It would seem difficult to imagine a more “religious” religion than Islam, literally permeating with its dogmas, rituals, morals and traditions the culture and way of life of the peoples and countries where this developed monotheistic system dominates. And yet, even in comparison with Islam, or more precisely, with the Muslim Middle East, India is a true kingdom of religion.

The difference between the Near and Middle (India) East is quite significant. The religious tradition of the Middle East is in some ways closer to the Christian traditions of Europe than to the religious experience of India. If we take into account that the roots of the Middle Eastern and European religious traditions ultimately go back to a single common source and that the development of monotheistic religions proceeded in principle in the same direction in terms of the structure of thinking, basic concepts and value orientations, it is difficult to expect anything else: all monotheistic religions, including Islam, are the product of a single general Middle Eastern-Mid-Earth civilization. And this civilization - represented by all its main centers (ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, ancient, Roman-Christian) - is very different from Indian with its characteristic depth of philosophical analysis, sophistication of abstraction of thought, impressive practice of asceticism and yoga.

The religious systems of India - if we compare them with the Middle Eastern-Mediterranean monotheistic ones - in a number of aspects, especially in connection with the problems of ontogenesis, the original unity of the macro- and microworld, nature and man, etc., seem to be deeper and more philosophically rich. In them, reason (albeit merged with intuition and emotions) clearly dominated over the blind faith in the omnipotence of the great God inherent in monotheism. And although this mind, deeply entangled in metaphysical ideas and mystical sacraments, cannot be compared with the rationalistic analysis of ancient philosophers, it was characterized by a constant search. The ultimate goal of this search was liberation from the hardships of mortal life, salvation in the great emptiness and eternal non-existence of the Absolute Reality standing outside the phenomenal world, and finally, the achievement of a vague but passionately desired nirvana.

An important feature of all Indian religions is introversion, that is, a clear turn inward, an emphasis on individual search, on the desire and ability of the individual to find his own path to the goal, salvation and liberation for himself. Let every person be just a grain of sand, lost among many worlds. However, this grain of sand, her inner self, her spiritual substance (purified of the vulgar bodily shell) is as eternal as the whole world. And she is not only eternal, but also capable of transformation: she potentially has a chance to become close to the most powerful forces of the universe, gods and Buddhas. Hence the emphasis on the fact that everyone is the architect of their own happiness. The result of such thinking should be considered a gigantic flowering of religious activity of individuals seeking bliss, salvation or truth in a variety of ways and tricks, up to sometimes incredible and seemingly perverted methods of grueling asceticism (tapas).

The introversion of religious culture had a huge impact on the psychology and social behavior of Indians, who tend to be interested in vague abstractions and plunge into deep introspection and at the same time, unlike, for example, the Chinese, they are little affected by problems of social ethics and politics.

The oldest civilization of India. Aryans and Vedas. The foundations of the religious systems of India were the result of a synthesis of the primitive beliefs of the proto-Indians - both indigenous peoples (proto-Dravidians, Mundas) and newcomers (the influence of the Sumerians, clearly visible in the urban centers of Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and the invasion of the Aryans). The Aryan invasion - one aspect of the broad historical process of migration of Indo-European tribes - played an important role as an external push that contributed to the sharp acceleration of the development of ancient Indian civilization, and during this process the ethnicity, language and religion of the Aryans played a dominant role.

The ancient Aryans - like their European relatives (the ancestors of the Germans, Slavs, ancient Greeks) or Iranians - were pagans who spiritualized and deified animals, plants, and natural phenomena. The center of gravity of their religious activity falls on the rituals of sacrifice in honor of the gods and related religious practices. Bloody sacrifices, which did not exclude human ones (it was believed that a person is the highest sacrifice to God, a horse is the next, then a bull, a ram, a goat), were accompanied by the recitation of magical spell formulas, a plentiful feast with sacrificial meat and libations of soma, an intoxicating drink.

The ritual ceremony was led by special priests, divided into a number of categories.

All this complex practice of sacrificial ritual, which became more complex over time, was the impulse that brought to life the sacred texts of the Aryans, subsequently, at the turn of the 2nd-1st millennia BC. e., designed in canonical form in the form of the Vedas. The Vedas (from the root “to know”) are samhitas (collections) of sacred songs and sacrificial formulas, solemn hymns and magical spells used during sacrifices. There are four such Vedas in total.

The first and most important of them is the Rig Veda. This is a samhi-ta of 1028 hymns collected in 10 sections-mandalas. The hymns of the Rig Veda contain praises in honor of the most important gods; their deeds, family ties, great potencies and main functions are sung in a solemnly sublime style. Mythopoetic images and plots occupy a large place in the hymns of the Rig Veda (the eternal pursuit of the sun god Surya of the goddess of the morning star Ushas, ​​as if symbolizing the fast and rhythmic passage of time; the famous “three steps of Vishnu” with which he crossed the earth; a version of the myth of the creation of the world : born of Heaven and Earth, Indra, having drunk soma, began to grow quickly and thereby tore Heaven from the Earth, after which he filled the space between them with air, people, etc.).

The second Veda, Samaveda, is a samhita of chants of 1549 songs, mostly (except 75) repeating the hymns of the Rigveda, varying the themes of these hymns.

The third, Yajurveda, has several variants of sam-hit belonging to different schools. The four variants are known as the Black Yajurveda. It consists of sacrificial formula-spells (yajus) and short prose comments on them. The other two samhitas of this Veda (White Yajurveda) consist mainly of hymns (about 2000, divided into 40 chapters). The content of the Yajurveda also basically repeats the Rigveda.

Atharvaveda is the fourth and latest of the Vedas. Named after the Atharvan priests, it consists of 731 spells in 20 parts.

The division of the Vedas into four was not accidental - it corresponded to the division of priestly functions in the sacrificial ceremony. At the moment of such a ritual, hotar, an expert in the Rig Veda, invoked the gods, reciting hymns appropriate to the occasion. Udgatar, an expert in Samaveda, accompanied the ceremony with the necessary chants. Adhvaryu, an expert in Yajurveda, performed the ritual, accompanying it with the necessary formulas and spells. A brahmin observer supervised the ceremony as a whole. Its functions, according to some experts, were somewhat artificially associated with the Atharva Veda; it is possible, however, that this connection - through the Atharvan priests, who were considered “performers of rituals that bring good” - was completely justified and logical for that era.

Gods of the Rigveda (Vedic pantheon). What gods did the Aryans of ancient India pray to, or rather make sacrifices to? The oldest of them, although not the most popular and powerful, was Dyaus, the god of Heaven, the father of the gods, similar in status and name not only to the ancient Greek Zeus, but also to the Latin concept of “god” (Dyaus - Zeus - Deos - Theo). He and his wife, the Earth goddess Prithivi, were considered the progenitors of the world, gods and people.

The central and most popular figure of the Vedic pantheon was their first-born Indra, the god of heat and light, rain and storms, sage and warrior, ruler of the universe, thunder of demons, universal ruler. 250 hymns of the Rig Veda are dedicated to the glorification of his virtues and deeds.

A very famous and revered Vedic god was Agni, the god of fire - both the sacrificial flame and the hearth. Agni was considered the patron of family and home, the giver of happiness and healthy offspring, something of a mediator between earth and sky, people and gods. The young, benevolent Agni was loved by everyone. Almost 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are dedicated to this god.

An important place in the Vedic pantheon was occupied by Soma, the god of the intoxicating drink necessary for the sacrificial ceremony. Both the drink and the god were credited with miraculous supernatural powers. The same power was attributed by the Aryans and some other gods, less widely represented in the Rig Veda, but also possessing considerable power. Among them are the sun god Surya, the deities Mitra (the god of light and day) and Varuna (the god of the night, the keeper of eternal order, who knows everything about everyone, punishes the guilty and forgives the repentant), the god Rudra (the patron of the wind and destructive forces, as well as the lord of healing herbs, patron of healers). Less famous and revered were the wives of the gods, often named after their husbands (Ind-rani, Varunani, Agnayi). Only a few of the goddesses (Ushas, ​​Saraswati, mother of the Vedas Vach) played an independent role in the pantheon.

The Aryans, like the ancient Greeks, in addition to full gods, also had demigods, of which the most famous are the apsaras - a variant of the Greek nymphs. Apsaras seduced gods and heroes, but most of all, and most willingly, ascetic hermits, who, “falling into sin,” thereby lost the supernatural power attributed to them, power in the world of the gods. Among the demigods and heroes of the aria, there were also celestial singers (gandharvas), dancers, who often took well-known Greek mythology the appearance of centaurs (half-human, half-horse).

Transformation of the Vedic religion. Gods of the Atharva Veda. The settlement of the Aryans in India, their contact with local tribes, the interaction of cultures - all this led to a gradual transformation of ancient customs and traditions, primarily religious and cultic ones. This process is clearly visible in the materials of the most recent of the four Vedas - the Atharva Veda. Data from the Atharva Veda indicate a mixture of Aryan and local pre-Aryan ideas and beliefs, the merging of all of them into a single whole. Naturally, in the course of such a merger, many of the accents characteristic of the original Vedic religion were somewhat shifted. So, magic began to noticeably come to the fore. The functions of a doctor and a sorcerer, a master of magical rites, were paramount for the Atharvan priests, whose mediation saved a person from evil spirits (asuras, rakshasas) and their harmful spells. The strength and importance of the atharvans were directly proportional to their holiness, and this latter was strictly dependent on tapas, that is, asceticism, strict seclusion and self-denial, which the atharvans often indulged in. In ancient India, the cult of tapas and asceticism began to emerge. Tapasya ascetics were credited with miraculous powers and power over the world of the gods. Asceticism began to be considered a force capable of moving the world, renewing worlds and saving them from destruction. At the same time, the extreme degree of asceticism could shake even the throne of the gods.

Magic and asceticism, which came to the fore, somewhat modified the very basis of the Vedic religion - the practice of sacrifice. If previously the hymns and songs of rishi singers seemed to emphasize mutual trust and understanding between people and gods, who responded with good to the sacrifices and prayers made to them, now the ritual of sacrifice began to take on a more symbolic and magical character. Abundant bloody sacrifices are a thing of the past, which, apparently, was to a large extent caused by changes in the lifestyle of the descendants of the Aryans, who turned from pastoralists into farmers and now had fewer livestock. They were replaced by convention, the symbolism of magical gestures and spells. The soma libation ritual was also replaced: butter and baked milk were dripped into a handful of boiled rice; it was believed that this food, the equivalent of an ancient intoxicating drink, could only be consumed by brahmins who knew the Atharva Veda.

Some new gods are included in the Atharva Veda pantheon - most likely either non-Aryan in origin or newly appeared. Among the first are a large number of goddesses, both benevolent (the heavenly cow Madhukasha; Viraj, who serves food), and harmful (naked Arati, clinging to sleeping men and taking away their strength; the goddesses of illness and misfortune Apva and Nirriti). Among those who appeared again were a large number of deities of an abstract-abstract nature, deities-concepts, deities-categories, which clearly indicated not only an increased tendency towards magic and symbolism, but also the emergence among priests of interest in the development of philosophical abstractions. We are talking about the appearance of such gods as Vena (everything is immersed in him, everything arises from him), Kala (time), Kama (love, sexual practice), Skambha (life). In the late Vedic period, Brahman (Brahman-absolute, Brahman-sacrifice, Brahman-magic and the symbolism of ritual) increasingly came to the first place among these deity-concepts in the late Vedic period. The Vedic religion is replaced by Brahmanism.

Brahmanism. Brahmanism as a system of religious and philosophical views and ritual and cult practice is a direct descendant of the Vedic religion. However, Brahmanism is a phenomenon of a new era, quite far removed from the era of the Vedas with its primitive democratic practice of abundant joint common sacrifices in honor of the tribal Aryan gods. Long centuries of transformation and the gradual spread of complex social structures and proto-states in northern India led to a noticeable stratification of ancient Indian society. The varna classes of brahmanas (priests), kshatriyas (warriors), vaishyas (farmers, artisans, traders) and shudras (less-than-rights and slaves) appeared. The class of priests took leading positions: Brahmin priests made sacrifices to the gods, performed rituals, served as advisers to kings, and held in their hands a monopoly on literacy, sacred texts, and knowledge.

Through the efforts of the Brahman priests in the late Vedic period, the so-called Brahmans were compiled - prose texts containing ritual and mythological explanations and commentaries on all four Vedas. The time of compilation of these Brahmanas is the X-VII centuries. BC e., which practically coincides with the moment of canonization of all the Vedas. The close connection between the Brahmin priests and the Brahmin texts is natural and undeniable: it was the priests who had the right (even the duty!) to comment on the Vedas. It is also logical that each of the Samhitas had its own brahmanas (Rigveda - Aitareya and Kaushitaki; Samaveda - Pancha-vishnu and Jaiminia; Black Yajurveda - Taittiriya; White Yajurveda - Shatapatha; Ltharvaveda - Gopatha), since the priests, as already mentioned , had a specialization, processed “their” Veda.

So, Brahman-priests, Brahman-texts, and finally, the emergence of the idea of ​​the supreme Brahman-absolute, which entailed an intensified philosophical development of the cardinal problems of existence and the universe - all this led to the formation of Brahmanism, the religion of the ancient Brahmans.

The formation of this religion was accompanied by a sharp increase in the status of the Brahmans themselves. In Shatapatha it is said: “There are two types of gods - those who are gods, and those who sing hymns glorifying them. The sacrifice should be divided between them: for the gods - sacrificial gifts, and for the human gods - the learned brahmanas - a reward" (Shat., 2, 2, 6; 4, 3, 4). And indeed, the Brahmans received an appropriate payment for the sacrificial rituals they performed: it was believed that without this the sacrifice was useless. According to the Brahmana commentaries, there were four forms of payment: gold, bulls, horses and clothes. The Brahmans themselves had to sacredly observe four basic principles: to be of genuine Brahman origin (no mixing with representatives of other varnas, later castes!); behave appropriately; to study and shine with scholarship; help people, that is, perform sacrifice rituals for them.

All this put the brahmanas in an exceptional position: no one dared to touch their property, not even the king, their life was considered immeasurably more valuable than any other, and in their litigation with representatives of other varnas, a decision in favor of the brahman was made automatically: the brahman simply could not be trusted or contradicted. In short, the Brahmin priests dominated ancient Indian society, and they sought to strengthen their position. For this purpose, they developed the foundations of Brahmanism. Brahmana commentaries emphasized the existence of a direct connection between longevity and immortality, on the one hand, and the quantity and quality of victims, on the other: sacrificial food is the food of immortality. The ritual of diksha was developed, the purpose of which is to divide the individual into a material shell and a spiritual, immortal substance. It was believed that the one who performed this ritual thereby received the right to a second birth (“A person is born only partially, only through sacrifice is he truly born”). In Brahminical texts there are descriptions of many rituals, and the magic of gesture and word and the symbolism of the ritual were given great importance. Sometimes this magic and symbolism bordered on eroticism, which, according to some experts, opened the way for Tantrism, which developed later.

Already in the Brahman commentaries, along with descriptions of rituals and magical symbols, speculative abstractions and elements of philosophical analysis occupied a significant place - it is enough to recall Brahman the absolute. Even more abstractions of this kind were contained in the Aranyakas (forest books) adjacent to the Brahmans, texts for ascetic hermits.

Upanishads. The Aranyakas were the source from which the literature of the Upanishads began - the philosophical texts of ancient India. The Upanishads arose on the basis of further and more careful elaboration of those passages from the Brahminical commentaries and those Aranyakas, which explained the deep hidden meaning of magic and the symbolism of rituals and sacrifices and spoke of the highest secret meaning of individual concepts and categories. It is not surprising that some of the most ancient and authoritative Upanishads even preserved the names of those Brahmanas whose texts they deepened and developed.

The term “upa-ni-shad” itself means “to sit near,” that is, to be at the feet of the teacher, listen to his teachings and revelations, and comprehend the hidden, secret nature of the text. The earliest of them date back to the 8th-6th centuries. BC e., the rest - to a later time, partly even to the period after AD. e. There are several collections covering up to 50 or even 108 Upanishads (in total, according to various researchers, there are 150-235). However, 10 are considered the most authoritative and ancient of them - Aitareya (related to Rigveda), Kena, Chandohya (Samaveda), Katha, Taittiriya (Black Yajurveda), Isha, Brihadaranyaka (White Yajurveda), Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya (Atharva- Veda). Sometimes a few more are added to them - Kau-shitaki, Shvetashvara, etc.

It is believed that the early Upanishads, like the Aranyakas,. were developed mainly through the efforts of ascetic hermits who had withdrawn from the world and were immersed in speculative speculation. This does not mean that the Brahmin priests were not related to the Upanishads: most ascetics were former Brahmins. The doctrine of life stages (ashrama), which took shape during the early Upanishads, proceeded from the fact that a person (i.e., primarily a brahmana) passes through four stages in life. As a child he studies the Vedas in the teacher's house; being the head of the family and home, he is guided by the Brahmana commentaries; retiring in mature age as a hermit, he meets the Aranyakas; Having turned towards the end of his life into a beggar wanderer who has renounced the world, he is occupied with the wisdom of the Upanishads. Thus, ascetic hermits, in principle, did not oppose the Brahman priests, just as the Brahmans, Aranyakas and Upanishads did not oppose each other. However, this did not change the important fact that the philosophy of the Upanishads was actually developed mainly through the efforts of ascetic hermits who retired from the world, who spent many years in pious reflection, in search of truth, knowledge of secrets, and the unseen.

Philosophy of the Upanishads. Ascetic hermits, whose very appearance as an institution was a peculiar reaction of the religious tradition to the increasingly complex social structure of society, to the departure from primitive forms of religious practices, relied in their mental activity on all the centuries-old experience of analyzing those cardinal problems that had already developed by that time beings that seemed most essential to the ancient Indians. What problems were discussed in the Upanishads?

First of all, about the problem of life and death, about the universe and cosmogony, about the close relationships between man and the cosmos, people and gods. What is the carrier of life? Water, without the eternal circulation of which there is and cannot be life? Food without which living things cannot exist? Fire, warmth, which are a condition of life? Or, finally, breathing, prana - after all, you can’t do without it for a minute? Since we were talking about the bearer of life as a philosophical category, as the fundamental principle of the existence of all living things, then the interest in finding out the truth, no matter how far the disputing parties may be from it, is understandable and justified.

In the Upanishads, serious attention was paid to the problem of sleep, and the state of deep sleep was considered as something like the border between life and death. At this point, the vital principle of a person (jiva) “reaches itself” and “is freed from fatigue,” and the spiritual substance of a person, his soul (purusha), seems to separate from him. Therefore, you should not wake up a person abruptly - his purusha may not find a way back to any of the person’s sense organs, which may result in deafness, blindness, etc.

But what is on the other side of life, where the purusha finally leaves the mortal remains of a once-living person? What is death?

The idea of ​​the eternal cycle of life, the vital principle - be it heat, light and fire, or water, or the breath-prana leaving the dead and moving into the newborn - apparently pushed the ancient Indian philosophers to think about the natural cycle of life and death in general and of man in in particular. The idea of ​​the separation of the spiritual and physical principles of a person, especially the deceased, and in general about the primacy of the spiritual principle (remember the ancient Vedic ideas about the second, true birth only after sacrifice, i.e. after the realization of a conscious spiritual connection between a person and his patron deity) gave this the natural cycle of the form of transmigration of souls. This was the beginning of the concept of an endless chain of rebirths, characteristic of the entire religious and cultural tradition of India.

The essence of this concept is that death is not the end, much less the achievement of bliss or tranquility. This is simply a kind of break in continuity, an element of an endless cycle, which sooner or later is followed by a new life, more precisely, a new form that the soul, or at least part of it, will acquire. But what specific form will this soul take and what does it depend on? The answer to this question is given by the concept of karma developed in the Upanishads.

Karma- one of the cardinal provisions of Indian philosophical thought, the role of which in the history of the entire Indian civilization can hardly be overestimated. Its essence is that the sum of the evil and good deeds of each person (his karma) determines the form of subsequent rebirth. Good karma guarantees a successful rebirth (you will be reborn in a new life as a brahmana or a prince, everyone will deservedly respect and honor you); average karma will provide the opportunity to be reborn in approximately the same quality as it was before; bad karma leads to the fact that in a new life you will be reborn as an outcast, a slave or an untouchable, or even an animal, a worm, a mosquito, a pathetic midge.

The idea of ​​karma satisfactorily explained and solved the problem of good and evil - everything depended only on you. All ideas about social injustice, property inequality and its socio-economic causes remained aside as unimportant. All this had nothing to do with the main thing: the cause of your suffering in your current birth is you yourself, more precisely, your sins in the past, your karma. What you deserve is what you got. The idea of ​​karma had enormous psychological significance, becoming a regulator of the individual and social behavior of dozens of generations of Indians. On the one hand, it was a powerful incentive that dictated the observance of high ethical standards, which determined the characteristic Indian caring, unfavorable attitude towards nature, towards “our smaller brothers,” in each of whom one could expect to see a reborn person, perhaps your recently deceased and a dearly beloved relative or friend. On the other hand, she took people into her own individual corner, encouraged them to selfishly strive to improve their karma, forced the oppressed and unfortunate not to grumble - it was their own fault! It is significant that, unlike China, where from time to time society was shaken by grandiose peasant uprisings aimed at restoring trampled social justice, India knew almost no such movements. Not social justice - this issue practically did not arise for a long time throughout the history of India, but individual salvation, liberation, change of fate on a purely personal level has always been the focus of attention in the Indian religious and cultural tradition. And an important reason for this is the concept of karma, first formulated in the Upanishads, which has become entrenched in Indian thinking.

Everyone is subject to the law of karma, with the exception of those few who renounced worldly life, took the path of the ascetic hermit, the path of the gods (devayana - in contrast to the path of the ancestors, pitriyana). These latter, acquiring more and more divine power over the years of tapas, ultimately reached the worlds of Brahman and dissolved there, never returning to life, falling out of the chain of rebirths, thereby becoming independent of the law of karma.

Brahman, Atman, Thoth, Om (Aum). The ideal of the Upanishads is the knowledge of Brahman, merging with it, achieving unity with this highest reality, achieving bliss (ananda). Brahman is the highest absolute reality. This is not a creator god, as he sometimes appears in some authors (Indian religious and philosophical thought did not know a creator). This is an abstract higher power that at times embodies part of its realities in the form of phenomena of the phenomenal world, that is, it creates something - but not out of nothing, as it might seem at first glance.

Brahman - the one who owns souls, the highest spiritual unity. Each individual soul - Atman - is a part of it. Atman is the Self, but not simply the spiritual substance of the individual. Rather, it is “I” with a capital “I,” a manifestation of Brahman, its differentiated emanation. And at the same time, Atman is the same Brahman, just as great and incomprehensible. Atman, like Brahman, created worlds and death, created food and water, although this again is not creation from nothing, but the realization of the spiritual potentials of Atman in the world of phenomenal.

Atman and Brahman are identical to Purusha, the highest spiritual principle, the highest soul, of which the individual’s soul is a grain of sand. Finally, all of them are identical with “That” (“That”, Sanskrit. Gag.) “That”, according to the Katha Upanshada, is “inexpressible, supreme bliss”, this is Brahman, Atman, and Purusha. And, as the final moment of the philosophical and religious mystical understanding of all these higher abstract spiritual categories that are identical to each other and at the same time being a part or manifestation, emanation of each other, a magical (there is no other word for it!) appears in the Upanishads, rather a syllable - “Om "("Aum"). This word means nothing and does not express anything on its own. And at the same time, it means everything and has truly magical powers. “Om is Brahman, Om is everything” (Taittiriya Upandshada, 8, 1). “Dum” is the past, present and future, these are Atman and Brahman, and each of the three letters of the three-part reading of the syllable has a special meaning, corresponding respectively to the state of wakefulness, light and deep sleep (Man-dukya Upanishad). Pronouncing “Om”, the Brahman says: “May I reach Brahman” and reaches it (Taittiriya up. 8, 1).

This mysticism of the Upanishads is the key to that secret, intimate that was considered the basis of the foundations of the ancient Indian philosophy of religion. And although these foundations in their most complete and complete form were recorded later, especially within the framework of the Vedanta system, their origins undoubtedly go back to the period of the Upanishads.

Fundamentals of ancient Indian religious philosophy. Everything phenomenal, that is, everything that is perceived by the senses and is in constant change, is not real, that is, impermanent, fragile, not immovable, not eternal. But behind everything phenomenal, which is only an external manifestation, hides the real, standing above attributes and qualities. This reality is Brahman, Atman, That, eternity and infinity, the root cause of the phenomenal world, the Universe. That is why it is so important for a true sage to penetrate beyond the phenomenal aspect of all things, the whole world, to That, to Brahman, to the Absolute Reality.

Absolute Reality has three fundamental principles: Space, Movement and Law. The phenomenal manifestation of matter is the emanation of the first of them, the phenomenal manifestation of energy is the emanation of the second, the phenomenal manifestation of any laws of existence is the emanation of the third. In general, the entire world of the phenomenal is an emanation of the Absolute. The fact of the alienation of this world from its original source, from the real fundamental principles, led to the fact that this world, actually illusory, gave rise to all kinds of uncertainty, suffering, and dissatisfaction. Those who comprehended this (i.e., ascetic hermits, to whom the true picture of the world was revealed), lost their minds on the illusory world. Only the renunciation of everything material, concentration on everything spiritual, dissolution in the One, in Brahman, in the Absolute, opened up the path to salvation for him, that is, they gave him liberation from the chain of rebirths.

At first, hidden, secret, secret, it was accessible only to a few ascetics. Over time, however, the idea of ​​the world around us as something illusory and the desire to get out of the world of illusions, from the chain of rebirths, from the sphere of the phenomenal, to merge with That, the Real, which stands behind the world of phenomena and is its unshakable, eternal basis, turned into a powerful impulse for religious thinking. In other words, the religious philosophy of the Upanishads in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. as if determined the basic parameters of worldview and the entire system of values, spiritual orientation within the framework of traditional Indian civilization. Of course, in subsequent centuries, not all of the life of the country and people was built on the principles of the religious thinking of the Upanishad philosophers, but the influence of this philosophy was always very strong. At different levels it was felt in different ways: mysticism and metaphysics in the form of pure abstractions (advaita) were accessible only to the perception of the wise; for average people, all these ideas were presented in their theological and mythological modification (Abeolut was reduced to virtue, liberation to paradise, abstractions were replaced by gods, etc.); the lower level of perception was characterized by ritual prescriptions, ceremonies, prayers, cult formulas, virtuous behavior, etc. It was the widespread mass perception of the profaned ideas of the Upanishads that over time gave birth to Hinduism, which became a widespread religion in medieval India.

However, before the emergence of Hinduism, Indian religious and philosophical thought went through transitional stages, characterized by the existence of various systems. We are talking about six darshan systems that developed on the basis of the Ulanishad philosophy. These six systems are, in a way, six parallel aspects of the development of this philosophy. Three of them (nyaya - logic; vaisheshika - cosmology; mimansa - ritual) are secondary. The other three had a significant influence on the development of religious and cultural traditions in India.

Sankhya- one of these three. At the center of this system, created, as is commonly believed, at the turn of the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. by the ancient Indian thinker Kapila, two actively interacting principles, prakriti (the primary material substrate, matter and energy) and purusha (the spiritual principle that generates the forms of the material world, from atoms to humans). Both purusha and prakriti are an emanation of that One. Purusha consists of myriads of spiritual atoms-monads of individual souls, she is the conscious beginning. Prakriti is inexhaustible creative energy, but devoid of consciousness. The effect of purusha on prakriti can be likened to the effect of a magnet on metal: the spiritual principle, as it were, magnetizes matter devoid of consciousness, giving it form and spiritual substance. This interaction of purusha and prakriti, according to the Samkhya system, is the root cause of the emergence and existence of the entire phenomenal world. It leads to the emergence of 25 elements, entities (purusha itself, the spiritual essence, and 24 tattvas - elements of matter, including physical, physiological and psychological principles, such as the five senses, mind-manas, physical elements, etc.) .

The abundance of tattvas is explained by the fact that energy-prakriti in its original form, free from the influence of the spirit-purusha, is woven from three different parts, properties, qualities (three gunas), a combination of which in various forms manifests itself in the phenomenal profane world. The first guna, sattva, - good start, creating light and peace, giving birth to wisdom and happiness, leading to balance and harmony; the second, rajas, is an active and passionate principle, exciting, pushing to action; the third, tamas, is an inert and inert principle, leading to laziness and stupidity, giving rise to indifference and deception. Individually, these gunas do not act, but their interaction, with the predominance of one or another principle in a certain proportion, manifests itself everywhere - in love and hate, in joy, sorrow, etc.

The goal, the main meaning of Samkhya philosophy with its emphatically dualistic structure of the world comes down to helping purusha to free herself from the captivity of matter, get rid of the state of samsara (earthly life and rebirths) and karma, leave the bodies in which she is imprisoned, and find a state of bliss and liberation (moksha). This is not easy to do. To do this, it is necessary, through various complex methods and techniques, to separate the purusha from the 24 tattvas with which it merges and interacts. But on the other hand, the human soul, separated from the tattvas, merges with the already liberated monads of Purusha-One, Purusha-Absolute, Purusha-Brahman, Purusha-Atman, and the goal is thus achieved.

Yoga. Among the methods and methods that make it possible to achieve this goal are those that were subsequently developed within the framework of another system - yoga, which was formed around the turn of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. and associated with the name of the ancient Indian thinker Patanjali, the author of the Yoga Sutras. In the Yoga Sutra, as well as in the yoga system as a whole, down to the followers of yogi practice today, the main goal is the same as in the Samkhya system: to separate the purusha from prakriti and achieve the merger of your individual purusha with the universal Purusha , called within this system Ishvara. Ishvara in the yoga system is more definitely not connected with samsara than in Samkhya. There is no total merging of purusha with prakriti - a significant part of purusha in the form of Ishvara is already free, and it is with it that one must merge.

That is why the entire character of yoga - unlike Samkhya - is directed not so much into the area of ​​speculative abstractions, vague discussions about merger and liberation, various gunas and tattvas, but rather into the area of ​​practical implementation of the goal. In this sense, those authors are right who note that “classical yoga begins where Samkhya ends.”

So, the main thing in the yoga system is practice, methods, exercises, the ultimate meaning of which is that an individual striving for moksha learns to suppress and control his ordinary consciousness, his feelings, sensations, his physical and general life activity and in this way cultivate a special suprasensory consciousness, already prepared for the meeting with Ishvara.

The complex of practical techniques and methods in the yoga system is very complex. Mastering it requires endurance, perseverance, ascetic discipline, strict self-control, constant training, and the ability to place your entire body, even its physiological functions, under the control of volitional impulses based on complex psychotechnics. The entire system of self-preparation and training is divided into eight methods and stages.

1. Abstinence (yama). To be restrained in everything, to be able to limit oneself in food, in the comforts of life, and even more so in passions: suppression of the sexual instinct prevents the waste of vitality, nervous energy and promotes concentration and moderation.

2. Fulfillment of prescriptions (niyama). Here one of the cardinal principles of the ancient Indian tradition, closely connected with ideas about rebirth, comes to the fore: non-violence (ahimsa). The principle of ahimsa, i.e., non-killing and harming all living things, in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. actively supplanted the ancient practice of blood sacrifices. But not only murder - any harm, even with a word, was condemned. To follow the instructions meant to achieve complete harmony of behavior, thoughts, and words.

3. Body exercises (asana). At this stage, it was necessary to learn various poses that provide conditions for concentration, temper the body, exercise it, and learn to control it. It is worth noting that all this led to physical hardening of the body - yogis, as a rule, are not susceptible to diseases, their body does not age for a long time.

4. Breathing discipline (pranayama). The goal is to achieve uniform, slow and deep breathing, learn to control your breathing, and hold it without harming the body. Yoga masters, as we know, achieved a lot on this path: there are quite reliable descriptions of the temporary burial of yogis, depriving them of air, imprisonment in glass coffins for many days, even weeks, bringing them to an almost lifeless state with a barely palpable pulse, followed by “resurrection.”

5. Discipline of the senses (pratyahara) is the last of the preparatory stages, the essence of which is the ability to turn off one’s senses and not react to their external stimuli. A naked yogi on the snowy peaks of the Himalayas should not feel cold or discomfort; his mouth, eyes and ears should be able not to taste, not see and not hear when he wishes.

6. Mental discipline (dharana). At this stage, a fully prepared yogi must master the art of regulating his consciousness, be able to concentrate his thoughts on a chosen subject or object (whether it is a part of his body or an abstract one, the image of a deity, the same Brahman). This is already the first step to the state of highest holiness, to the state of merging with the Absolute.

7. Contemplation (dhyana) is the second step on this path. A thought focused on one thing deepens, becomes more and more abstract, irrational and, ideally, it is believed, reaches the knowledge of the real fundamental basis of the illusory phenomenon on which the thought is focused.

8. Trance and ecstasy (samadha) - the last stage. If Dhyana reaches its goal and the contemplator reaches a state of trance, absolute inner spiritual ecstasy, then his spiritual self, his purusha, is liberated. The state of samadhi leads to the ultimate goal of all the yogi's efforts - to liberation, to moksha.

It is in this, and not in demonstrating one’s wonderful capabilities, not in defeating the imagination of ordinary people, that the meaning of all the activities of a yogi is. A yogi usually does not try to work for show. On the contrary, he avoids it, because it leads to the loss of his strength and potential and interferes with his path to the goal. All this, however, does not in any way exclude the fact that it is not transcendental goals, but rather specific practice and the amazing results achieved by it that are now very famous and are a model for study and imitation in many countries.

Vedanta. The Vedanta system is one of the most philosophically rich and capacious. Its foundations date back to approximately the 7th century. BC e., although the Vedanta Sutra dates back only to the 2nd century. BC e., and the system and the entire teaching received the greatest fame only in the 7th century. n. e. in the interpretation and with comments by the famous Sri Shankar Acharya (Shankara). The meaning of the system is briefly summarized as follows.

The source of all existence, the phenomenal and illusory world is Absolute Reality, Brahman, That. This source is beyond qualities and attributes; it is one and indivisible. And if this is so, then the spiritual “I” of each individual, his Atman, is identical to him. At the same time, this spiritual “I” in Vedanta does not oppose the body, for, unlike Samkhya, Vedanta denies the duality of the world and does not see the differences between purusha and prakriti. Here everything is one, everything is Brahman, and within the framework of this one only Brahman itself and the spiritual monads, the “I” of everyone, that are part of it really exist. The body and even the thought, like the entire material phenomenal world, are imaginary and illusory.

So Brahman is the only reality. The material universe is illusory, it is the result of the action of Maya, the emanation of Brahman. Maya is the material cause of the world, existing only because there is its real cause - Brahman with its eternal energy. Maya is active only because of its involvement in Brahman, which acts on it like a magnet, endowing it with its immanent power. Therefore, although the world created by Maya may seem to really exist, in reality it is nothing more than an illusion. A true sage, behind the illusory nature of the phenomenal, imaginary world, always sees its real essence, i.e. Brahman, with which his spiritual “I” is identical and strives to merge. Only one who has realized this identity can count on liberation, moksha.

To realize the ultimate identification with Brahman, the one who strives for this must be morally and materially purified, renounce desires and passions and be ready to renounce everything in the name of a great goal. Having known his Atman, a person achieved peace; His inner Self was most fully identified with Brahman during deep, dreamless sleep.

The Vedanta system played a very important role in the history of Indian religious and philosophical thought. Its constructions, perhaps to the greatest extent (if we keep in mind all six darshan schools) were adopted in the national tradition of India, influenced the appearance of Hinduism and even became one of the spiritual foundations during the period of revival of ancient traditions, in the era of critical rethinking of the foundations of Indian civilization (neove-dentism).

On the territory of the Hindustan Peninsula, at different times and among the different nationalities that inhabited it, diverse religious ideas and practices took shape and developed. These ideas and practices can be systematized within individual Indian religions. These include Hinduism(in the broad sense of the word), Jainism, Sikhism And Buddhism. The first three are national religions, while the last is the oldest world religion. All of these religious traditions have their own history, their own sacred texts, their own sanctuaries, their own spiritual leaders. Indian religiosity as a whole is characterized by a spirit of tolerance, non-dogmatism, readiness to assimilate foreign things (inclusivism) and describe the new in the categories of traditional culture, high authority of spiritual mentors and some other features.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the largest in the world national religion. The term “Hinduism” first appears in the works of European Indologists of the 19th century. In a broad sense Hinduism- this is a mass of cults and beliefs that have existed since ancient times in Hindustan and in areas influenced by the traditional culture of India (the territory of the present

Nepal, South-East Asia, Sri Lanka). Hinduism understood in this way also includes the religious tradition of the Indo-Aryans, starting from the era of the Rig Veda. In a narrow sense, Hinduism is the third stage in the development of the Indo-Aryan religion (after Vedism and Brahmanism), which was influenced by both non-Vedic religious traditions and unorthodox Indo-Aryan religious and philosophical systems. Followers of Hinduism are called Hindus, or Hindus. Hindus themselves have traditionally used the word “dharma” to designate their religion. At the same time, “dharma” means not so much the religious component of Hindu life, but rather the general set of norms and laws with which followers of Hinduism must balance their lifestyle. Thus, Hindu “dharma” is much broader than “Hinduism”, understood only from a religious point of view, since it includes both religious and non-religious components.

In Hinduism it is difficult to isolate a single, clear organizational and ideological structure, so it seems mosaic and unsystematic. It lacks the church as a central social institution that unites its members; there are no “sects” and “heresies”; the meaning of sacred texts is interpreted differently; there are no universal dogmas and objects of worship; there is no practice of holding councils to resolve theological issues, etc. It is difficult to unambiguously classify Hinduism as a monotheistic or polytheistic religion, although to a greater extent it still gravitates towards the latter. Some researchers tend to see in Hinduism not just one religion, but a complex of religions, or to perceive Hinduism as a kind of civilization, one of the many components of which is religion.

There are a number of factors that ensure the relative unity of Hinduism. So, in 1966 and 1995. Supreme Court India identified seven characteristics of Hinduism:

• 1) reverence for the sacred scriptures - the Vedas;
• 2) tolerance for a different point of view;
• 3) recognition of the fact of enormous periods of creation, preservation and destruction of the Universe;
• 4) belief in rebirth and the previous existence of the soul;
• 5) recognition of achieving spiritual liberation in various ways;
• 6) the equivalence of various religious practices;
• 7) lack of an unambiguous set of ideological guidelines.

However, this “legal” formalization of Hinduism does not mean that all Hindus, without exception, recognize exactly this set of characteristics. In Hinduism, ideological flexibility is paradoxically combined with the rigidity of social relations. In many ways, this helps Hinduism maintain vitality and adapt to a changing world.

Hinduism has a large variety of religious movements, the most important of which are Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism; each of them, in turn, is divided into separate schools and lines. Due to the heterogeneity of the religious movements included in Hinduism, there is no common founder for all of them. The “founder” of Shaivism can be considered the god Shiva, Vaishnavism - Vishnu, etc.

The origins of Hinduism in the broad sense are usually traced to two types of religious traditions - Vedism (and its continuation of Brahmanism) and local traditions. Vedic religion, which was carried by the Indo-Aryan tribes, appears on the territory of India (Punjab) around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The religion of the Indo-Aryans is reflected in their sacred texts (Vedas), also called shruti (literally “heard”), or “revelation”. Shruti, understood in the broad sense of the word, includes four genres of sacred literature: self-hits, or “collections” (“Rigveda”, “Samaveda”, “Yajurveda” and “Atharva Veda”), Brahmins, Aranyakas and Upanishads. According to Hindus, shruti is revealed by the deities. Vedic literature also includes works of the smriti (“memory”) section, often created in the genre of sutras (short, laconic texts) relating to individual aspects of knowledge (ritual studies, phonetics, etymology, grammar, metrics, astronomy). In addition, epics, puranas (mythological tales), and treatises on dharma belong to smriti. Many works of Vedism-Brahmanism retain their sacred status in developed Hinduism. Particularly important is a text such as the Bhagavad Gita, which in turn is part of the largest epic corpus in world literature - the Mahabharata.

The religion of the Indo-Aryans before Hinduism in the narrow sense of the word is chronologically divided into two stages. Its early stage (approximately the 15th-10th centuries BC), or Vedism in the proper sense of the word, is reflected in the collection of sacred hymns (“Rigveda”), generally edited by the 10th century. BC e. Among the deities (deva) of this collection, the most often mentioned is the thunder god Indra, a generous giver of benefits and at the same time a fierce warrior with the forces of evil, the mythological personification of which is the dragon Vritra. Also of considerable importance are Soma, the god of the sacred drink of the same name; god of fire Agni; the keeper of the cosmic law is Rita Varuna; the sun deities Surya and Savitar, etc. In general, the early Vedic religion is patriarchal; among the few female deities, the goddess of dawn Ushas stands out. The contents of many also belong to the early period of the Vedic religion. magical spells"Atharvaveda".

The later stage of the Vedic religion, reflected in three later Samhitas, created approximately one hundred to two hundred years after the Rig Veda, smoothly passes into the next, which is known as Brahmanical period(c. VIII - c. 2nd centuries BC). Its name is associated, firstly, with religious texts commenting on the Samhitas (Brahmins), and secondly, with the priestly class (Brahmins), which during this period acquired enormous authority due to the complication of ritual procedures. The development of ritualism and the specificity of the images of Vedic deities stimulated the priests' reflection on various aspects of ritual practice and symbolism and led them to the idea of ​​a single principle underlying the entire universe - the idea of ​​Brahman. The doctrine of Brahman develops in mystical religious and philosophical works - the Upanishads. In the same texts, other important categories of classical Indian thought were developed - Atman (immortal soul), samsara (world of suffering), karma (law of moral retribution), moksha (liberation), etc. It was in the era of Brahmanism that the foundations of the worldview of later religious and philosophical schools

In Brahmanism, a vast complex of rituals is divided into “official” (srauta) and domestic (grihya). Mythological explanations are given for the rituals. Among the gods, Prajapati takes the leading role, personifying creative cosmic energy and perceived as the sacrifice from which the universe is created. In this regard, the concept of sacrifice becomes key in Brahmanistic ritual studies, acquiring a cosmogonic meaning. Various systems of psycho-practical activity (asceticism, yoga) are being developed aimed at transforming consciousness and accumulating special internal strength in the body of the practitioner. In addition, in the era of Brahmanism, the varna system finally took shape and the beginnings of a caste system appeared (see below); in special works the concept of dharma as a set of instructions is developed; the doctrine of four types of age obligations is being formed, etc.

In parallel with the Vedic tradition (and also long before it), local religious traditions also developed. One of the most archaic is associated with the Proto-Indian (Harappan) civilization in the Indus River valley, which existed from approximately the 25th to the 18th centuries. BC e. On the territory of this civilization, the cult of the Mother Goddess, the patroness of fertility, was most widespread. There was also a cult of her divine spouse, the ruler of the underworld, the plant and animal worlds. Perhaps it is he who is depicted on one of the seals found, sitting in a yogic pose and surrounded by wild animals; With some of its attributes this deity resembles the image of the later Shiva. In addition, some plants, animals (buffalo, elephant, etc.), natural elements, and phallic symbols were also revered. Cults were performed by the priestly class in special sanctuaries; Sacrifices, including human ones, were made to deities and spirits. It is assumed that after the collapse of this civilization, its legacy was transferred to other regions and had a certain influence on the religious ideas of local tribes and peoples belonging to the Dravidian-speaking groups.

The merging of Vedic and local traditions took place over many centuries and eventually led to the forms of Hinduism known today. In its main features, Hinduism appears towards the end of the 1st millennium BC. e., and acquires its classic appearance a thousand years later, when the caste system finally took shape. Unorthodox religious movements (Buddhism, Jainism, etc.), which were a significant force in the religious life of the country in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, made a significant contribution to the formation of Hinduism. e. - first half of the 1st millennium AD e. Brahmanism, being influenced by such teachings (in particular in the field of ethics), directly or indirectly borrowed their provisions.

During the formation of Hinduism, the cults of the former deities of the Vedic pantheon (Indra, Soma, etc.) fade into the background, and instead of them, popular cults of other deities such as Vishnu (Krishna), Shiva, Devi, etc. are put forward. Hinduism is gaining great popularity and spreading over vast territories, not least thanks to the adoption of special methods of reverent worship of deities (bhakti). At the end of the ancient era (mid-1st millennium AD), under the influence of bhakti, the construction of Hindu temples began. Hinduism successfully assimilates local tribal beliefs as well as the ideas of heterodox movements, while simultaneously displacing these movements themselves. Already from the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Hinduism completely dominates the public consciousness and becomes the determining factor in Indian spiritual culture.

Various worldviews of Hinduism are developed in orthodox philosophical schools, of which there are traditionally six: Samkhya, Yoga, Vedanta, Mimamsa, Nyaya And vai-sheshika. However, there are no ideas and ideas that would be accepted in all Hindu directions without exception. One can speak about a single Hindu worldview only with great convention. One of the most popular Hindu ideas is the idea karma, found even in the Upanishads. According to it, the actions of an individual performed in one life bring consequences (“fruits”) in his next lives. The character of the individual, his social, financial situation, lifespan, etc. - all this is due to his actions in previous incarnations. During the time the universe exists, the soul undergoes many reincarnations. The totality of transitions from one life to another forms samsara(lit., whirlwind) - a world full of suffering. Hindu thinkers call the cause of samsara and the action of karmic laws fundamental ignorance (avidya) of one’s own spiritual essence (Atman) or isolation from the supreme God. Getting rid of spiritual ignorance frees the individual from samsara. Psychotechnical exercises (yoga), intellectual reflection, and ardent love for the deity are used as means to achieve such a state.

(bhakti), performance of complex rituals, selfless lifestyle (karma-marga), etc. The ideal of liberation is difficult to achieve, so most ordinary believers hope to end up in heaven, in paradise (svarga) after death. However, the ideals of liberation and being in heaven can overlap each other - for example, in Krishnaism.

In the center Hindu theology- the idea of ​​the highest, absolute deity, which, depending on the specific school or direction, is called differently - Krishna, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, etc.; each of these deities, in turn, has many names and epithets. The absolute deity is endowed with omniscience, omnipresence, omnipotence and other perfections. The whole world and individual souls, particles of this deity, depend on him. At the same time, the existence of the supreme God does not cancel the existence of other, secondary deities, which are thought of as his special “forms.” In order for undeveloped souls to have the opportunity to improve, the demiurge god (Brahma), prompted to activity by the absolute God, creates the cosmos and fills it with various bodily shells. By moving into them, souls begin to act and thereby become subject to the law of karma. At the same time, karma does not darken the essence of God himself.

The entire daily life of a person should ideally be permeated with spiritual aspirations. Righteous way of life ( dharma) usually includes the performance of pious acts (rites, prayer, reading sacred works, alms, fasting, pilgrimage, etc.), the fulfillment of basic commandments (not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, etc.). In addition to dharma, there are other life values, or goals: artha (increase in wealth, prosperity of the family, etc.); kama (receipt of various sensual pleasures) and moksha (final liberation).

Mythology. According to Hindu mythology, the world is a gigantic closed structure - the “egg of Brahma” (brahmanda), consisting of a set of vertical levels - from 3 to 21. The above-ground spheres form svarga, or heaven, inhabited by divine beings. Actually high level the halls of Brahma, the head of the pantheon, are located. The middle level of this structure is our earth, which has a flat shape and is surrounded by the World Ocean. In the middle of the earth rises the sacred Mount Meru, around which there are four or seven “continents” (dvipa). The main of these “continents” is Jambudvipa, part of which is Bharatavarsha, i.e. India. Mount Meru is the axis of the world, which permeates almost the entire Brahmanda; The Sun, Moon and planets revolve around it. Below the earth are the hells (naraka); the number of hells varies in different mythological schemes; Each hellish realm has certain types of suffering associated with it. Beneath the naraka, supporting the entire structure of the brahmanda, rests the giant serpent Shesha. In Hindu mythology there is also the idea of ​​a plurality of worlds united into a single universal universe.

The ideas of Hindu texts about time are also mythological. The observable “historical” era is divided into four time periods of unequal length (yuga), following each other, starting with the “true age” (satya-yuga), or the “age” of high piety and morality, and ending with the “age” of the complete fall of truth , a period of misfortune (Kali-yuga), in which modern humanity also finds itself. Kali Yuga is the shortest Yuga, lasting “only” 4,320,000 Earth years, after which, after zones of cosmic “timelessness,” Satya Yuga begins again. Four yugas (chaturyuga) make one great yuga (mahayuga). A thousand such mahayugas form one kalpa, or "day of Brahma"; at the end of this “day,” the fire hidden in the depths of the ocean bursts out and burns the entire world, which thereby disappears into Brahma. The “night of Brahma” lasts the same amount of time. The cycles of “dissolution” and new creation follow each other in strict sequence. In total, Brahma lives 100 “his” years, after which he dies and dissolves into an absolute deity. But after a certain time, this deity gives birth to another Brahma, who creates a new universe.

According to another view, the world at any given period of time is under the leadership of one or another world ruler - Manu. There are 14 Manus in total, and the seventh of them, Manu Vivasvat, currently rules the universe. Finally, according to another concept, there are three alternating stages of the existence of the world - creation (srishti), preservation (sthiti) and disappearance, destruction (pralaya). These three stages are associated with three mythological characters - Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, respectively. After the completion of one cycle, another follows after some time, and so on without end.

The creator god Brahma, identified with the god Prajapati, has been considered the recognized head of the large Hindu pantheon since the Brahman period. Various versions of the creation of the world are associated with Brahma. According to one of them, the “egg of Brahma,” the embryo of the universe, appears in the primordial waters of space. Brahma is born in him by himself. Then he comes out of the egg and from the shell creates the universe. Having created the world, God gives various spheres of the world to control to his descendants, establishes laws, a system of varnas, begins counting time, and also creates death, which saves the world from overpopulation. He makes Indra king over all the gods. In developed Hinduism, Brahma turns into a secondary demiurge who creates the universe at the direction of the supreme God - most often Vishnu (in Vaishnavism) or Shiva (in Shaivism).

Many myths and legends are associated with Vishnu and Shiva, which gives grounds to distinguish between Vaishnava and Shaivite mythology. The first includes myths not only about Vishnu himself, but also about his avatars (“descensions”), or incarnations on earth for the sake of some high moral goal. Most often, 10 avatars stand out, among which Krishna and Rama are especially important. Associated with Shiva is his wife, the goddess Parvati (Devi, Durga, etc.), who is highly revered in Shaktism. The sons of Shiva are the elephant-headed god of wisdom Ganesha and the god of war Skanda. In the south of India (Tamil Nadu), the god Murugan, the son of the local war goddess Kottravey, who is also the patron of love, spring and hunting, is identified with Skanda. Many myths are associated with such deities as the god of love Kama, the goddess of eloquence and education Saraswati, the goddess of love, happiness and prosperity Lakshmi, the monkey god Hanuman, the god of the Himalayas Himavat, the god of wealth Kubera, etc.

Hindu deities are more anthropomorphic compared to Vedic ones. Each deity has his own vahana, or vehicle in the form of some living creature: for Shiva it is a bull, for Vishnu it is Garuda, a gigantic eagle with human features, for Devi it ​​is a lion, for Ganesha it is a mouse, for Kubera it is a man and etc. Male deities have divine consorts or girlfriends (Vishnu and Lakshmi, Krishna and Radha, Kama and Rati, etc.).

A huge place in the mythology of Hinduism is also occupied by tales of numerous demigods and spirits, heroes and sages, animals and plants, etc. Among these creatures there are both malicious, demonic in nature, and beneficent characters. Thus, the category of demons and evil spirits includes: warlike asuras, constantly in conflict with the gods; rakshasas - cruel and disgusting cannibals; pishachis, devouring corpses and competing with the spirits of ancestors (pitris), etc. Positive (or neutral) creatures include, for example, yakshas, ​​spirits of fertility and protection; gandharvas, celestial musicians and singers; apsaras, heavenly beauties who entertain the gods and fallen heroes with songs and dances; nagas, wise snake-like spirits guarding treasures in underground settlements, etc.

Animals appear in many myths, especially the cow. Thus, the Kamadhenu cow grants its owner the fulfillment of any desire. In addition, there is the mythology of plants (banyan and ashwatha), rocks and mountains (Kailasa, Himalayas, Meru), rivers (Ganges, Yamuna), cities (Benares). Many mythological stories touch on the theme of the struggle between the forces of good and evil, or between divine and demonic armies. So, for example, the asuras built a triple fortification (Tripura), from where they raided the settlements of the gods, Shiva struck this fortress with one arrow and threw it into the ocean. The myth of the churning of the “milk ocean” is also popular: the gods and asuras, using a churning rod (Mount Meru), churn the ocean of milk, from the waters of which valuable substances and creatures emerge, including the drink of immortality - amrita. Common mythological motifs are also the acquisition by some ascetic of some great gift from the god Brahma, the curse of a sage offended by someone, etc.

Hindu mythology has become an inexhaustible source of inspiration for the creators of Indian art and Indian literature in different languages.

The deities that are most revered are Vishnu (primarily Krishna), Shiva and Devi. The cults of the gods Ganesha, Surya, Skanda (Murugan), etc. are of somewhat less importance. The god Brahma is very poorly represented at the cult level; only one temple is dedicated to him. In addition to the cults of gods, in Hinduism there are also cults of heroes, rulers, holy sages, ascetics, ancestors, and sati women. The creatures of lower mythology are surrounded by varying degrees of veneration: rakshasas, asuras, apsaras, etc. Malicious creatures are “revered” mainly for the purpose of daring them.

The cow is surrounded by universal worship; killing this animal is considered a very serious crime. In addition to the cow, monkeys, bulls, etc. are also sacred, although to a lesser extent. Some types of plants are sacred - banyan, ashwattha (in Hinduism as a whole), tulsi (in Vaishnavism), rudraksha (in Shaivism). The cult of mountains, traditionally considered the haven of the gods, is also developed. The Himalayas are especially popular, the caves of which still attract many religious devotees. Mount Kailasa (Western Tibet) is associated with Shiva and Parvati, and Govardhana with Krishna. Reservoirs and rivers are also revered, the Ganges River (Ganges) is especially sacred; Yamuna (Jamna), Narmada, Krishna, etc. are also popular. Hindus believe that the waters sacred rivers have a cleansing effect on the human soul and are able to transfer it after the death of the body to the upper limits of existence. There are also sacred fields (Kurukshetra), sacred cities (Benares, Mathura, Puri, etc.).

There are many places of worship, temples and other shrines that attract many pilgrims. Among the most significant Hindu temples are the Venkateswara temple in Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh), Meenakshi in Madurai (Tamil Nadu), Jagannath in Puri (Orissa), Vitthala in Pandharpur (Maharashtra), etc. The entire Indian land (Bharatavarsha) is sacred.

Theoretically, in Hinduism, any unusual object or person can become an object of religious worship. The emergence and development of Hindu cults continues to this day.

Rituals and rituals take up a lot great place in Hinduism. Ritual worship of certain sacred beings and objects is called puja(lit., worship, glorification). The phenomenon of puja goes back to local, non-Vedic religious customs. The cult object in puja, in the form of its image or symbol, is served directly, which distinguishes puja from the Vedic yajna (sacrifice). In large shrines such as the Jagannath Temple, major services are held five times a day. At the head of the temple clergy, usually consisting of Brahmins, is the pujari, or pujapanda.

It is believed that during puja, the deity descends into the body of the pujari, after which it “moves” into its anthropomorphic image (murti), most often made in the form of some kind of statue, or into a corresponding symbol (for example, into a lingam if Shiva is worshiped). After performing the puja, the deity leaves the murti and ascends again to its transcendental spheres. Each puja consists of certain steps. Liturgical manuals usually describe 16 such steps, including contemplation of the deity’s transition into the murti, offering the deity a seat (asana), water for washing hands and feet, offering food, betel nut for chewing, etc. A ritual swaying of the lamp is performed in front of the deity’s face. , burn incense, read sacred sayings - mantras, sing religious hymns, fold their fingers in special gestures (mudras). In its form, the attitude towards the deity in puja goes back to the ancient customs of treating the guest of honor. In the morning, the deity (in the form of his murti) is awakened in his bedroom, entertaining him with singing and dancing; they dress, feed, etc. In the evening the murti is put to bed. On holidays, murtis ritually travel around a city or village on chariots.

Ordinary believers do not take part in temple puja. The purpose of the visit of believers to the temple is to contemplate the object of worship, with a ritual walk around it, as well as to make an offering. Rice, fruits, and dairy products predominate among the offerings; In some Hindu cults, such as Shaktism, animals are sacrificed during pujas. In Shaktism, followers of high degrees of initiation use erotic elements in some rituals (panchamakara). Magic rituals in which their performer tries to impose his will on a particular creature also have a certain significance. Home or family puja is not much different from temple puja; it is simpler in its implementation and is carried out, as a rule, through the efforts of the family members themselves.

Rituals and ceremonies accompany Hindus throughout their lives. In the dharmashastras - ancient treatises containing various prescriptions - there are on average up to 40 household rituals of the life cycle (sanskaras), many of which date back to the Vedic era. Such ceremonies begin long before the birth of a future member of the Hindu community. Thus, special rituals are designed to help conceive a child and promote his development in the womb. At about six months of age, the child is solemnly named with a name corresponding to the social status of his parents (namakarana). One of the most significant and ancient home rituals is initiation (upanayana), which all males from the first three varnas (brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas) must undergo. The main element of Upanayana is putting on the sacred thread, which symbolizes the “second birth” of a person and at the same time the entry into the first of four age stages, or ashram - the stage of discipleship. Anyone who fails to complete this ceremony becomes an outcast. Marriage (vivaha) is also a very important ritual. Ancient texts distinguish eight types of marriage. The actual marriage ceremony is preceded by an engagement, also ritually furnished, with visits from relatives, gifts, and treats. The ritual is carried out on a favorable, pre-selected day. During the vivah ritual, the bride and groom walk around the sacred fire and perform other ceremonial actions. The series of sanskars ends with a series of rites of farewell to the deceased and cremation (less often burial) of the latter.

Certain events in the life of a family or community that do not fit into the framework of regularly celebrated calendar events or age-related ceremonies also have their own rituals. Thus, when a building is inhabited, a puja is performed in honor of the god Vastupurusha, the guardian of the order of sacrifice. Religious suicides, widespread in medieval Hinduism, were also perceived as ritual acts. The burning of a widow was ritually performed (the rite of sati). The execution of criminals was also perceived in a ritual sense, which allowed the latter to be cleared of guilt. Mass folk festivals (Diwali, Holi, etc.) are also ritualized.

Everything related to the ritual requires special purity. The idea of ​​ritual purity and impurity became one of the key ones in the process of formation of the caste system of Indian society. Thus, butchers, executioners, scavengers, etc. were considered ritually unclean social groups. The dead and relatives of those who died recently, women during menstruation and childbirth, and widows are considered unclean. Contact with ritually unclean things or people should entail additional cleansing rituals for a devout Hindu, otherwise he himself is considered unclean. Purification includes fasting, reading mantras and prayers, ascetic practices, and using the products of the sacred animal - the cow. Hindu rituals had a great influence on the ritual practices of Jainism and Buddhism, and became the basis for the formation and rituals of Sikhism. In fact, Hindu rituals acquired pan-Indian significance and began to be largely perceived as synonymous with the practical component of Indian spiritual culture as a whole.

Even in the era of Brahmanism it was established four-part varna system of society, Members of each varna are prescribed strictly specific activities. Brahmins must perform rituals and teach sacred knowledge, kshatriyas- rule, fight and defend, vaishyas- trade and Shudras- serve. The first three classes were called "twice-born" because their members underwent an initiation rite. Shudras had no right to undergo such initiation.

However, real life often refuted both the hierarchy of varnas and their imaginary impenetrability.

From about the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. A caste system begins to form, which is superimposed on the varna system. It is assumed that the emergence of castes was associated with the process of differentiation of various professions and occupations, as well as with the settlement of Aryans throughout the country. The developing trend of ritual purity was also of some importance. In the process of “Arization,” i.e., mass integration into Indo-Aryan society of many local tribes and nationalities at different stages of development, the latter found themselves outside the established social structure and fell into the category of low-caste or non-caste layers. The caste system finally took shape by the end of the 1st millennium AD. e. The term caste itself is of Portuguese origin, it has been known since the beginning of the 16th century, but in India a similar term was used jati(genus). The main features of caste (jati) are endogamy (marriages take place only within the caste); strict regulation of contacts with other castes; general occupation; veneration of a certain circle of deities; finally, your status in the social environment.

Caste is one big family whose members support each other. Observance of caste regulations actually coincides with observance of religious commandments. To be expelled from the caste for violating the rules for a Hindu means moving into the state of a social outcast. There is a hierarchy of castes, with powerless groups of “untouchables” (chandals) at the very bottom. Currently there are almost 3 thousand castes. Although officially, according to the Indian constitution, there are no castes in the country, at the everyday level the caste division of society in many places in India still persists. Only a person who was born into one of the castes can be a Hindu, therefore there is no proselytism in traditional Hinduism.

The social side of Hinduism is also associated with the institution of varshrama (regulation of a person’s lifestyle depending on his age; relates primarily to brahmins), consisting of four life stages: apprenticeship (brahmacharya), owning a house and farm (grihastha), forest hermitage (vanaprastha) and wandering (sannyasa).

In the XIII-XVI centuries. the bhakti movement is experiencing significant growth in various regions of the country; the most important directions of bhakti (the schools of Dnyaneshwar, Chaitanya, Kabir, etc.) became at that time a powerful and influential religious force. Based on one of the directions of bhakti at the beginning of the 16th century. The Sikh religion, or Sikhism, is formed. In the same era of the Middle Ages, Hinduism faced such an ideological enemy as Islam, but managed to adapt to it and even partially influenced it. On the other hand, certain Hindu movements (Kabir Panth, etc.) adopted some Islamic (Sufi) ideas. The Mughal ruling elite showed interest in Hinduism: Emperor Akbar tried to combine on a rationalistic basis a number of provisions of Islam and Hinduism in the new religion he invented, “din-i-ilahi” (“divine faith”), and by order of Prince Dara Shukoh in mid-17th century The texts of 50 Upanishads were translated into Persian from Sanskrit. But there were also frequent cases of brutal oppression of Hindus by Muslim rulers, in particular the destruction of Hindu temples and the construction of mosques in their place. Emperor Aurangzeb (second half of the 17th century) became famous for his intolerant attitude towards Hinduism.

In the middle of the 18th century. British colonial rule was established in India. A few decades after this, some educated Hindus, who became acquainted with the achievements of Western civilization, reflecting on the peculiarities of their own tradition, began to come to the conclusion about the need for socio-religious reforms. This is how neo-Hinduism arose, a special form of Hinduism that had a significant impact on the growth of national self-awareness. Until today, neo-Hinduism is closely intertwined with classical Hinduism.

The twentieth century was marked by powerful protests by the “untouchables” who protested against the discrimination they suffered at the hands of caste Hindus. The outstanding public and statesman of India B. R. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) managed to achieve a legislative prohibition of caste discrimination. In the post-war period, which coincided with India gaining complete independence from England (since 1947) and the separation of India from Muslim Pakistan, tension grew between Islam and Hinduism, as well as between Hinduism and Sikhism, which continues to this day. Much of this tension was caused by the development of the nationalist idea of ​​Hindutva, or "Hindu communalism", according to which Indian soil was the sacred homeland of Hindus. Hindutva ideologists dream of establishing a Hindu state in the country and talk about the superiority of Hinduism over other religions.

Currently, over 80% of India's population, or more than 800 million people, consider themselves Hindus. Many Hindus also live abroad - in the USA, Europe, and African countries. In Russia, followers of Hindu cults are attested from the 17th century. (as part of the Indian trade embassies in Astrakhan), however, the attitude towards Hinduism on the part of the majority of Russians continues to be ambiguous. At the beginning of the 21st century. The number of followers of Hinduism in Russia is small, only a few thousand people, and the vast majority of them belong to various Hare Krishna communities. Yoga, which is popular in our country, is almost not perceived in the context of Hinduism.

Modern Hinduism is a very complex phenomenon in which traditionalism and archaism coexist with innovation. Some Hindu customs are dying out (for example, sati or child marriage), on the other hand, other facets and shades appear in Hinduism as it tries to adapt to new realities. Modern Hindus form large organizations and associations, hold meetings and congresses, and actively participate in the political and social life of the country.

Centuries of peaceful coexistence in Hinduism of various cults and forms of religious practice, combined with the idea of ​​​​non-violence, contributed to the development in it of a special spirit of religious tolerance. Hinduism had a huge impact on the formation of traditional Indian society. To this day, the concepts of “Indian” and “Hindu” are closely intertwined (cf. English, hindu). In addition, Hinduism has partly influenced the religious and philosophical beliefs of the West; throughout the 20th century. there was an export of Hindu practices and concepts beyond the spread of traditional Indian culture, which partly gives rise to talk about the tendency of Hinduism to become a world religion. So, although Hinduism faces certain difficulties in the face of changes and challenges of the current period of history, it continues to remain powerful force contemporary religious situation both in India and in the rest of the world.

India is a country with a unique, unusually interesting culture and its own original beliefs. It is unlikely that in any other state - with the possible exception of ancient Egypt and Greece - there is such a huge number of myths, scriptures and traditions. Some researchers consider this peninsula to be the cradle of humanity. Others suggest that this country is one of the main heirs to the culture of the Aryan peoples who came here from the lost Arctida. India - Vedism - was later transformed into Hinduism, which still exists today.

History of India in Brief

The ancient tribes inhabiting the Hindustan Peninsula switched from gathering and hunting to settled agriculture around 6-7 thousand BC. e. By the end of the 3rd millennium, a highly developed culture of urban-type settlements was already emerging in these territories.

Modern scientists call it “Harappan”. This civilization existed for almost a millennium. The ancient Indian Harappan cities had well-developed crafts and a wealthy merchant class. What happened to this culture is unknown. Some researchers suggest that a large-scale catastrophe occurred, others believe that the rich cities of this period for some reason simply went bankrupt and were abandoned.

Subsequently, Muslim dynasties ruled in India for a long time. In 1526, these territories were conquered by Khan Babur, after which India became part of a huge empire. This state was abolished only in 1858 by the English colonialists.

History of religion

Over the centuries, this country has successively replaced each other:

• Vedic religion of Ancient India.
• Hinduism. Today this religion is the dominant one in India. More than 80% of the country's population is its adherents.
• Buddhism. Nowadays it is confessed by part of the population.

Early beliefs

Vedism - ancient religion Ancient India. Some scientists suggest that it appeared in this country some time after the disappearance of a huge prosperous ancient state- Arctida. Of course, this is far from the official version, but it is actually very interesting and explains a lot. According to this hypothesis, once upon a time, for unknown reasons, the earth's axis shifted. As a result, the climate has changed greatly. In Arctida, located either at the North Pole or in modern subpolar continental regions, it became very cold. Therefore, the Aryans who inhabited it were forced to migrate towards the equator. Some of them went to the Middle and Southern Urals, building observatory cities here, and then to the Middle East. The other part moved through Scandinavia and the third branch took part in the formation of Indian culture and religion, reaching Southeast Asia and subsequently mixing with the indigenous inhabitants of these places - the Dravidians.

Basic concept

In fact, Vedism - the oldest religion of ancient India - is the initial stage of Hinduism. It was not widespread throughout the country, but only in part of it - in Uttar and Eastern Punjab. According to the official version, it was here that Vedism originated. The adherents of this religion were characterized by the deification of all nature as a whole, as well as its parts and some social phenomena. There was no clear hierarchy of gods in Vedism. The world was divided into three main parts - earth, sky and an intermediate sphere - antarizhna (compare with the Slavic Reality, Navya and Pravya). Each of these worlds corresponded to certain gods. The main creator, Purusha, was also revered.

Veda

We talked briefly about what the oldest religion of Ancient India is. Next, we will understand what the Vedas are - its fundamental scripture.

At the moment, this book is one of the oldest sacred works. It is believed that for thousands of years the Vedas were transmitted only orally - from teacher to student. About five thousand years ago, part of them was written down by the sage Vyasadeva. This book, which today is actually considered the Vedas, is divided into four parts (turiya) - “Rigveda”, “Samaveda”, “Yajurveda” and “Atharvaveda”.

This work contains mantras and hymns, written in verse and serving as a guide for Indian clergy (rules for conducting weddings, funerals and other ceremonies). It also contains spells designed to heal people and perform various kinds of magical rituals. The mythology and religion of Ancient India are closely related. For example, in addition to the Vedas there are Puranas. They describe the history of the creation of the universe, as well as the genealogy of Indian kings and heroes.

The emergence of Hindu beliefs

Over time, the oldest religion of Ancient India - Vedism - is transformed into modern Hinduism. This was, apparently, mainly due to the gradual increase in the influence of the Brahman caste on public life. In the renewed religion, a clear hierarchy of gods is established. The Creator comes to the fore. The trinity appears - Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva. Brahma is assigned the role of the creator of social laws, and in particular the initiator of the division of society into varnas. Vishnu is revered as the main protector, and Shiva as the destroyer god. Gradually, two directions appeared in Hinduism. Vaishnavism speaks of eight descents of Vishnu to earth. One of the avatars is considered to be Krishna, the other is Buddha. Representatives of the second direction - the cult of Shiva - especially reverence the god of destruction, considering him at the same time the patron of fertility and livestock.

Hinduism began to play the role of the dominant religion in India since the Middle Ages. It remains so to this day. Representatives of this religion believe that it is impossible to become a Hindu. They can only be born. That is, varna (the social role of a person) is something that is given and predetermined by the gods, and therefore cannot be changed.

Varnashrama-dharna social system

Thus, another ancient religion of Ancient India - Hinduism, became the heir to many traditions and rituals of previous beliefs. In particular, the division of Indian society into varnas arose during the time of Vedism. In addition to the four social groups (brahmanas, kshtariyas, vaishyas and sudras), according to this religion, there are four ways of human spiritual life. The stage of learning is called Brahmacharya, social and family life - Grihastha, subsequent withdrawal from the worldly - Vanaprastha and the final stage of life with final enlightenment - Sannyasa.

Whoever created the varnasrama-dharna, such an orderly way of life is still preserved in the world. In any country there are priests (brahmanas), administrators and military men (kshtariyas), businessmen (vaishyas) and workers (sudras). Such a division makes it possible to streamline social life and create the most comfortable living conditions for people with the opportunity to develop and improve themselves.

Unfortunately, in India itself, varnasrama-dharna has been greatly degraded by our time. That rigid division into castes (and depending on birth), which exists here today, contradicts the basic concept of this doctrine of the necessity spiritual growth person.

Religion of Ancient India in brief: the emergence of Buddhism

This is another very common belief on the peninsula. Buddhism is one of the most unusual religions in the world. The fact is that, unlike Christianity, the founder of this cult is a completely historical person. The creator of this currently quite widespread teaching (and not only in India), Sidgartha Shanyamuni, was born in 563 in the city of Lumbene into a kshtariya family. They began to call him Buddha after he achieved enlightenment at the age of 40.

Religion has always viewed deity not as a punitive or merciful force, but as a role model, a kind of “beacon” of self-development. Buddhism completely abandoned the idea of ​​the creation of the world by some Creator. Adherents of this religion believe that a person can only rely on himself personally, and suffering is not sent to him from above, but is the result of his own mistakes and inability to give up worldly desires. However, like the earlier Indian religions discussed above, Buddhism contains the idea of ​​salvation, that is, the achievement of nirvana.

Interaction with Western culture

For Europeans, the culture and religion of Ancient India remained a sealed secret for a long time. The interaction between these two completely different worlds began only at the end of the century before last. Celebrities such as Nicholas and Helena Roerich and others made their invaluable contribution to this process.

Today one of the concerns about India is widely known. The famous soothsayer believed that the most ancient teaching would soon return to the world. And it will come precisely from India. New books will be written about it, and it will spread throughout the Earth.

Who knows, perhaps the ancient religion of India will indeed become the basis of future new beliefs. The “Fire Bible,” as Vanga predicts, “will cover the Earth with white color,” thanks to which people will be saved. Perhaps we are even talking about the famous work written by the Roerichs - Agni Yoga. "Agni" translated means "Fire".

Culture of Ancient India

Religion and culture of Ancient India are closely interconnected phenomena. The otherworldly mystical world of the gods is almost always present in the works of Indian artists, sculptors and even architects. Even in our time, masters strive to bring deep content, a certain vision of inner truth, into each of their works, not to mention the ancient craftsmen.

Unfortunately, very few ancient Indian paintings and frescoes have reached us. But in this country there is simply a huge number of ancient sculptures of historical value and architectural monuments. Look, for example, at the huge Ellora caves with the magnificent Kailasa temple in the center. Here you can also see the majestic statues of the divine Trimurti Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva.

So, we have found out that the oldest religion of Ancient India is Vedism. Hinduism and Buddhism that emerged later are its development and continuation. Religious beliefs in India have had a tremendous impact not only on culture, but also on social life in general. In our time, this country still remains incredibly interesting, original, original and unlike any other state in the world.

The thousand-year-old cultural tradition of India has developed in close connection with the development of the religious ideas of its people. The main religious movement was Hinduism (more than 80% of the Indian population now follows it). The roots of this religion go back to ancient times.

Vedism. The religious and mythological ideas of the tribes of the Vedic era can be judged from the monuments of that period - the Vedas, which contain rich material on mythology, religion, and ritual. Vedic hymns were and are considered sacred texts in India; they were passed down orally from generation to generation and carefully preserved. The set of these beliefs is called Vedism. Vedism was not a pan-Indian religion, but flourished only in Eastern Punjab and Uttar Prodesh, which were inhabited by a group of Indo-Aryan tribes. It was she who was the creator of the Rigveda and other Vedic collections (samhita).

Vedism was characterized by the deification of nature as a whole (by the community of celestial gods) and individual natural and social phenomena: So Indra is the god of thunderstorms and powerful will; Varuna is the god of world order and justice; Agni - god of fire and hearth; Soma is the god of the sacred drink. In total, 33 gods are considered to be the highest Vedic deities. The Indians of the Vedic era divided the whole world into 3 spheres - sky, earth, antarizhna (the space between them), and certain deities were associated with each of these spheres. The gods of the sky included Varuna; to the gods of the earth - Agni and Soma. There was no strict hierarchy of gods; turning to a specific god, the Vedic people endowed him with the characteristics of many gods. The creator of everything: gods, people, earth, sky, sun - was a certain abstract deity Purusha. Everything around - plants, mountains, rivers - was considered divine, and a little later the doctrine of the transmigration of souls appeared. The Vedic people believed that after death the soul of a saint goes to heaven, and the soul of a sinner goes to the land of Yama. Gods, like people, were capable of dying.

Many features of Vedism entered into Hinduism, it was new stage in the development of spiritual life, i.e. emergence of the first religion.

Hinduism. In Hinduism, God the creator comes to the fore, and a strict hierarchy of gods is established. The Trimurti (trinity) of the gods Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu appears. Brahma is the ruler and creator of the world, he was responsible for the establishment of social laws (tharmas) on earth, the division into varnas; he is the punisher of infidels and sinners. Vishnu is the guardian god; Shivu is the destroyer god. The increasing special role of the last two gods led to the emergence of two directions in Hinduism - Vaishnavism and Shaivism. A similar design was enshrined in the texts of the Puranas - the main monuments of Hindu thought that developed in the first century AD.

Early Hindu texts speak of ten avatars (descensions) of Vishnu. In the eighth of them he appears in the guise of Krishna, the hero of the Yadava tribe. This ovatara became a favorite plot, and its hero became a character in numerous works. The cult of Krishna gained such popularity that a movement of the same name emerged from Vishnaism. The ninth avatara, where Vishnu appears in the form of Buddha, is the result of the inclusion of Buddhist ideas in Hinduism.

The cult of Shiva, who in the triad of the main gods personified destruction, gained great popularity very early on. In mythology, Shiva is associated with different qualities - he is an ascetic fertility deity, a patron of livestock, and a shaman dancer. This suggests that local beliefs were mixed into the orthodox cult of Shiva.

Indians believed that you cannot become a Hindu - you can only be born one; that varna, the social role, is predetermined forever, and changing it is a sin. Hinduism gained particular strength in the Middle Ages, becoming the main religion of the population. The “book of books” of Hinduism was and remains the “Bhagavad Gita”, part of the ethical poem “Mahabharata”, in the center of which is love for God and through this the path to religious liberation.

Buddhism . Much later than Vedism, Buddhism developed in India. The creator of this teaching, Sidgartha Shanyamuni, was born in 563 in Lumbina into a Kshatriya family. By the age of 40, he achieved enlightenment and began to be called Buddha. It is impossible to tell more precisely about the time of the appearance of his teachings, but the fact that Buddha is a real historical person is a fact.

Buddhism in its origins is associated not only with Brahmanism, but also with other religious and religious-philosophical systems of Ancient India. Analysis of these connections shows that the emergence of Buddhism was also conditioned by objective social processes and prepared ideologically. Buddhism was not born from the “revelation” of a being who had attained divine wisdom, as Buddhists claim, or from the personal creativity of a preacher, as Western Buddhists usually believe. But Buddhism was not a mechanical collection of existing ideas. He introduced into them a lot of new things, generated precisely by the social conditions of the era of his emergence.

Initially, elements of the new religious teaching, as the Buddhist tradition claims, were transmitted orally by monks to their students. They began to receive literary form relatively late - in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC.

The Pali corpus of Buddhist canonical literature, created around 80 BC, has survived. to Sri Lanka and later called “tipitaka” (Sanskrit - “tripitaka”) - “three baskets of the law”.

In the 3rd-1st centuries. BC. and in the first centuries AD. Further development of Buddhism occurs, in particular, a coherent biography of the Buddha is created, and canonical literature is formed. Monastic theologians develop logical “justifications” for the main religious dogmas, often called the “philosophy of Buddhism.” Theological subtleties remained the property of a relatively small circle of monks who had the opportunity to devote all their time to scholastic disputes. At the same time, another, moral and cult side of Buddhism developed, i.e. a "path" that can lead everyone to the end of suffering. This “path” was actually the ideological weapon that helped keep the working masses in obedience for many centuries.

Buddhism enriched religious practice with a technique related to the field of individual cult. This refers to such a form of religious behavior as bhavana - deepening into oneself, into one’s inner world with the aim of concentrated reflection on the truths of faith, which became further widespread in such directions of Buddhism as “Chan” and “Zen”. Many researchers believe that ethics in Buddhism occupies a central place and this makes it more of an ethical, philosophical teaching, and not a religion. Most concepts in Buddhism are vague and ambiguous, which makes it more flexible and adaptable to local cults and beliefs, capable of transformation. Thus, the followers of Buddha formed numerous monastic communities, which became the main centers for the spread of religion.

By the Mauryan period, two directions took shape in Buddhism: the Sthaviravadins and the Mahasangikas. The latter teaching formed the basis of the Mahayana. The oldest Mahayana texts appear as early as the first century BC. One of the most important in the Mahayana doctrine is the doctrine of the Bodhisattva, a being capable of becoming a Buddha, approaching the achievement of nirvana, but out of compassion for people does not enter into it. Buddha was not considered real person, but the highest absolute being. Both Buddha and Bodhisattva are objects of veneration. According to the Mahayana, the attainment of nirvana occurs through the Bodhisattva and because of this, in the first century AD, monasteries received generous offerings from powerful of the world this. The division of Buddhism into two branches: Hinayana ("small vehicle") and Mahayana ("great vehicle") was caused primarily by differences in the socio-political conditions of life in certain parts of India. Hinayana, more closely associated with early Buddhism, recognizes the Buddha as a man who found the path to salvation, which is considered achievable only through withdrawal from the world - monasticism. Mahayana is based on the possibility of salvation not only for hermit monks, but also for lay people, and the emphasis is on active preaching activities and intervention in public and state life. Mahayana, unlike Hinayana, more easily adapted to spread beyond India, giving rise to many interpretations and movements; Buddha gradually became the highest deity, temples were built in his honor, and religious actions were performed.

An important difference between Hinayana and Mahayana is that Hinayana completely rejects the path to salvation for non-monks who have voluntarily renounced worldly life. In Mahayana, an important role is played by the cult of bodhisattvas - individuals who are already capable of entering nirvana, but conceal the achievement of the final goal in order to help others, not necessarily monks, in achieving it, thereby replacing the requirement to leave the world with a call to influence it.

Early Buddhism is distinguished by its simplicity of ritual. Its main element is: the cult of Buddha, preaching, veneration of holy places associated with the birth, enlightenment and death of Guatama, worship of stupas - religious buildings where the relics of Buddhism are kept. Mahayana added the veneration of bodhisattvas to the cult of Buddha, thereby complicating the ritual: prayers and various kinds of spells were introduced, sacrifices began to be practiced, and a magnificent ritual arose.

Like any religion, Buddhism contained the idea of ​​salvation - in Buddhism it is called “nirvana”. It is possible to achieve it only by following certain commandments. Life is suffering that arises in connection with desire, the desire for earthly existence and its joys. Therefore, one should give up desires and follow the "Eightfold Path" - righteous views, righteous conduct, righteous efforts, righteous speech, righteous thoughts, righteous remembrance, righteous living and self-improvement. The ethical side played a huge role in Buddhism. Following the Eightfold Path, a person must rely on himself, and not seek outside help. Buddhism did not recognize the existence of a creator god, on whom everything in the world depends, including human life. The cause of all man's earthly suffering lies in his personal blindness; inability to give up worldly desires. Only by extinguishing all reactions to the world, by destroying one’s own “I,” can nirvana be achieved.

Philosophy. Philosophy reached a very high level of development in ancient India. Indian philosophy is truly “living fruit” that continues to nourish the world’s human thought with its juices. Indian philosophy has maintained complete continuity. And no philosophy has had such an effect strong impact to the West, like Indian.

The search for “the light that comes from the East”, “the truth about the origin of the human race”, which many philosophers, theosophists, and, finally, hippies were occupied with in the 60-70s of our century is obvious evidence of the living connection that connects Western culture with India. Indian philosophy is not only exotic, but precisely the attractiveness of healing recipes that help a person survive. A person may not know the intricacies of the theory, but practice yoga breathing exercises for purely medical and physiological purposes. The main value of ancient Indian philosophy lies in its appeal to inner world person, it opens up a world of possibilities for a moral personality, and this is probably where the secret of its attractiveness and vitality lies.

Ancient Indian philosophy is characterized by development within certain systems, or schools, and their division into two large groups: the first group is the orthodox philosophical schools of Ancient India, recognizing the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV-II centuries BC) , Mimamsa (VI century BC), Sankhya (VI century BC), Nyaya (III century BC), Yoga (II century BC), Vaisheshika (VI-V centuries BC)). The second group is heterodox schools that do not recognize the authority of the Vedas (Jainism (IV century BC), Buddhism (VII-VI centuries BC), Charvaka-Lokayata).

Most famous school ancient Indian materialists was Lokayata. The Lokayatniks opposed the main provisions of religious and philosophical schools, against religious “liberation” and the omnipotence of the gods. They considered sensory perception to be the main source of knowledge. The great achievement of ancient Indian philosophy was the atomistic teaching of the Vainishika school. The Sankhya school reflected many achievements in science. One of the greatest ancient Indian philosophers was Nacharjuna, who came up with the concept of universal relativity or “universal emptiness”, and also laid the foundations of the school of logic in India. By the end of antiquity, the idealistic school of Vedanta enjoyed the greatest influence, but rationalistic concepts played an important role.

Jainism. The Jain school arose in the 6th century BC based on the development of teachings (sages). It is one of the unorthodox philosophical schools of ancient India. Jainism arose at the same time as Buddhism and also in North India. It incorporated the teachings of Hinduism about the rebirth of souls and rewards for actions. Along with this, he preaches even stricter rules of not harming any living beings. Since plowing the land can entail the destruction of living beings - worms, insects, the Jains have always been dominated not by farmers, but by traders, artisans, and money lenders. The ethical precepts of Jainism include vows of truthfulness, restraint, dispassion, and a strict prohibition of theft. The philosophy of Jainism got its name from one of the founders - Vardhaman, nicknamed the winner ("Jina"). The goal of the teachings of Jainism is to achieve a way of life in which it is possible to liberate a person from passions. Jainism considers the development of consciousness to be the main sign of a person’s soul. The degree of consciousness of people varies. This is because the soul tends to identify itself with the body. And, despite the fact that by nature the soul is perfect and its possibilities are limitless, including the limits of knowledge; the soul (bound by the body) also carries within itself the burden of past lives, past actions, feelings and thoughts. The reason for the limitation of the soul is in its attachments and passions. And here the role of knowledge is enormous, only it can free the soul from attachments, from matter. This knowledge is transmitted by teachers who have conquered (hence Gina - Winner) their own passions and are able to teach this to others. Knowledge is not only obedience to the teacher, but also correct behavior and course of action. Liberation from passions is achieved through asceticism.

Yoga. Yoga is based on the Vedas and is one of the Vedic philosophical schools. Yoga means “concentration”; the sage Patanjali (2nd century BC) is considered its founder. Yoga is a philosophy and practice. Yoga is an individual path of salvation and is intended to achieve control over feelings and thoughts, primarily through meditation. In the yoga system, faith in God is considered as an element of a theoretical worldview and as a condition for practical activity aimed at liberation from suffering. Connection with the One is necessary to realize one's own unity. Upon successful mastery of meditation, a person comes to a state of samadhi (i.e., a state of complete introversion, achieved after a series of physical and mental exercises and concentration). In addition, yoga also includes rules for eating. Food is divided into three categories according to the three modes of material nature to which it belongs. For example, food in the gunas of ignorance and passion can increase suffering, misfortune, and illness (primarily meat). Yoga teachers pay special attention to the need to develop tolerance towards other teachings.

India is often perceived only as the birthplace of Buddhism, which denies the very ancient and extensive Indian religious tradition, which has its roots in two fundamentally different sources - the religion of the indigenous population of India (Dravidians) and the religious ideas of the alien Indo-European population (Aryans), whose appearance in the river valley The Indus is dated by researchers around the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Unfortunately, it is difficult to say anything definite about the Dravidian religion due to the impossibility of deciphering the inscriptions that have reached us, but, judging by the images, even then (in the 3rd–2nd millennia BC) the indigenous population of India worshiped a deity, which in later Indian religion received the name Shiva. Images of this god with three faces and six arms were preserved on seals found at the site of the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Brahmanism. The cultic design of religious ideas that dominates modern Indian religion is associated by most researchers with the influence of Aryan tribes. It was among the Aryans that a clear division into three main varnas (social groups) was first recorded - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. Much later, a fourth varna was added to them - the Shudras, which included the enslaved indigenous population of the Hindustan Peninsula. Varnas were divided according to the functions they performed in society. Brahmins served as priests and were responsible for performing sacrifices, which were the main form of religious rituals in the first stage of the existence of the ancient Indian religion. From the Kshatriya varna came the wars and rulers of numerous Indian principalities. Vaishyas were engaged in crafts and trade. There were many Sudras Agriculture and those types of work that were considered unworthy of representatives of the three highest varnas.

The idea of ​​a clear division of varnas was justified in a mythologized story about the history of their origin. According to this myth, the gods, having decided to create the world, performed a ritual over the giant Purusha, dividing his body into separate parts, each of which became the prototype of a corresponding natural or social phenomenon. From the soul of the slain giant the Moon arose, from the eye - the Sun, his head turned to the sky, his legs became the earth, his ears became the cardinal points. From the breath of Purusha came the brahmanas (which is why they were considered the guardians of wisdom, and their every word was assessed as a manifestation of unquestionable authority), from the arms the kshatriyas (defenders and warriors), from the thighs - the vaishyas (workers), and from the feet - the sudras. The inequality of the Shudras in comparison with the rest of the Varnas was also manifested in the fact that they were forbidden to participate in many religious rituals, even to be present when pronouncing mantras (sacred spells). Despite the fact that political power was concentrated in the hands of the kshatriyas, they were considered subordinate to the brahmanas, since they had the exclusive right to communicate with the gods, therefore the early form of Indian religion, which existed practically unchanged for more than a thousand years, was called Brahmanism.

The sacred texts of Brahmanism were the Vedas (from the Indo-Aryan root ved - “to know”, cf. Russian “to know”), of which there were four. The most significant and ancient in origin was considered the Rig Veda - a collection of sacred hymns, the earliest of which served as evidence of the existence of an Indo-European religious community. The writings of Samaveda and Yajurveda, which included sacred conspiracies and magical formulas with a description of the rituals performed in the process of pronouncing them, were inferior to her in time. The latest of the Vedas is the Atharva Veda, which included hymns and chants that date back to the era of the Aryans’ presence in India. According to the hymns of the Rigveda, total Indian deities were enormous: there were only 33 main gods, and the total number of all deities was 3339, to which were also added spirits - devas and asuras. It is interesting that in Brahmanism the asuras were in the position of negative beings, and the devas - positive, while among the Iranians, who belonged to the same group of Indo-European peoples as the Aryans, the distribution was the opposite: good asuras and evil devas. This fact can only indicate that in the original Indo-European religion there was no clear division of spirits into good and evil, but they (devas and asuras) were divided according to some other principle unknown to us.

Many of the Indian gods had a clearly defined Indo-European origin, for example Dyaus-pitar (cf. Zeus-pater - god-father) - the god of the sky; Ushas (Greek Eos) - goddess of the dawn, etc. The most popular gods from the Indian pantheon at the early (Vedic) stage of the development of the religion were Varuna, Indra, Surya and Agni.

Varuna was sung in many hymns as the supreme god, but, apparently, such an address, often found in Vedic hymns, was a kind of sign of respect towards the god to whom the petitioner was addressing, and did not in any way reflect the real hierarchy of the deities of the pantheon. In the surviving texts, Varuna appears as the personification of the sky in its gloomy, stormy guise, as well as flowing waters.

Indra was considered the god of rain, so he had lightning as a mandatory attribute, and the most common mythological story of which Indra was the hero was the story of his victorious battle with the serpent Vritra, who prevented the access of water to the drought-plagued lands. Having struck the serpent with a blow of his lightning, Indra releases a stream of water that spills over the parched fields.

Surya acted as the sun god, so in ancient Indian myths he appeared in the form of a radiant horseman, riding his fiery chariot across the sky and giving people light and warmth (Helios performed a similar function in Greek mythology).

One of the most revered (in terms of the number of hymns dedicated to him and rituals performed in his honor) was the god of fire Agni. Emphasizing the importance of fire for ensuring the normal existence of a family and an entire community, the ancient Indians respectfully called Agni “the guardian of the home.”

According to the religious ideas of Brahmanism, any living creature consists of a body and a soul, and the soul is immortal and has the ability to survive even after the death of the material body, which falls into the kingdom of the god Yama - the ruler of the world of the dead. After death, a person’s soul moves to another body or object. Who exactly the soul will reincarnate into is determined by the presence of good or evil deeds in its previous earthly existence. The law of reincarnation of the soul, depending on the positive or negative characteristics it has accumulated, is called karma, and the chain of reincarnations that the individual soul goes through is called samsara in Brahmanism. To ensure a favorable rebirth, it is necessary to lead a moral lifestyle, do good deeds and avoid doing bad ones, since otherwise a person may be reborn as a member of a lower caste or as an animal. Any reincarnation is not the end of the chain; others will certainly follow, so it depends on each living being how much it wants to correct the consequences of previous rebirths and improve its karma.

Hinduism. The gradual development of religious ideas in Indian society, accompanied by increased competition from Buddhism, led to the fact that Vedic (Brahmanistic) religious system underwent a significant transformation, adapting to a more complex social structure that required simplification of the fundamentals of religious doctrine and religious practice. The result of the reform of Brahmanism was the emergence of Hinduism (III–II centuries BC).

Hinduism adopted from Brahmanism such important features of religious teaching as belief in the existence of an immortal soul, ways to improve karmic fate (asceticism, yoga), as well as attention to the performance of everyday rituals. The role of ritualism, already devoid of excessive specification and connection to varnas and castes, turned out to be so high in reformed Hinduism that, despite the principle of proselytism proclaimed by this religion (only one who was born in a family professing Hinduism can become a Hindu), there are often cases when a person of another nation or race can become a Hindu by carefully observing all the ritual requirements of that religion.

Two gods emerged as the supreme deities of Hinduism, who were also present in the ancient Indian pantheon, but there they played secondary roles. We are talking about Vishnu and Shiva, whose admirers form two main directions in modern Hinduism: Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

Vaishnavism. Vishnu is mentioned in the early sacred hymns of the Rig Veda as one of the minor gods, whose original function was to ensure fertility. In Hinduism, a reorientation of his activities occurs, and Vishnu becomes the patron god, the bearer of happiness and good luck, the savior and protector. It is he who becomes the supreme deity of the Hindu pantheon, while other deities or heroes begin to be perceived as his avatars (reincarnations). Initially, there were nine avatars: fish, turtle, boar, lion, dwarf, Parushurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha. In the 19th century a tenth avatar was added to them - a rider on a white horse, whose appearance marks the end of the existence of this world.

Shaivism. As already mentioned, the god Shiva (or his analogue) existed among the Dravidian population of ancient India. Subsequently, he entered the pantheon of Indian gods as a dangerous deity who required constant sacrifices to reduce the danger posed by him. The name Shiva itself is an epithet meaning “blessed.” The real name of this god is Rudra. His function in the universe was, according to Hindus, ambivalent: he was responsible for creation and at the same time for destruction. For example, in one of the most popular mythological stories, he acted as a dance performer who destroys this world, but immediately creates a new one on its remains. That is why Rudra was often called not by his real name, but by one of the epithets reflecting his hypostasis, which was central within the framework of a certain ritual or cult. Shiva's wife is Devi, who also had dual characteristics: she simultaneously acted as both a guardian goddess and an avenger for crimes committed.

In modern India, it is Hinduism in its two main directions - Vaishnavism and Shaivism - that is the dominant religious movement (Buddhists in India, paradoxically, are practically absent, and Muslims occupy only the north of the Hindustan Peninsula). Of course, some changes are taking place in the religious life of Indians. They are connected primarily with the fact that the importance of caste and varna affiliation is decreasing. Thanks to the persistence of modern reformers in Hinduism, there is a tendency towards a gradual reconciliation of representatives of the four varnas with another group of the population, which in traditional Indian society was so deprived of civil rights that it did not belong to any varna, but bore the name of “untouchables”. Representatives of this community performed the dirtiest jobs that were unacceptable for representatives of the Hindu religion - cleaning up sewage, organizing funerals, etc. At the same time, many religious rituals retain their significance even now, for example, funeral rites, which involve burning the body of the deceased (and sometimes his widow is also burned along with her husband), the desire for ritual purity, rituals associated with eating, etc.