Every word in the Russian language has a nominative meaning. This helps to relate speech to reality and express thoughts. In addition to the main meaning, most words are included in a specific one and have an additional symbolic meaning, which is most often figurative. This lexical property is actively used by poets and writers to create, and a similar phenomenon in the Russian language is called literary tropes. They add expressiveness to the text and help convey your thoughts more accurately.

Types of artistic and visual media

Tropes include metonymy, periphrasis, synecdoche, litotes, and hyperbole. The ability to see them in a work allows you to understand the author’s ideological intent and enjoy the richness of the magnificent Russian language. And the use of tropes in one’s own speech is a sign of a literate, cultured person who can speak accurately and expressively.

How can you identify literary tropes in a text and learn to apply them yourself?

Table with examples from works of art

Let's see how recognized poets and writers do this.

Thus, literary tropes - the table fully reflects their essential features - can be determined even by a person who does not have a special education. You just need to understand their essence. To do this, let's take a closer look at those means of expression that usually cause the greatest difficulties.

Metaphor and personification

Unlike comparison, in which there are two objects or phenomena - the original and the one that is taken for comparison, these literary tropes contain only the second. In metaphor, similarity can be expressed in color, volume, shape, purpose, etc. Here are examples of similar use of words in a figurative meaning: “ wooden moon clock», « noon breathes».

Personification differs from metaphor in that it represents a more detailed image: “ The wind suddenly rose and tossed and moaned all night».

Metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis

These literary tropes are very often confused with the metaphor described above. To avoid such mistakes, you should remember that the manifestation of contiguity in metonymy can be as follows:

• content and what it includes: " eat a plate»;
• the author and his work: " remembered all of Gogol well»;
• action and the instrument for performing it: “ villages were doomed to swords»;
• the object and the material from which it is made: “ porcelain at the exhibition»;
• place and people in it: “ the city was no longer sleeping».

Synecdoche usually implies a quantitative relationship between objects and phenomena: “ everyone here wants to be a Napoleon».

Periphrase

Sometimes writers and poets, for greater expressiveness and creation of imagery, replace the name of an object or phenomenon with an indication of its essential feature. Periphrasis also helps to eliminate repetitions and connect sentences in the text. Let's look at these literary tropes with examples: “ shining steel" - dagger, " author of "Mumu" - I. Turgenev, " old woman with a scythe" - death.

Speech. Analysis of means of expression.

It is necessary to distinguish between paths (figurative means of expression literature), based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech, based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

Paths.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.

It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Analysis of the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts will begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They started, multiplied, and swarmed with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.

(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land, are just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of so-called technological progress. (14) On the one hand, a man twitched by an inhuman rhythm modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, wean ourselves off spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this very external world brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.

(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image " cosmic body” and “cosmonauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Reasoning about how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”

List of terms:

1. epithet
2. litotes
3. introductory words and plug-in structures
4. irony
5. extended metaphor
6. parcellation
7. question-and-answer form of presentation
8. dialectism
9. homogeneous members offers

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : Verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the word in the place of the omission should be plural. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. Those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute a masculine term, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in figuratively, so we have before us an epithet.

All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only thing left is possible variant– metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a snowstorm. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, and snow rustled down on the frost-covered windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.

(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.

(According to N. Aksenova)

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This excerpt discusses language features text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.

Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe the blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as ____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”

Every day we come across a lot of artistic expression, we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; We are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All these are paths, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in the oral speech of every person.

What are means of artistic expression?

The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which translated into Russian means "turn of speech." They are used to give figurative speech; with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid tropes, examples of which are countless in works of art, are no less important than lexical means.

• Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
• Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
• Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
• Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
• Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
• Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.

Video on the topic

Tropes in Russian (examples)

Currently, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and tales. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

• Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: On New Year's midnight the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
• Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
• Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: At the faculty international relations A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying.
• Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
• Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
• Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are used less often in speech modern man, but this does not diminish their importance in literary heritage great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Periphrasis is used to avoid repetition in a literary text or speech.

• Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
• Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
• Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
• Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of ​​every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problem posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of work of art rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, omissions. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is encouraged, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.

The incentive sentence ends with a rhetorical exclamation. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in Pushkin (“To Chaadaev,” “To the Sea”), in Lermontov (“The Death of a Poet”), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they make for an intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.

• Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
• Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
• Syntactic parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
• Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
• Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
• Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.

Figures of speech

The paths in the Russian language, examples of which are given above, can be continued endlessly, but we should not forget that there is another conventionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.

Table of all tropes with examples

It is important for high school students, graduates of humanities faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what types of tropes there are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates every person, makes him more literate and educated. You can encounter a variety of means of artistic expression in any literary work, poetic or prosaic. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to study this area of ​​the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.

Fine and expressive means of language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special language tools.

The word is the basis of visual expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic load, serve to create sound play in speech.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
• Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
• Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I’m flying on an airplane - I’m treating a runny nose).

Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different sides, have different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms it is impossible to construct a bright and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Types of synonyms:

• complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
• stylistic - have same value, but at the same time relate to different styles speech (finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different connotation of meaning, relate to different styles of speech (make - bungle);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms are words that have opposite lexical meanings and refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.

Defining Tropes

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. The metaphor is aimed at external comparison objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and artistic works.

Types of stylistic figures

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such revolutions are indispensable in public speaking, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.

TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Paths include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperboles and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is ambiguous; the writer creates images, playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this constitutes the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note! When creating a trope, the word is always used in a figurative sense.

Let's consider different types tropes:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature...(F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff illuminated(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is, leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Any epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author’s perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition here, a wooden face is an epithet expressing the speaker’s impression of the interlocutor’s facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote, portly, kind Well done, It's clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetition epithets, the same root with the defined word: Eh, bitter grief, boredom boring, mortal! (A. Blok).

In a work of art an epithet can perform various functions:

• describe the subject figuratively: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
• create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
• convey the attitude of the author (storyteller, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: “Where will our prankster?" (A. Pushkin);
• combine all previous functions in equal shares (in most cases of using the epithet).

Note! All color terms in a literary text they are epithets.

COMPARISON is an artistic technique (trope) in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, likenings, in that it always has a strict formal sign: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.

Examples of comparisons:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one’s attitude towards several phenomena. Often a work is entirely based on comparison, such as, for example, V. Bryusov’s poem “Sonnet to Form”:

PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (trope) in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties(don’t get confused, it’s human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mother and the evening killed by the Germans”, “The violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek: Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite in content to hyperbole is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.

Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most character traits depicted object. Often hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic way, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author’s point of view, aspects of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex path, figure of speech, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains a hidden comparison, figurative likening of phenomena using figurative meaning words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that “to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities.”

Examples of metaphor:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trope: figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic “Means of Artistic Expression” and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the concepts given. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing firmly that the technique of comparison has strict formal characteristics (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on the comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .

Please note that you must begin your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them) or with your own version of the beginning of the complete answer. This applies to all such tasks.

• Literary studies: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Polyakov M. Rhetoric and literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
• Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.