Basic definitions

Theory as the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge is understood as a holistic idea, structured in diagrams, about the universal and necessary laws of a certain area of ​​reality - the object of the theory, existing in the form of a system of logically interconnected and deducible propositions.

The basis of the existing theory is a mutually agreed upon network of abstract objects that determines the specifics of this theory, called the fundamental theoretical scheme and the particular schemes associated with it. Based on them and the corresponding mathematical apparatus, the researcher can obtain new characteristics of reality, without always turning directly to empirical research.

The following main elements of the theory structure are identified:

1) Initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms, etc.

2) An idealized object is an abstract model of the essential properties and connections of the objects being studied (for example, “absolutely black body”, “ideal gas”, etc.).

3) Logic of theory - totality certain rules and methods of proof aimed at clarifying the structure and changing knowledge.

4) Philosophical attitudes, sociocultural and value factors.

5) A set of laws and statements derived as consequences from the fundamentals of the theory in accordance with specific principles.

For example, in physical theories two main parts can be distinguished: formal calculus (mathematical equations, logical symbols, rules, etc.) and meaningful interpretation (categories, laws, principles). The unity of the substantive and formal aspects of the theory is one of the sources of its improvement and development.

A. Einstein noted that “the theory has two goals:

1. To cover, if possible, all phenomena in their interrelation (completeness).

2. To achieve this by taking as a basis as few logically mutually related logical concepts and arbitrarily established relationships between them (basic laws and axioms). I will call this goal "logical uniqueness"

Types of theories

The variety of forms of idealization and, accordingly, types of idealized objects corresponds to the variety of types (types) of theories that can be classified according to for various reasons(criteria). Depending on this, theories can be distinguished:

mathematical and empirical,

deductive and inductive,

fundamental and applied,

formal and substantive,

"open" and "closed"

explaining and describing (phenomenological),

physical, chemical, sociological, psychological, etc.

1. Modern (post-non-classical) science is characterized by the increasing mathematization of its theories (especially natural science) and the increasing level of their abstraction and complexity. The importance of computational mathematics (which has become an independent branch of mathematics) has sharply increased, since the answer to a given problem often needs to be given in numerical form, and mathematical modeling.

Most mathematical theories rely on set theory as their foundation. But in last years They are increasingly turning to the relatively recently emerged algebraic theory of categories, considering it as a new foundation for all mathematics.

Many mathematical theories arise through the combination, the synthesis, of several basic, or generative, structures. The needs of science (including mathematics itself) have led to Lately to the emergence of a number of new mathematical disciplines: graph theory, game theory, information theory, discrete mathematics, optimal control theory, etc.

The theories of experimental (empirical) sciences - physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, history - according to the depth of penetration into the essence of the phenomena being studied can be divided into two large classes: phenomenological and non-phenomenological.

Phenomenological (they are also called descriptive, empirical) describe the experimentally observed properties and quantities of objects and processes, but do not delve deeply into their internal mechanisms (for example, geometric optics, thermodynamics, many pedagogical, psychological and sociological theories, etc.). Such theories solve, first of all, the problem of ordering and primary generalization of the facts related to them. They are formulated in ordinary natural languages ​​using special terminology of the relevant field of knowledge and are predominantly qualitative in nature.

With the development of scientific knowledge, theories of the phenomenological type give way to non-phenomenological ones (they are also called explanatory). Along with observable empirical facts, concepts and quantities, very complex and unobservable, including very abstract concepts, are introduced here.

One of the important criteria by which theories can be classified is the accuracy of predictions. Based on this criterion, two large classes of theories can be distinguished. The first of these includes theories in which the prediction is reliable (for example, many theories of classical mechanics, classical physics and chemistry). In theories of the second class, prediction is probabilistic in nature, which is determined by the combined action of a large number of random factors. This kind of stochastic (from the Greek - guess) theories are found in modern physics, biology and social sciences and humanities due to the specificity and complexity of the very object of their research.

A. Einstein distinguished two main types of theories in physics - constructive and fundamental:

Most physical theories are constructive, i.e. their task is to construct a picture of complex phenomena on the basis of some relatively simple assumptions (such as, for example, the kinetic theory of gases).

The basis of fundamental theories is not hypothetical provisions, but empirically found general properties of phenomena, principles from which mathematically formulated criteria that have universal applicability follow (this is the theory of relativity).

V. Heisenberg believed that a scientific theory should be consistent (in the formal logical sense), have simplicity, beauty, compactness, a defined (always limited) scope of its application, integrity and “final completeness.” But the strongest argument in favor of the correctness of the theory is its “multiple experimental confirmation.”

The theories of social sciences and humanities have a specific structure. Thus, in modern sociology, since the work of the great American sociologist Robert Merton (i.e., since the beginning of the 20th century), it has been customary to distinguish three levels of substantive study of social phenomena and, accordingly, three types of theories.

general sociological theory ("general sociology"),

private ("middle rank") sociological theories - special theories (sociology of gender, age, ethnicity, family, city, education, etc.)

sectoral theories (sociology of labor, politics, culture, organization, management, etc.)

Ontologically, all sociological theories are divided into three main types:

1) theories of social dynamics (or theories of social evolution, development);

2) theories of social action;

3) theories of social interaction.

The theory (regardless of its type) has the main features:

1. Theory is not individual, reliable scientific propositions, but their totality, an integral organic developing system. The unification of knowledge into a theory is carried out primarily by the subject of research itself, by its laws.

2. Not every set of provisions about the subject being studied is a theory. To turn into a theory, knowledge must reach a certain degree of maturity in its development. Namely, when it not only describes a certain set of facts, but also explains them, i.e. when knowledge reveals the causes and patterns of phenomena.

3. For a theory, justification and proof of the provisions included in it are mandatory: if there is no justification, there is no theory.

4. Theoretical knowledge should strive to explain the widest possible range of phenomena, to continuously deepen knowledge about them.

5. The nature of the theory determines the degree of validity of its defining principle, reflecting the fundamental regularity of a given subject.

6. The structure of scientific theories is meaningfully “determined by the systemic organization of idealized (abstract) objects (theoretical constructs). Statements of theoretical language are directly formulated in relation to theoretical constructs and only indirectly, thanks to their relationship to extralinguistic reality, describe this reality.”

7. Theory is not only ready-made, established knowledge, but also the process of obtaining it, therefore it is not a “bare result”, but must be considered together with its emergence and development.

The main functions of the theory include the following:

1. Synthetic function - combining individual reliable knowledge into a single, holistic system.

2. Explanatory function - identifying causal and other dependencies, the variety of connections of a given phenomenon, its essential characteristics, the laws of its origin and development, etc.

3. Methodological function - on the basis of theory, various methods, methods and techniques of research activity are formulated.

4. Predictive - the function of foresight. Based on theoretical ideas about the “present” state of known phenomena, conclusions are drawn about the existence of previously unknown facts, objects or their properties, connections between phenomena, etc. Prediction about the future state of phenomena (as opposed to those that exist but have not yet been identified) is called scientific foresight.

5. Practical function. The ultimate purpose of any theory is to be translated into practice, to be a “guide to action” for changing reality. Therefore, it is quite fair to say that there is nothing more practical than a good theory.

How to choose a good one from many competing theories?

K. Popper introduced the "criterion of relative acceptability." The best theory is the one that:

a) communicates the greatest amount of information, i.e. has deeper content;

b) is logically more strict;

c) has greater explanatory and predictive power;

D) can be more accurately verified by comparing predicted facts with observations.

Law as a key element of theory

In its most general form, a law can be defined as a connection (relationship) between phenomena and processes, which is:

a) objective, since it is inherent primarily in the real world, the sensory-objective activity of people, expresses the real relationships of things;

b) essential, concrete-universal. Being a reflection of what is essential in the movement of the universe, any law is inherent in all processes of a given class, of a certain type (type) without exception, and operates always and wherever the corresponding processes and conditions unfold;

c) necessary, because being closely connected with the essence, the law acts and is implemented with “iron necessity” in appropriate conditions;

d) internal, since it reflects the deepest connections and dependencies of a given subject area in the unity of all its moments and relationships within the framework of some integral system;

e) repeating, stable, since “the law is solid (remaining) in the phenomenon”, “identical in the phenomenon”, their “calm reflection” (Hegel). It is an expression of a certain constancy of a certain process, the regularity of its occurrence, the uniformity of its action under similar conditions.

The mechanism for discovering new laws was described by R. Feynman:

“First of all, they guess about him. Then they calculate the consequences of this guess and find out what this law would entail if it turns out to be true. Then the results of calculations are compared with what is observed in nature, with the results of special experiments or with our experience, and based on the results of such observations it is determined whether this is true or not. If the calculations disagree with the experimental data, then the law is incorrect.”

One-sided (and therefore erroneous) interpretations of the law can be expressed as follows:

1. The concept of law is absolutized, simplified, fetishized. What is overlooked here is the fact (noted by Hegel) that this concept, which is certainly important in itself, is only one of the stages in man’s knowledge of the unity, interdependence and integrity of the world process. Law is only one of the forms of reflection of real reality in knowledge, one of the facets, moments of the scientific picture of the world in connection with others (reason, contradiction, etc.).

2. The objective nature of laws and their material source are ignored. It is not reality that must be consistent with principles and laws, but on the contrary, the latter are true only insofar as they correspond to the objective world.

3. The possibility of people using a system of objective laws as the basis of their activity in its diverse forms, primarily in the sensory-objective one, is denied. However, ignoring the requirements of objective laws still sooner or later makes itself felt, “revenges itself” (for example, pre-crisis and crisis phenomena in society).

4. The law is understood as something eternal, unchanging, absolute, independent in its action from the totality of specific circumstances and fatally predetermining the course of events and processes. Meanwhile, the development of science indicates that “there is not a single law about which we could say with confidence that in the past it was true to the same degree of approximation as now... Every law owes its demotion to the accession of a new law , therefore, there cannot be an interregnum"

5. The qualitative diversity of laws, their irreducibility to each other and their interaction, which gives a unique result in each specific case, are ignored.

6. The fact that objective laws cannot be created or abolished is rejected. They can only be discovered in the process of cognition of the real world and, by changing the conditions of their action, change the mechanism of the latter.

7. The laws of lower forms of matter motion are absolutized, and attempts are made only to explain processes within the framework of higher forms of matter motion (mechanism, physicalism, reductionism, etc.).

8. The laws of science are interpreted not as a reflection of the laws of the objective world, but as the result of an agreement of the scientific community, which, therefore, has a conventional character.

10. The fact that objective laws in reality, modified by numerous circumstances, are always implemented in a special form through a system of intermediate links is ignored. Finding the latter is the only scientific way to resolve the contradiction between the general law and more developed specific relationships. Otherwise, the “empirical existence” of the law in its specific form is passed off as the law as such in its “pure form.”

The problem of materialization of theory

In order for a theory to materialize and become objectified, certain conditions are necessary:

1. The theory, even the most general and abstract, should not be vague; here one cannot limit oneself to “probing at random.”

2. The theory must give the ideal form of the future object (process), the image of the future that will be achieved in the course of the practical implementation of the theory, outline the general contours of this future, outline and justify the main directions and forms of movement towards it, the ways and means of its objectification.

3. The most practical theory is in its most mature and developed state. Therefore, it is always necessary to keep it at the highest scientific level, to constantly, deeply and comprehensively develop it, generalizing the latest processes and phenomena of life and practice.

4. Theory (even the deepest and most meaningful) by itself does not change anything and cannot change anything. It becomes a material force only when it is “introduced” into people’s consciousness.

5. The practical implementation of knowledge requires not only those who will translate theory into practice, but also the necessary means of implementation - both objective and subjective. These are, in particular, forms of organization of social forces, certain social institutions, necessary technical means, etc.

6. The materialization of theory in practice should not be a one-time act (with its eventual extinction), but a process during which, instead of already implemented theoretical positions, new, more meaningful and developed ones appear, which pose more complex tasks for practice.

7. Without transforming an idea into a personal conviction, a person’s faith, the practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible, especially those that carry the need for progressive social transformations.

8. For a theory to become not only a method of explanation, but also a method of changing the world, it is necessary to find effective ways transformation scientific knowledge into a program of practical action. And this requires appropriate technologization of knowledge.

Hence the number of new technologies in all areas of activity, including traditionally humanitarian ones (social technologies, IT, etc.)

It is at the stage of technologization that the transition from a scientific description to a normative system that has a targeted, practical purpose occurs. The absence (or their insufficient development) of specifically applied theories and technologies is one of the main reasons for the separation of theory from practice.

A theory is an internally consistent system of knowledge about a part of reality; it is the highest form of scientific knowledge. According to K. Popper, “theories are networks designed to capture what we call the “world” in order to understand, explain and master it. We strive to make the cells of these networks ever smaller.

Each theory includes the following components:

Initial empirical basis;

Many assumptions (postulates, hypotheses);

Logic - rules of logical inference;

Theoretical statements, which are basic theoretical knowledge.

There are qualitative theories that are built without mathematical apparatus (psychoanalysis by S. Freud, theory of self-actualization by A. Maslow) and formalized theories in which the main conclusions are based on mathematical analysis data (field theory by K. Lewin, theory of cognitive development by J. Piaget).
A theory is created not only to describe, but also to explain and predict reality. It is considered scientific if there is a possibility of rejecting it (recognizing it as false) in the process of empirical testing. Such verification is not carried out on the entire volume of objects under study - population, but on a part or subset of this totality, which has all its properties. This part of the population is called a sample.

The basic rules for sampling are:

2) the criterion of equivalence (criterion of internal validity), according to which the subjects must be equalized according to other (as opposed to the independent variable) characteristics;

3) the criterion of representativeness (criterion of external validity), which determines the compliance of the subjects with that part of the population to which the results of the study will then be transferred.

The theory, according to S.L. Rubinstein, “this is a circle of phenomena that develop and function according to their internal laws. Each discipline that rises to the level of science must reveal the specific laws of determination of the phenomena being studied.” The main task of any science, including psychological science, is to reveal the basic specific patterns of the phenomena being studied.
The theoretical foundation of psychological theory is the principle of determinism, i.e. the principle of causality of mental phenomena, aimed at explaining and revealing these causes. The functions of psychological theory are:

1) an explanation of the occurrence of certain phenomena (for example, anxiety), or a retro-story;

2) prediction of their occurrence;

3) detection and proof of connections between several determinants and a mental phenomenon.

Features psychological theory are - an explanation of the causality of mental phenomena, justification for the variety of factors influencing a mental phenomenon, differentiation of everyday and scientific concepts.

Implicit and Explicit Concepts

In a certain sense of the word, all people are researchers, and like true researchers, they strive to construct their own system of ideas about a part of reality, to create their own theory. This concept is called ordinary or implicit. In comparison, a scientific theory is called explicit. What distinguishes a scientific theory from an implicit one is that it can be explicated, verified, and made explicit. Implicit theories are considered not explicit, not articulated, and not tested in experiment.

The concept of “implicit personality theory” was proposed by J. Bruner and R. Tagiuri in 1954 and is still used to designate an unconscious hierarchical system of ideas about the mental organization of other people. Its content consists of ideas about personality qualities. In the study of implicit theories of personality, there are two main approaches - traditional and alternative (psychosemantic). The traditional direction is represented by the works of J. Bruner and R. Tagiuri, as well as psychology " common sense"L. Ross, the theory of causal attribution G. Kelly, D. Shader, etc. The alternative approach, thus named by its founder J. Kelly, arose in line with the theory of personal constructs and was developed in the psychosemantic direction (P. Vernon, V.F. Petrenko, A.G. Shmelev, etc.). Representatives of the latter approach, in addition to identifying the content components of the implicit theory of personality, carry out factor analysis, which allows you to evaluate and combine the qualities and connections between individual components into a personal semantic space.

A theory is considered explicit if it is articulated, understood and tested empirically, or, more strictly, experimentally. The criteria for an explicit theory are breadth of scope, parsimony, and relevance to empirical research. Let's consider the most famous explicit theories of personality.

a logically interconnected system of concepts and statements about the properties, relationships and laws of a certain set of idealized objects (point, number, material point, inertia, black body, ideal gas, actual infinity, socio-economic formation, consciousness, etc., etc.) P.). The purpose of a scientific theory is the introduction of such basic ideal objects and statements about their properties and relationships (laws, principles), in order to then purely logically (i.e. mentally) derive (construct) from them the maximum possible a large number of consequences that, when selecting a certain empirical interpretation, would most adequately correspond to the observed data about some real area of ​​​​objects (natural, social, experimentally created, mental, etc.). The main structural elements of any scientific theory: 1) initial objects and concepts; 2) derived objects and concepts (the connection between the derivative and original concepts of the theory is specified by defining the former, ultimately, only through the original ones); 3) initial statements (axioms); 4) derived statements (theorems; lemmas), their connection with axioms is specified using certain rules of inference; 5) metatheoretical foundations (picture of the world, ideals and norms scientific research, general scientific principles, etc.). The first scientific theory in the history of knowledge was Euclidean geometry, built by ancient mathematicians for about three hundred years (VII - IV centuries BC) and culminating in a brilliant generalization in Euclid’s work “Elements”. (See theory, science, idealization).

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

SCIENTIFIC THEORY

the most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of ​​the patterns and essential connections of the area of ​​reality being studied. Examples of T.n. are the classical mechanics of I. Newton, the corpuscular and wave theories of light, the theory of biological evolution of Charles Darwin, the electromagnetic theory of J.K. Maxwell, special theory of relativity, chromosomal theory of heredity, etc.

Science includes descriptions of facts and experimental data, hypotheses and laws, classification schemes, etc., but only T.N. combines all the material of science into a holistic and observable knowledge about the world. It is clear that for the construction of T.n. Certain material about the objects and phenomena under study must first be accumulated, so theories appear at a fairly mature stage of development of a scientific discipline. For thousands of years, humanity has been familiar with electrical phenomena, but the first T.N. electricity appeared only in mid. 18th century At first, as a rule, descriptive theories are created that provide only a systematic description and classification of the objects under study. For a long time, theories of biology, including Jean Baptiste Lamarck's and Darwin's theories of evolution, were descriptive: they described and classified plant and animal species and their origins; table chemical elements D. Mendeleev was a systematic description and classification of elements. And this is quite natural. When starting to study a certain area of ​​phenomena, scientists must first describe these phenomena, highlight their characteristics, and classify them into groups. Only after this does deeper research become possible to identify causal relationships and discover laws.

The highest form of development of science is considered to be an explanatory theory, which provides not only a description, but also an explanation of the phenomena being studied. Everyone strives to build just such theories. scientific discipline. Sometimes the presence of such theories is seen as an essential sign of the maturity of science: a discipline can be considered truly scientific only when explanatory theories appear in it.

Explanatory theory has a hypothetico-deductive structure. The basis of the T.n. serves as a set of initial concepts (quantities) and fundamental principles(postulates, laws), including only initial concepts. It is this basis that fixes the angle from which reality is viewed and sets the area that the theory covers. The initial concepts and principles express the main, most fundamental connections and relationships of the area being studied, which determine all its other phenomena. Thus, the basis of classical mechanics are the concepts of a material point, force, velocity and the three laws of dynamics; Maxwell's electrodynamics is based on his equations, which connect the basic quantities of this theory with certain relationships; the special theory of relativity is based on the equations of A. Einstein, etc.

Since the time of Euclid, the deductive-axiomatic construction of knowledge has been considered exemplary. Explanatory theories follow this pattern. However, if Euclid and many scientists after him believed that the starting points of a theoretical system were self-evident truths, then modern scientists understand that such truths are not easy to find, and the postulates of their theories serve as nothing more than assumptions about the underlying causes of phenomena. The history of science has provided quite a lot of evidence of our misconceptions, therefore the fundamental principles of the explanatory theory are considered as hypotheses, the truth of which still needs to be proven. Less fundamental laws of the field under study are deductively derived from the principles of the theory. That is why the explanatory theory is called “hypothetico-deductive”.

Initial concepts and principles of the so-called. relate directly not to real things and events, but to some abstract objects, which together form an idealized object of the theory. In classical mechanics it is a system of material points; in molecular kinetic theory - a set of chaotically colliding molecules closed in a certain volume, represented in the form of absolutely elastic balls, etc. These objects do not exist by themselves in reality, they are mental, imaginary objects. However, the idealized object of the theory has a certain relationship to real things and phenomena: it reflects some abstracted or idealized properties of real things. These are an absolutely solid or absolutely black body; perfect mirror; ideal gas, etc. By replacing real things with idealized objects, scientists are distracted from secondary, insignificant properties and connections of the real world and highlight in their pure form what seems to them the most important. The idealized object of the theory is much simpler than real objects, but this is precisely what allows it to be given an accurate mathematical description. When an astronomer studies the movement of planets around the Sun, he is distracted from the fact that the planets are entire worlds with a rich chemical composition, atmosphere, core, etc., and considers them as simply material points, characterized only by mass, distance from the Sun and momentum, but precisely thanks to this simplification he is able to describe their movement in strict mathematical equations.

Idealized object So-called. serves for the theoretical interpretation of its original concepts and principles. Concepts and statements T.N. have only the meaning that the idealized object gives them. This explains why they cannot be directly correlated with real things and processes.

To the original basis T.n. also include a certain logic - a set of inference rules and mathematical apparatus. Of course, in most cases, as logic T.N. The usual classical two-valued logic is used, but in some theories, for example, in quantum mechanics, sometimes three-valued or probabilistic logic is used. T.N. They also differ in the mathematical means used in them. Thus, the basis of a hypothetico-deductive theory includes a set of initial concepts and principles, an idealized object that serves for their theoretical interpretation, and a logical-mathematical apparatus. From this basis, all other statements of the T. are obtained deductively. - laws of a lesser degree of generality. It is clear that these statements also speak of an idealized object.

The question of whether the T.N. includes empirical data, results of observations and experiments, facts, still remain open. According to some researchers, facts discovered thanks to a theory and explained by it should be included in the theory. According to others, the facts and experimental data lie outside the T.N. and the connection between theory and facts is made through special rules empirical interpretation. With the help of such rules, the statements of the theory are translated into empirical language, which allows them to be verified using empirical research methods.

To the main functions of the T.N. include description, explanation and prediction. T.N. gives a description of a certain area of ​​phenomena, certain objects, s.-l. aspects of reality. Due to this, T.n. may turn out to be true or false, i.e. describe reality adequately or distortedly. T.N. must explain known facts, pointing out the essential connections that underlie them. Finally, T.n. predicts new, not yet known facts: phenomena, effects, properties of objects, etc. Detection of predicted T.N. facts serve as confirmation of its fruitfulness and truth. The discrepancy between theory and facts or the discovery of internal contradictions in a theory gives an impetus to change it - to clarify its idealized object, to revise, clarify, change its individual provisions, auxiliary hypotheses, etc. In some cases, these discrepancies lead scientists to abandon the theory and replace it with a new theory. About Nikiforov A.L. Philosophy of science: history and methodology. M., 1998; Stepan B.C. Theoretical knowledge. M., 2000. A.L. Nikiforov

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

The basic unit of scientific knowledge is theory.

Scientific theory is a holistic, logically systematized knowledge about any specific area of ​​reality. Science includes descriptions of facts and experimental results, hypotheses and laws, classification schemes, etc., but only theory combines all the material of science into a holistic and observable knowledge about the world.

It is clear that in order to build a theory, certain material must first be accumulated about the objects and phenomena being studied; in this regard, theories appear at a fairly mature stage of development of a scientific discipline. For thousands of years, humanity has been familiar with electrical phenomena, but the first scientific theories of electricity appeared only in the middle of the 16th century. At first, as a rule, they create descriptive theories that provide only a systematic description and classification of the objects under study. For a long time, theories of biology, for example, including Lamarck's and Darwin's theories of evolution, were descriptive: they described and classified plant and animal species and their formation; Mendeleev's table of chemical elements was a systematic description and classification of elements; so are many theories of astronomy, sociology, linguistics and other scientific disciplines. The prevalence of descriptive theories is quite natural: when starting to study a certain area of ​​phenomena, we must first describe these phenomena, highlight their characteristics, and classify them into groups. Only after this does deeper research become possible, related to the identification of causal relationships and the discovery of laws.

The highest form of development of science is an explanatory theory, which provides not only a description, but also an explanation of the phenomena being studied, answering not only the question “how?”, but also “why?”. Every scientific discipline strives to build precisely such theories. Sometimes the presence of such theories is seen as an essential sign of the maturity of science: a certain discipline can be considered truly scientific only from the time when explanatory theories appear in it.

Explanatory theory has hypothetico-deductive structure. The basis of the theory is a set of initial concepts (quantities) and fundamental principles (postulates, laws), including only initial concepts. It is this basis that fixes the angle from which reality is viewed and sets the area that theory studies. The initial concepts and principles express the main, most fundamental connections and relationships of the area being studied, which determine all its other phenomena. Thus, the basis of classical mechanics are the concepts of a material point, force, velocity and Newton’s three laws; Maxwell's electrodynamics is based on his well-known equations, which connect the basic quantities of this theory with certain relationships; special relativity is based on Einstein's equations, etc.

Since the time of Euclid, the deductive-axiomatic construction of knowledge has been considered exemplary. Explanatory theories follow this pattern. Moreover, if Euclid and many scientists after him believed that the initial provisions of a theoretical system are self-evident truths, then modern scientists understand that such truths are difficult to achieve and the postulates of their theories are nothing more than assumptions about the underlying causes of phenomena. The history of science has provided quite a lot of evidence of our misconceptions; in this regard, the fundamental principles of explanatory theory are considered as hypotheses, the truth of which still needs to be proven. Less fundamental laws of the studied field of phenomena are deductively derived from the principles of the theory. For this reason, the explanatory theory is usually called “hypothetic-deductive”: it provides a deductive systematization of knowledge based on hypotheses.

The initial concepts and principles of the theory do not directly relate to real things and phenomena, but to some abstract objects that together form idealized object theories. In classical mechanics, such an object is a system of material points; in molecular-kinetic theory - a set of chaotically colliding molecules closed in a certain volume, represented in the form of absolutely elastic material balls; in the theory of relativity - a set of inertial systems, etc. These objects do not exist by themselves in reality, they are mental, imaginary objects. At the same time, the idealized object of the theory has a certain relationship to real things and phenomena: it reflects some properties of real things abstracted from them or idealized. For example, we know from everyday experience that if a body is pushed, it will begin to move. The less friction, the longer the distance it will travel after the push. We can imagine that there is no friction at all, and we will get an image of an object moving without friction - by inertia. In reality, such objects do not exist, because friction or resistance environment it is impossible to completely eliminate it; it is an idealized object. In the same way, objects such as an absolutely solid or absolutely black body, a perfect mirror, an ideal gas, etc. are introduced into science. By replacing real things with idealized objects, scientists are distracted from secondary, insignificant properties and connections of the real world and highlight in their pure form what seems to them the most important. The idealized object of the theory is much simpler than real objects, but it is precisely this simplicity that allows it to be given an accurate and even mathematical description. When an astronomer considers the movement of planets around the Sun, he is distracted from the fact that planets are entire worlds with a rich chemical composition, atmosphere, core, surface temperature, etc., and considers them as simple material points, characterized only by mass and distance from the Sun, but it is precisely thanks to this simplification that he is able to describe their movement in strict mathematical equations.

The idealized object of the theory serves to theoretical interpretation its original concepts and principles. The concepts and statements of the theory have only the meaning that an idealized object gives them, and they speak only about the properties of this object. It is precisely because of this that they cannot be directly correlated with real things and processes.

The initial basis of the theory also includes a certain logic– a set of inference rules and mathematical apparatus. Of course, in most cases, ordinary classical two-valued logic is used as the logic of the theory, but in some theories, for example, in quantum mechanics, sometimes three-valued or probabilistic logic is used. The theories also differ in the mathematical tools they use.

So, the basis of a hypothetico-deductive theory includes a set of initial concepts and principles; an idealized object serving for their theoretical interpretation, and a logical-mathematical apparatus. From this foundation, all other statements of the theory - laws of a lesser degree of generality - are derived deductively. It is clear that these statements also speak of an idealized object.

But how should theory be correlated with reality if all its statements speak about idealized, abstract objects? To do this, a non-set is added to the hypothetico-deductive theory reduction proposals(rules) connecting its individual concepts and statements with empirically verifiable statements. Let's say, for example, that you have made a ballistic calculation of the flight of a projectile weighing 10 kᴦ., fired from a gun whose barrel has an angle of inclination to the horizontal plane of 30 degrees. Your calculation is purely theoretical and deals with idealized objects. In order to make it a description of a real situation, you add to it a series of reduction clauses which identify your ideal projectile with a real projectile, the weight of which will never be exactly equal to 10 kᴦ.; the angle of inclination of the gun to the horizon is also accepted with a certain permissible error; the point of impact of the projectile will turn into an area with certain dimensions. After this, your payment will receive empirical interpretation and it can be correlated with real things and events. The situation is exactly the same with the theory as a whole: reduction sentences give the theory an empirical interpretation and allow it to be used for prediction, experimentation and practical activity.

Scientific theory - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Scientific Theory" 2017, 2018.

Theory- an internally consistent system of knowledge about a part of reality, this is the highest form of scientific knowledge. According to K. Popper, “theories are networks designed to capture what we call “the world” in order to understand, explain and master it. We strive to make the cells of these networks ever smaller.

• Each theory includes the following components:
• original empirical basis;
• many assumptions (postulates, hypotheses);
• logic - rules of logical inference;
• theoretical statements, which are basic theoretical knowledge.

There are qualitative theories that are constructed without a mathematical apparatus (psychoanalysis of S. Freud, theory of self-actualization by A. Maslow) and formalized theories in which the main conclusions are based on mathematical analysis of data (field theory of K. Lewin, theory cognitive development of J. Piaget).
A theory is created not only to describe, but also to explain and predict reality. It is considered scientific if there is a possibility of rejecting it (recognizing it as false) in the process of empirical testing. Such verification is carried out not on the entire volume of objects under study - the general population, but on a part or subset of this population, which has all its properties. This part of the population is called a sample

• The basic rules for sampling are:
• 1) substantive criterion (criterion of operational validity), according to which the selection of subjects is determined by the subject and hypothesis of the study;
• 2) the criterion of equivalence (criterion of internal validity), according to which the subjects must be equalized according to other (as opposed to the independent variable) characteristics;
• 3) the criterion of representativeness (criterion of external validity), which determines the compliance of the subjects with that part of the population to which the results of the study will then be transferred.

The theory, according to S.L. Rubinstein, “this is a circle of phenomena that develop and function according to their internal laws. Each discipline that rises to the level of science must reveal the specific laws of determination of the phenomena being studied.” The main task of any science, including psychological science, is to reveal the basic specific patterns of the phenomena being studied.
The theoretical foundation of psychological theory is the principle of determinism, i.e. the principle of causality of mental phenomena, aimed at explaining and revealing these causes. The functions of psychological theory are: 1) explanation of the occurrence of certain phenomena (for example, anxiety), or retro-narration; 2) prediction of their occurrence; 3) detection and proof of connections between several determinants and a mental phenomenon.
The features of psychological theory are: explanation of the causality of mental phenomena, justification of the variety of factors influencing a mental phenomenon, differentiation of everyday and scientific concepts.