. In complex numerals denoting hundreds and tens and ending in -hundred (hundred) or -ten in the nominative case, each part is declined like a simple numeral. It is important to simply understand the logic of the formation of case forms. I. seven ten (let's connect) seventy R. seven ten seventy D. seven ten seventy B. seven ten seventy T. seven ten seventy P. about seven ten seventy As we see, everything remains exactly the same as when declination of simple numerals. Please note: both parts of the numeral end the same way: seventy, seventy. In compound numerals, all the words that form them are declined: with two thousand five hundred seventy-three rubles, to own eight hundred sixty-seven thousand seven hundred and ninety-five hectares of land. 2. The numerals forty and ninety have only two case forms: I. and V. - forty and ninety. The rest: forty and ninety 3. The correct combinations are 45.5 percent (not percent), 987.5 hectares (not hectares and especially not a hectare). At mixed number the noun is governed by a fraction: five tenths of a percent or a hectare. Possible options: forty-five and a half percent, nine hundred eighty-seven and a half hectares. 4. Collective numerals are used in the following cases: a) with masculine and general nouns naming male persons: two friends, three soldiers, four orphans along with two friends, three soldiers; b) with nouns that have only a plural form: two scissors, four days (starting from five, cardinal numbers are usually used five days, six scissors); c) with personal pronouns: there are two of us, there were five of them. Remember: collective numbers are not used with feminine nouns denoting female persons, so you cannot say two girls, three teachers, five students, but only two girls, three teachers, five students. Difficulties in using certain forms of verbs 1. Of the forms went out, got wet, got wet, dried up (with or without the suffix -well- in the past tense), the first, short form is more common. 2. In the pairs condition - condition, concentrate - concentrate, summarize - summarize, empower - empower the first options are the main ones, and the second forms (with the root a) are colloquial in nature. 3. Of the two parallel forms, splashes - splashes, rinses - rinses, purrs - purrs, prowls - prowls, cackles - cackles, waves - waves are recorded by dictionaries as the main options, and the second - as acceptable, colloquial. 4. Some verbs, for example, win, convince, wonder, feel, find themselves, are not used in the first person singular forms. Instead, descriptive forms are used: I can win, I can convince, I want to feel, I hope to find myself, I won’t be weird. SYNTACTIC NORMES Difficulties in agreeing the predicate with the subject Difficulties in agreeing the subject with the predicate are associated with the choice of the form of the number of the predicate in sentences with a subject, an expressed quantitative combination. Most books are dedicated - most books are dedicated. Several students spoke - several students spoke at the seminar. Which form of communication is correct? The plural form of the predicate is preferable when the subject is expressed by a quantitative combination, which includes an animate noun, in the following cases: a) the subject includes several controlled words in the form of the genitive case: Several students, teachers and faculty members attended the conference; b) the subject is expressed by an animate noun and the activity of the action attributed to each person individually is emphasized. Most graduates showed excellent mastery of the subject of research; c) between the main members of the sentence there are other members of the sentence: Several graduate students, in preparation for a scientific conference, conducted a serious research work. If we put the predicate in the plural, then the subject is considered as separate objects, and if in the singular - as a single whole. In a number of cases, syntactic variation is possible: Thirty graduates were sent to rural schools. - Thirty graduates were sent to rural schools. If the subject expressed by a quantitative combination includes an inanimate noun, then the predicate, as a rule, is used in the singular form: Fifteen student works were noted by the commission. Several reports were prepared for the student seminar. Most of the books were received by the library last year. A number of courseworks are reviewed by the teacher. Some of the reports are included in the conference program. With the numerals two, three, four, the predicate is usually put in the plural: Three books are on the table. Four students entered the classroom. Two student reports received the highest marks. With homogeneous subjects, the predicate, as a rule, agrees in the plural: Planned repairs of classrooms and cleaning of other premises are carried out simultaneously. The rector of the institute and several professors were elected to the presidium. When the subject is expressed by a noun, denoting a profession, position, title, the predicate is traditionally put in the masculine form: a graduate student worked in a file cabinet, an associate professor gave a lecture. However, the modern literary norm allows both ways of agreeing the predicate with the subject in gender, if the latter denotes a feminine person gender: the doctor wrote out a prescription and the doctor wrote out a prescription, the professor spoke to the students and the professor spoke to the students. If there is a person's own name, the predicate agrees with own name: associate professor Nikolaeva successfully spoke at the scientific conference - associate professor Andreev gave an introductory lecture, graduate student Ivanova read a report - graduate student Sergeev read a report. Difficulties in agreeing on definitions 1. With nouns that depend on the numerals two, three, four, the definition is consistent as follows: for words of the masculine and neuter gender, it is put in the genitive plural form (two large buildings, three new buildings). When defining words of the feminine gender, the form of agreement in the nominative plural is preferable (two new audiences). If the definition comes before a numeral, then it is put in the form of the nominative case, regardless of the gender of the nouns: the first two lectures, the last two semesters, every three assignments. 2. If the word being defined has two or more definitions, then this word can be in both singular and plural: a) plural emphasizes the presence of several subjects: Moscow and Saratov universities, students of the history and philology faculties, synchronous and comparative historical methods; b) the singular number emphasizes the connection of the defined objects, their terminological proximity: the right and left wings of the educational building, masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, scientific and educational work. If there is a divisive or adversative conjunction between the definitions, the word being defined is put in the singular form: a humanitarian or technical university, not a journalistic, but an artistic text. 3. When coordinating the definition with the defined word, expressed by a common noun, the form of connection can be either in the feminine gender when denoting a female person, or in the masculine gender when denoting a male person: Petrov is a complete ignoramus in this matter, from yet complete ignorant in this area. The girl is an orphan. Alexey is an orphan. The modern norm allows for a double agreement of the definition in the form of the masculine and feminine gender when denoting a male person in lively colloquial speech: Vasya is such a slob and (additional) Vasya is such a slob. 4. When agreeing with complex names consisting of two words of different grammatical gender, the word being defined is consistent with the one that expresses a broader concept: a new cafe-dining room, an interesting exhibition-viewing, a famous museum estate, a wet raincoat-tent, useful reference book, folding chair-bed. Note that the word denoting a broader concept and defining the nature of coordination usually comes first. Difficulties in choosing a form of management An important indicator of the grammatical correctness of speech is the exact choice of case and preposition, that is right choice forms of control Control is a type of subordinating connection in which the main word determines the case form of the dependent word. It is erroneous to use many examples in the book that..., since the main word “example” requires the genitive form, and not the instrumental case of the dependent word. Therefore, the correct form of case connection - there are many examples in the book that... There are frequent cases of incorrect choice of prepositions: an essay written on the same topic instead of on the same topic, which is also explained by a violation of the prepositional-case connection. When choosing a preposition, you should sometimes take into account its inherent shades of meaning. Thus, the prepositions in view of, as a result of, for the reason of have a stylistic coloring and are appropriate in official business speech, and the preposition due to is neutral. The preposition thanks has not lost its lexical meaning, and therefore can be used if we're talking about about the reasons causing the desired result. That is why such a use of the preposition would be inappropriate: Due to illness, the student was unable to take the test on time. The prepositions thanks to, in spite of, in agreement are used with the dative case, therefore the following are erroneous: thanks to skillful scientific leadership; according to the instructions of the scientific supervisor. Wed. correct usage: thanks to management, according to the decision of the commission, contrary to instructions. Of course, it is impossible to give a complete set of recommendations for choosing a form of control, so we will limit ourselves to a selective list of constructions with grammatical control, which are often incorrectly used in speech: pay attention to something, but pay attention to something; superiority over something, but an advantage over something; be based on something (specific facts), but justify something (your answer with specific facts); to be offended by something, but offended by something; to be happy about something, but to be happy about something; to report on something, but to make a report about something; a monument to someone or something: a monument to Pushkin, Tolstoy; review of what: review of diploma work review of what: review of coursework; abstract of what: abstract of a book, article; control over what and over what (by whom): quality control, control over the expenditure of funds and control of what: control of the activities of the student council, quality control of knowledge; to distinguish what from what: to distinguish self-doubt from excessive demands on oneself, but to distinguish something: to distinguish between self-doubt and excessive demands on oneself; address to someone: address a letter to a friend, but address to someone: address the reader; pay for something, but pay for something (pay for delivery, for travel; pay for work, travel); represent: the discovery represents new page in the history of science; the form of communication to represent oneself is not strictly normative and is permissible only in informal oral speech; tendency of what and towards what: growth tendency, increasing tendency; confidence in what (wrong: in what): confidence in success, in victory; limit of what (and additional limit of what): limit of patience; the limit of my desires; to be amazed, to be surprised at what, but to admire what, by whom: to be amazed at patience, perseverance; to be surprised by kindness, skill; admire courage, talent; wait for what and what: wait for a train, a meeting, an order and additional wait for the train, order; characteristics of who and for whom: characteristics of student Petrov And give a description of laboratory assistant Vasiliev. Difficulties in using participial and adverbial phrases When using participial phrases, two mistakes most often occur: 1. Separating the participial phrase from the word being defined, for example: Students are divided into groups, admitted to the first year instead of Students entering the first year are divided into groups. 2. The word being defined appears inside the participial phrase: This exam taken by the student was the last one instead of This exam taken by the student was the last one. Sentences in which the participial phrase and the attributive clause are combined as homogeneous components also do not correspond to the literary norm. Wrong: Students who have successfully passed the session and who decide to go to a sports and recreation camp must receive a referral from the trade union committee. Right: Students who successfully passed the session and decided to go... or Students who successfully passed the session and decided to go... Special attention You should pay attention to the use of participial phrases. There are many examples of grammatical violations associated with the incorrect use of gerunds in written, and especially in oral speech, for which these forms are not typical. They involuntarily evoke a phrase from a humorous story by A.P. Chekhov's "Book of Complaints" “Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off.” As you know, a gerund denotes an additional action that corresponds to the main action expressed by the predicate verb. From here there are two conclusions: 1. The gerund denotes the action of the same person or thing as the predicate. For example, Students, after listening to reports at a scientific conference, discussed them and named the best ones. The person performing both the main and additional actions are students. They listened, discussed, and named. The subject of all three actions is the same, that is, the subject. Thus, the sentence is constructed correctly. The situation is different with the following fragment from an applicant’s essay on the entrance exam: Seeing the heroic battle of ordinary soldiers, Pierre [Bezukhov] is overcome by a sense of pride for his people. A vagueness and ambiguity arises: what does the gerund seeing refer to - to the word Pierre or to the word feeling? The correct way to construct a sentence is as follows: Seeing the heroic battle of ordinary soldiers, Pierre feels a sense of pride for his people. It is also possible to replace the participial phrase with a subordinate tense: When Pierre sees the heroic battle of ordinary soldiers, he is overcome by a feeling of pride for his people. For the same reason, you cannot use participial phrases in impersonal sentences, where there is no indication at all of the person, that is, the subject of the action. Incorrect: After reading Bulgakov’s novel, it became clear to me that this work goes beyond a clear time frame. Correct: After reading Bulgakov's novel, I realized that... 2. If a sentence has a gerund, then there must also be a predicate verb, denoting the main action. In the following syntactic construction: He hoped that he would be admitted to the examination session. Having not yet passed the last test, the second part is not a proposal, since there is no grammatical basis, and a gerund cannot be a predicate. Correct: Having not yet passed the last test, he still hoped that he would be admitted to the examination session.

The Russian language as a whole is characterized by the opposition of hard and soft consonants (cf.: small And crumpled, Houses And Dema). In many European languages ​​there is no such opposition. When borrowed, a word usually obeys the pronunciation norms of the Russian language. Thus, before “e” in Russian there is usually a soft consonant ( m ate, no). Many foreign words begin to be pronounced in the same way: meter, r y ebus. The pronunciation of hard consonants is usually preserved by all foreign surnames: Chopin[pe], Voltaire[te]. The pronunciation of a hard consonant before “e” is also typical for bookish, rarely used words ( apartheid [te]. demarche [de]). The type of consonant before “e” also has a certain meaning. For example, the combination “de” is more often pronounced with a soft consonant. and the combination “those” - with hard. The source of borrowing plays a significant role. For example, the final stressed syllable in words from French is usually pronounced with a hard consonant ( pastel [te], cure [re], corrugated [re]). But there are exceptions here, for example, the word overcoat pronounced with a soft "n". Here is a small group of words in which pronunciation errors are often observed.

The correct pronunciation of a hard consonant before “e” in the following words is considered: artery, atelier, atheist, jewelry, business, businessman, beefsteak, brandy, Bruderschaft, Bundeswehr, sandwich, bra, water polo, riding breeches, gangster, corrugated, grotesque, disintegration, decadent, dequalification, cleavage, detective, dumping, denunciation, determinism, de facto, de jure, decryption, identical, impresario, inert, index, interval, integration, intensity, intervention, interview, cartel, caret, cabaret, condensate, container, motorcade, computer, curé, laser, lottery, Madeira, mademoiselle, manager, travel bag, nonsense, pastel, panel, panther, producer, rugby, relay, sweater, thesis, timbre, trend, tempo, tent, masterpiece, chimpanzee, plug, esthete.

In words diet, project, caries the sound [j] is not pronounced, that is, they sound like [d b ieta], [proekt], [kar b ies].

The consonant before “e” is pronounced softly: academy, certificate, benefit, takes, brunette, bookmaker, accounting, bill of exchange, gazelle, haberdashery, hegemon, debit, debate, debut, degenerate, devaluation, degradation, disinfection, demagogue, democrat, demi-season, dismantling, deposit, dispatch, despot, defect, hyphen, deficit, deformation, dividend, ikebana, investor, intellectual; congress, air conditioning, coffee, cream, patent, presentation, progress, review, raglan, register, reserve, raid, flight, rail, x-ray, referee, term, overcoat, effect.

In general, the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in borrowed words is a very flexible norm. As a rule, when borrowed, a word is pronounced with a hard consonant for some time. As it masters the language, it loses the “patina” of a foreign, “alien” solid pronunciation gradually replaced by the pronunciation of a soft consonant (in accordance with the spelling). Sometimes this process goes very quickly. For example, schoolchildren in urban schools, where a computer is no longer perceived as something exotic, usually pronounce the word computer with a soft “t”, but such a pronunciation has not yet become the general literary norm.

At the same time, in some cases, the pronunciation of both hard and soft consonants is equally acceptable. For example, the pronunciation of “e” and “e” is allowed in the words: aggression, disinformation, decade, dean, credo, claim and some others.

Attention should also be paid to the social significance of the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in borrowed words. If the norm is still the pronunciation of a hard consonant, then the pronunciation of a soft consonant can be perceived as a manifestation of low human culture (cf.: chimpanzee e, copper ema el) at the same time, the pronunciation of a hard consonant in a word where the pronunciation of a soft consonant has already become the norm , can be perceived as a manifestation of philistinism, pseudo-intellectualism. This is how, for example, pronunciations like shi[ne]l, k[re]m, ko[fe], bru[ne]t, aka[de]miya, [te]ma are perceived.

Pronunciation of [e] and [o] under stress after soft consonants and sibilants

In Russian, in the position between a soft and a hard consonant under stress, “o” is usually pronounced (graphically “ё”): sister - sisters, wife - wives. However, in entire groups of words such alternation is not observed. These are many borrowed words ( bluff, scam etc.), words that came to us from the Old Church Slavonic language. For example, nouns starting with -е are usually of Old Church Slavonic origin, and words with -е are of Russian origin, so the following parallels can be identified: being-being, life - life . There is no alternation in the position between two soft consonants, cf.: ice, But - black ice.

TEST YOURSELF:

1. Read the following words carefully, paying attention to their correct pronunciation and emphasis:

A) Whitish, faded, sparkle, voyager, millstone, gutter, gall, kiosk, maneuver, nonsense, wit, loan, receiver, polygamy, bucket, bucket, priest, kneeling, imprinted, fur, perch, hopeless, worthless, importer, retoucher , marker, taper, chronicler, stuntman, knowledgeable, starter, officer.

b) Obstetrician, guardianship, scam, existence, life, plump, snapdragon. grenadier, carabinieri, receiver, sharpness, sedentism, bent, bigamist, polygamist, bluff, expired term, pole, rod, hornet, spineless, fashion designer, dispensary, minuscule, croupier, porter, spearhead.

2. Mark the words in which [e] is pronounced after a soft consonant under stress.

Genesis, fable, eponymous, catechumen, stunned, grenadier, multi-temporal, connected, loaded, coarse-haired.

3. Divide the words below into two groups depending on whether the consonant is pronounced - hard or soft.

Ampere, anesthesia, antenna, beige, beefsteak, brunette, sandwich, dean, demon, depression, chapel, caravel, card index, cafe, cupcake, stranded, modern, museum, short story, Odessa, hotel, pastel, patent, pioneer, resonance, rail, sausage, superman, tavern, themed, plywood, music library, brown-haired, overcoat.

4. Highlight the words in which the consonant before E is pronounced firmly.

Antithesis, anapest, grotesque, aesthetics, effect, genetics, tennis, pool, phoneme, benefit.

Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants

The distinction in the pronunciation of consonants paired in hardness and softness has a phonemic meaning, since in the Russian language hard and soft consonants distinguish the sound shells of words (cf. was - byl, brother - take, etc.). The pronunciation of soft consonants differs from the pronunciation of the corresponding hard consonants by “iota” articulation, which consists in the fact that the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate.

At the end of a word and before some consonants, as well as before the vowel sounds [a], [o], [u], the hardness and softness of the consonants are clearly distinguished. The softness of consonants in the indicated positions is indicated in written speech: at the end of a word and before some consonants - the letter ь (cf. ryab - ripple, treasure - luggage, blow - hit, daw - pebble, housekeeper - save, etc.) , and before the vowels [a], [o], [y] - the letters i, e, yu (cf. mother - knead, knock - bale, nose - carried). The use of the letter ь after hissing [zh], [sh], [h], [sch] does not affect the pronunciation of these consonants, since it has a morphological meaning and indicates the form of the words (cf. knife - multiply, our - give, bream - thing, weaver - jump, call - cut, etc.).

1. Softness of consonants indicated in writing(b and letters i, e, e, yu): brother - take, jackdaw - pebble, shaft - sluggish, nose - carried, knock - bale - [brother - brother "], [daw - gal "kъ], [shaft - in "al", [nose - n"os], [knock - t"uk].

The final labials, in accordance with the spelling, are pronounced softly: flail - chain, blood - blood, slave - ripple - [tsep - tsep"], [krof - krof"], [rap - r "ap"].

Soft labials before ya, ё, yu are pronounced without additional articulation of softness: five, knead, chalk, vel, engraving, puree - [p"ät"], [m"ät"], [m"ol], [v"ol ], [grav "ur", [n "ype].

The softness [m] in the words seven, eight is preserved in complex numerals: seven - seventy - seven hundred, eight - eighty - eight hundred - [s"em" - s"em"ds"t - s"i e m"sot], [ vos"m" - vos"m"d"bs"yt - vos"i e m"sot).

2. Softness of consonants not indicated in writing. In the position before consonants, the hardness and softness of consonants often have a non-independent, assimilative character, i.e. depends on the hardness and softness of the subsequent consonant. The softness of consonants in this case is not indicated in writing.

The softening of hard consonants before soft ones depends on various conditions: what consonants they are, what soft consonants they are in front of, in what part of the word there is a combination of consonants, what style of speech this or that word belongs to:

a) inside a word, before the sound [j], the consonants are softened in some cases: fish, leaves, judge, guest

b) dental consonants [z], [s], [d], [t] before soft dental and labial consonants are pronounced softly: milk mushroom, sadness - [grus "t"], [grus "t"], wall, song - , [p"ê"s"nъ]. In a number of words, the softening is variable: ripe, star, hard, door

c) the consonant [n] before soft [d], [t], [n] (less often before [z], [s]), as well as before [h], [sch] is pronounced softly: kantik, bandit, horseman, pensioner, claim, chick

d) the consonant of the prefix s- and the preposition consonant with it, as well as the final consonants of the prefixes consonant with it and the prepositions consonant with them before soft dental and separative ь are pronounced softly: loafer, idle, product, out of business, remove - [b "and e z"d"kl'k], [b"i e z"-del], [iz"d"l"i ь], [iz"-d"el", [iz"jat]. In other cases, the softness is variable: removed, from him - [s"n"al] and [sn"al", [s"-n"i e vo] and [s-n"i e vo];