Questions
for the State exam in specialty 1-25 01 10 “Commercial activity”
discipline: “Commercial activity”
1. Market of goods and services and factors influencing its condition
2. Concept, role and objectives of commercial activity in the market of goods and services
3. The main elements of the content of commercial activities of a trading enterprise and their relationship
4 Characteristics of subjects of commercial relationships and requirements for commercial employees
5. Information support for commercial activities
6. Trade secrets and their protection
7. The concept of consumer demand and the tasks of its study
8. Types of consumer demand of the population
9.Methods for studying population demand
10. Features of studying demand in wholesale trade
11. Market conditions: concept, objectives and goals of its study
12. Concept, essence of the assortment policy of a trading enterprise
13. Indicators characterizing the state of the store’s product range
14. Formation of an assortment of goods in wholesale trade enterprises
15.Principles and stages of forming an assortment of goods in retail enterprises
16.Formation of the assortment of goods in stores according to consumer complexes
17. Inventories and their role in ensuring the continuity of the trading process
18. Essence and classification of economic relations for the supply of goods
19.Contractual work and its content
20.Legal regulation of economic relations for the supply of consumer goods
21. Economic relations for the supply of goods for government needs in the Republic of Belarus
22. Sources of wholesale purchases and suppliers of goods on the market
23.Wholesale fairs: concept, purpose and classification
24.Methods and operations of wholesale sales of goods from warehouses of wholesale enterprises
25. Concept, role and indicators of economic efficiency of advertising in commercial activities
27. The essence and goals of commercial activities in retail trade to stimulate sales of goods
28. System of indicators characterizing the efficiency of commercial activities
29. Concept, essence, subject and subject of leasing
30.The essence of franchising and its role in the development of small businesses.
Private educational institution
Institute of Entrepreneurship
Department of Commercial Activities
Answers
to questions about discipline
"Commercial activity"
for specialty students
1-25 01 10 “Commercial activities”
Developed by Associate Professor
Department of Commercial Activities
Kholopovsky V.P.
Minsk 2009
"COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY"
(Questions and answers on discipline for the State Examination Committee)
Question 1. Market of goods and services and factors influencing its condition .
Answer. The category “market” is a capacious and diverse concept, which gives rise to many points of view on its nature and origin. The question of defining a market has a long history. His can be defined as the socio-economic sphere of relations in the commodity economy system arising between sellers and buyers in the process of commodity exchange.
Therefore, we can talk about the market in two aspects:
as a certain sphere, space, territory where the intentions of sellers and buyers materialize, and as a specific relationship between subjects and objects of the market that are present in the named sphere.
This is the dual nature of the market as a category and its specificity as an object of management.
As for the market for consumer goods, it can be defined as the scope and essence of relations between subjects and objects of the market that arise in the process of selling part of the total social product aimed at personal consumption.
As an object of management, the goods market is characterized by the following main elements:
demand, supply of goods, degree of balance between supply and demand, capacity, market conditions, macro- and microstructure, market infrastructure, purchasing funds of the population and price.
The following factors influence the consumer market :
-economic(the state of the country’s economy, domestic production of consumer goods, lending, solvency of organizations and enterprises, the presence of an economic crisis, etc.), social(solvency of the population, level of wages, pensions, scholarships, benefits, other social benefits, share of workers, employees, intelligentsia), demographic(number of population, including: women, men, children, pensioners) , political and legal(the degree of influence of state power on the country’s economy, the state and renewal of the legal framework), scientific and technical(level of development of scientific and technological progress, state of science, innovation of production, etc.) , cultural(level of general culture, level of culture of production, trade, national traditions, customs) , external(state of foreign economic and international relations, etc.
Question 2. Concept and role of commercial activity
Answer. Commerce- a word of Latin origin (commercium - trade). Commerce is a type of commercial entrepreneurship or business, but a noble business, that business that is the main part of any truly civilized market economy
The explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language by V. I. Dahl defines commerce as “bargaining, trade, trade turnover, merchant trades”
The concept of design control as an object of research was formulated by the Harvard School of Design Management in 1958.
The classic definition is that a business activity exists to profitably satisfy consumer demands.
commercial activity- a narrower concept than entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship- this is the organization of economic, production and other activities that generate income for the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship can mean organizing an industrial enterprise, a rural farm, a trading enterprise, etc. Of all these types of entrepreneurial activities, only trading is a purely commercial activity.
Thus, commerce should be considered as one of directions(types) of entrepreneurial activity. At the same time, in entrepreneurial activity operations can be carried out for the purchase and sale of goods, raw materials, prepared products, semi-finished products, etc., i.e. areas or elements of commercial activity may be inherent in all types of entrepreneurship, but are not decisive or main for them.
Therefore, commercial work in trade represents a broad area of operational and organizational activities of trade organizations and enterprises aimed at carrying out processes of purchase and sale of goods in the consumer market to meet the demand of the population and make a profit.
Commercial activities are characterized as:
market activity in the field of commodity-money relations;
activities carried out on the principles of marketing and aimed at obtaining maximum profits;
management activities, including targeted management decisions on objects for collecting and processing the necessary information and the implementation of appropriate decisions.
The purpose of the CD is the sale of the largest number of goods with the highest income and at the same time ensuring a high reputation of the company, achieving sustainable maximum sales in the future.
Peculiarities KD:
commercial work arises only when trade organizations bear full economic responsibility for the purchase and sale of goods;
commercial work is not limited to the trading industry, since industrial enterprises act as wholesale sellers and buyers of goods and services;
commercial work has its own content and therefore requires a special service and appropriate professionals.
Principles of CD: inextricable connection with the principles of marketing; prioritization;
responsibility for fulfilling accepted obligations under trade transactions;
focus on achieving profit.
CD functions:
marketing research; management of assortment and quality of goods;
sales management, promotion of goods and services.
Question 3. The main elements of the commercial activity of a trading enterprise and their relationship
Answer. Commercial activity consists of the following elements:
studying consumer demand and determining the need for goods;
formation of a competitive assortment;
selection of partners for establishing economic relations and channels for promoting goods;
establishing economic relations between partners* and purchasing goods
control over the fulfillment of contractual obligations for the supply of goods;
inventory management;
commercial activities for the wholesale sale of goods;
services or maintenance;
commercial activities involving the organization of retail sales of goods;
studying and forecasting market trends;
collecting and processing information about possible competitors;
formation of pricing strategy policy;
streamlining the process of selling goods.
All elements of design are interconnected and create a unified system, despite their different orientations. In this case, elements of the internal environment are more important.
Each design element performs certain functions, and together they represent a system or subsystem in the overall structure.
Question 4. Characteristics of subjects of commercial legal relations .
The subjects of commercial legal relations are the parties entering into contractual relations for the purchase and sale of goods or the provision of services.
They can be national and foreign commercial enterprises, organizations, their associations (unions, associations), non-profit organizations engaged in business activities, as well as individual entrepreneurs.
Subjects of commercial legal relations, depending on their legal status, are divided into legal persons and persons engaged in commercial activities without forming a legal entity.
Legal entities include commercial organizations whose main purpose is to make a profit, and non-profit organizations that do not aim to make profit and do not distribute it among the founders.
Persons engaged in commercial activities without forming a legal entity organize it in the form of a simple partnership and commercial concession (franchising).
In accordance with the international classification, subjects of commercial legal relations are divided into four groups:
companies ;entrepreneurs' unions; government agencies;
public organizations .
Firms. The term “company” is used in world practice to symbolize a partner in economic relations pursuing commercial goals - making a profit.
.Joint-Stock Company represents an organizational form of association of enterprises, organizations and individuals (shareholders). Its funds are generated through the issue and placement of shares.
Based on the nature of their ownership, firms are divided into public and private .
According to the ownership of capital, firms can be national, foreign, mixed.
According to the goals of the association, the degree of independence of the company is divided into cartels, trusts, concerns, holding companies, financial groups.
As subjects Industrial enterprises and trade organizations of various forms of ownership and departmental affiliation operate commercial operations on the market of the Republic of Belarus.
State industrial enterprises and trade organizations .
These include trade organizations and industrial enterprises of ministries, departments, committees: the Ministry of Trade, local councils, public associations, trade departments, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Communications, etc.
In the consumer market of the Republic of Belarus, a number of government entities act as commercial entities concerns subordinate to the government :
“Belneftekhim”, “Bellegprom”, “Belmestprom”, “Belgospischeprom”, “Belbiopharm”, “Belmorrybprom”, “Bellesbumprom” and others.
They carry out wholesale and retail trade.
Non-state trade organizations . Organizations with collective responsibility:
Trade organizations of consumer cooperation; collective farms; cooperatives; rental organizations, small businesses, limited liability companies, etc.
Organizations with mixed ownership, including joint ventures.
Private organizations.
Entrepreneurs' unions may be the subjects of commercial transactions . Unlike firms (enterprises), the purpose of their activities is not to make a profit, but to represent and protect the interests of their constituent groups of entrepreneurs in government bodies, providing assistance and support in expanding their activities.
Situations are possible when relationships involving the purchase and sale of goods and services are entered into by public organizations . These may be international organizations of the UN system, which act as large buyers of goods, medicines, medical equipment, services, etc. In addition, such public organizations as the Society of Hunters and Fishermen, the Union of Artists, the Society for Nature Conservation, the Society of the Disabled, the Society of the Deaf, the Association of the Visually Impaired, etc. operate in the market of the Republic of Belarus.
Question 5. Information support for commercial activities .
Answer. Information (lat. - information ) - a message about something.
Commercial information - This is information about the current situation in the market for various goods and services. This includes quantitative and qualitative indicators of the company’s trading activities (commercial structure, trading enterprise, etc.), various information and data on commercial activities (prices, suppliers, competitors, delivery conditions, payments, range of goods, etc.).
The purpose of commercial information is that it allows trade organizations (enterprises) to analyze their commercial activities, plan them, and monitor the results of these activities (work efficiency).
For a businessman for successful work as necessary as air commercial information. He needs constant information about clients, competitors, dealers (intermediary businessmen). Operational data for analysis, planning, control.
Market situation constantly changing or may change at any moment. And if there is no continuous supply (updating) of information data, the company may fail to react in time for certain changes. Any businessman of a Western company, before answering the question “What is the position of a particular product on the market?”, will turn to a database about this product stored in a computer (Internet).
Sources of commercial information can serve:
-marketing research for specific products;
An important source of commercial information is internal materials and documents of a trading company, in particular, information on turnover volumes, sales costs, inventories, profits, advertising costs, etc.;
Another source of commercial information is external statistics data and information about the state of the market published in the media.
Recently, it has become increasingly widespread purchasing information from various companies,
The most important element of commercial activity is a comprehensive study of the market for goods and services:
1. Studying customers and purchasing motives.
2. Studying market requirements for a product
3 . Careful study of its conjuncture ;
4. AND research of the competitive environment and competitors;
5 .Studying the potential capabilities of a trade organization and its competitiveness .
Consumer information is economic foundation commercial activity, as it contributes to the formation of offers on the market of goods and services in accordance with their demand. Information about consumers and their requests increases the efficiency of commercial work.
For successful commercial activities, it is important correct choice of goods and services to be traded.
Main expert when evaluating goods is the buyer Therefore, it is important to find out exactly how the product is perceived by the end consumer.
Competitiveness t A product is a set of its characteristics associated with the sale and consumption of services.
Trade organization, You must have the following information about the product:
its quality (technical and economic indicators, operational characteristics; consumer properties, environmental friendliness, safety, ergonomic, aesthetic indicators, compliance with the requirements of standards, technical specifications, regulatory documents, certificates, etc.). Attention is drawn on the ratio of quality and price.
Of no small importance is product packaging ..
When studying a product, you need to determine which is acceptable scheme for promoting it to the market, what methods of sales and sales promotion, how much will the work cost? with this product on the market.
Question 6. Trade secret and its protection.
Answer. Unlike the state trade secret is determined directly by a specific enterprise (organization) independently, is its property and is protected by the security service of the enterprise itself. With the development of market relations, the role of commercial information increases. It becomes a commodity and a means of competition. In this regard, the attitude towards its protection is changing.
The legislation of the Republic of Belarus establishes the right to a certain freedom of entrepreneurship, protection of one’s interests in relations with the state and other subjects of market relations.
In the Republic of Belarus, the concept of a trade secret is given in Regulations on trade secrets, approved by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus.
Trade secrets are deliberately hidden economic interests and information about various aspects and areas of production, economic, managerial, scientific, technical, and financial activities of a business entity, the protection of which is determined by the interests of competition and a possible threat to the economic security of the business entity.
Information constituting a trade secret is the property of the business entity. In a real situation, trade secrets always appear in the form of trade secrets. Therefore, every secret is a secret, but not every secret is a secret.
Commercial secrets are a form of manifestation of trade secrets..
Classified I trade secrets by the nature of a trade secret, by ownership, by purpose of trade secrets.
Bearer of a trade secret is a person aware of the trade secrets of the enterprise, and the sources of classified commercial information are documents, diagrams, technologies, samples, products, know-how.
Can cause great damage to organizations industrial espionage. This is an illegal collection of information constituting a trade secret.
As a document that formulates the principles developed by international practice, is the Paris Convention on the protection of industrial property (1883).
In the Republic of Belarus, a unified concept of trade secrets and special legislation regulating and protecting it are being formed.
Its various aspects are regulated by the laws on patents for industrial designs; About trademarks and service marks; About patents for images and utility models; Regulations on trade secrets. The latest document defines the economic and legal basis for the protection of trade secrets. Uniform requirements for information have been formulated, constituting a trade secret, assuming the following:
trade secret may constitute information of actual or potential value;
information should not be generally known and accessible to the public;
information that is a trade secret, must be marked accordingly (top secret, for official use, etc.);
information should not be a state secret and protected by copyright or patent law;
shouldn't touch negative activities of a business entity that can harm the interests of the state.
The Regulations on trade secrets are clearly defined for business entities of all forms of ownership and departmental affiliation, what information cannot be classified as a trade secret, namely:
constituent documents, licenses for licensed types of activities;
intelligence, provided for by established reporting forms on the financial and economic activities of the enterprise; data required e to verify the correctness of payment of taxes and other obligatory payments; documentation about solvency, etc.
The methodology for classifying certain information as a trade secret in the Republic of Belarus is still not formed. Each organization and its leader decides this issue independently.
The object of a trade secret is information that can be divided into next two groups :
Business information ; Scientific and technical (technological) information :
According to the degree of secrecy, it can be :
strictly confidential, confidential, not subject to public disclosure ,.
Sociological surveys indicate that among methods of illegal acquisition of commercial secretly takes first place bribery of employees, i.e. human factor. Followed by espionage. Currently very widely used technical facilities penetration, which requires special protection measures.
Information protection involves preventing leakage, theft, loss, unauthorized access, copying, destruction, distortion, modification (forgery), blocking of information, etc.
The mechanism for protecting trade secrets should include the following blocks:
At the macro level : rules of law, aimed at protecting the interests of its owner (laws, decrees, regulations, etc.).
At the micro level : standards set by the manager organizations (orders, instructions, instructions);
special structural divisions;
effective system of measures on the protection of trade secrets, which must be comprehensive;
Organizational work. It includes development concepts ensuring the security of information constituting a trade secret, and the formation of a package of necessary organizational and planning documentation that ensures its effective protection, confirmed by the competent authorities.
Question 7. The concept of consumer demand and the tasks of studying it
Answer. Demand - an effective need for goods and services on the market or a form of manifestation of that part of the need that is provided by purchasing power, that is, money.
In consumer demand there are volume and structure.
Volume of demand determined by the amount of money available to the population minus the amount of non-commodity expenses.
Total demand is fixed only in monetary terms, and the volume of demand for individual goods in total and in physical terms.
Demand structure expresses the quantitative ratio of effective needs for individual goods.
Problems of studying demand. The essence of demand, its relationship with needs, product supply, as well as the dependence of demand on many factors are a necessary prerequisite for understanding the purpose, objective and importance of its study.
The process of studying demand in retail trade is the collection, processing and analysis of the necessary information for strategic, tactical and operational decisions on the development of the production of consumer goods, inventory management, as well as their purchase and sale. From this definition, the strategic importance of studying demand in trade for the subsequent use of this information by manufacturing enterprises becomes clear. This information can be offered to manufacturing companies as a marketing service, and this can generate additional income for the trade.
Question 8. Types of consumer demand.
Answer. P purchasing demand is divided into:
realized (demand that is satisfied in the form of the purchase of a product or service; expressed quantitatively by the amount of goods sold);
dissatisfied th(demand for goods that were not on sale at a certain point in time, although they are produced and in circulation);
emerging (demand for goods that are being prepared for production).
When studying demand, the following are important: classification features:
According to the nature of the need for purchase:
* steady demand(not allowing replacement of goods);
* unstable(finally formed in the store with direct
familiarization with goods);
impulsive(arises under the influence of impulses; the decisive role of the seller; advertising; a wide selection of goods).
By degree of repeatability:
* primary(demand for goods purchased for the first time);
* repeated(demand for familiar or replacement products).
By frequency of demand:
* everyday;* periodic:* episodic.
By prevalence:
* unit; * limited;* mass.
Question 9. Methods for studying population demand
Answer: Demand Study – is the collection, processing and analysis of information necessary for
making planned decisions on the production of goods and making commercial decisions on the purchase and sale of goods.
Demand Study Methods– a set of methods and techniques by which information about demand is collected, processed and analyzed, its quantitative dimensions and qualitative characteristics are determined
Methods for studying demand are chosen depending on the type of store, the specifics of the product, types of demand, information support, tasks and goals of the study.
Realized demand : when studying it, methods of systematic and periodic recording of demand are used.
Methods of systematic study:
* automated accounting using computers;
* registration of purchases in special journals, highlighting various characteristics of products necessary for research;
* accounting of cash receipts, which allows you to determine the cost of goods sold at a known price for their quantity;
* accounting of sales receipts;
* accounting for sales of goods using two labels.
You can periodically study realized demand using balance method.
Sales = beginning inventories + receipts – closing inventories – documented consumption. Exhibitions – Sales also to study realized demand.
Unsatisfied demand for goods of sufficient assortment can be studied using the following methods:
* customer surveys in written and oral form;
* according to the log of unsatisfied demand, in which store employees must register goods requested by the buyer, but not on sale;
* registration of unsatisfied demand sheets filled out by buyers;
* holding days of unsatisfied demand.
Emerging demand . Methods: exhibitions – viewing samples of new products, testing new products by specialists, trade workers and buyers, trial sales, sales exhibitions, tasting exhibitions, oral and written surveys, buyer conferences.
In addition to the above methods of studying demand, the following are also used:
-expert assessments of the balance of the intragroup structure of supply and demand. Experts are experienced specialists who have knowledge and are able to express a reasoned opinion about the phenomenon and process being studied;
- commodity examination of new products;
Question 10. Features of studying demand in wholesale trade.
Answer. The main goals of studying market conditions and demand of wholesale trade enterprises :
Organization and implementation of comprehensive observations of trade conditions and the demand of wholesale buyers in the area of operation;
Organization of receiving and processing information about trade conditions and population demand from enterprises and retail organizations;
Organization of receiving and processing information on plans for the development of production and supply of new goods from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;
Organizing the preparation of forecast calculations, market reviews of market conditions necessary to determine the volume of goods purchased, as well as working with suppliers to improve the range and quality of goods.
Commercial observations following the development of market conditions, To meet demand, wholesale enterprises carry out a special program that covers:
Analysis of the regulatory impact of the state on the price level and quality requirements for goods;
Studying the volumes and structure of supply of goods from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;
Determination of the total volume of demand and its structure by product groups; study and forecast of the demand structure in the assortment;
Study of demand by type: realized, unsatisfied, emerging;
Assessing the degree of demand satisfaction by analyzing information about the production, supply and sale of goods.
Besides to study demand wholesale enterprises are carried out active events such as: sales exhibitions, exhibitions and viewings, buyer conferences, surveys of buyers and experts, merchandising examinations of new products and much more.
Question 11. Market conditions: concept, objectives and goals of its study
Answer: Market conditions - This is a specific economic situation in the market for consumer goods, characterized by a certain relationship between supply and demand, the price level, the size of inventory and is subject to dynamic changes.
Taking this into account, under market conditions one should understand the entire set of economic conditions emerging on the market at any given moment under which the process of selling goods and services is carried out.
Figuratively speaking, market conditions there is an indicator of his “health”.
Purpose of study. The main objectives of studying market conditions are:
* organization and direct implementation of comprehensive observations of the market conditions and demand of wholesale buyers in the area of its activity;
* organization of receiving and processing information about the market situation and population demand from enterprises and retail organizations;
* organizing the receipt and processing of information on plans for the development of production and supply, the introduction of new products from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;
* organizing the preparation of forecast calculations, market reviews necessary to determine the volume of purchases of various goods, as well as for ongoing work with suppliers to improve the range and quality of goods
Considering that market conditions is a set of conditions, factors, under the influence of which a certain relationship between supply and demand is formed, the commercial service should know these factors and the degree of their influence, the demand of the population, its structure, reasons for change, features of formation and development.
The commercial service must have data on the possible volumes and structure of product offerings, the degree of updating of the assortment, information about new products, information characterizing the product, price levels, offers from suppliers and the possibilities of increasing them.
Conjuncture items – market participants; structure and volume of movement of goods on the market; demand and consumption of goods; competitors' policies; commercial conditions for the sale of products.
Tasks : -With systematic observation of changes in the market of goods and their nomenclature;
Control over the constant availability of the established range of goods for sale and its timely replenishment;
Registration of realized and unsatisfied demand;
Identification of emerging demand;
Maintaining selective accounting of sales and inventories according to the intragroup structure of goods;
Preparation of proposals to improve the quality and assortment structure of manufactured goods.
Market conditions may be favorable (the population's demand for goods and services is fully satisfied, the product offer in terms of range and quality meets consumer requirements and a high level of customer culture is ensured).
Unfavorable I(the results of market observations are summarized in the market review).
Question 12. The concept and essence of the assortment policy of a trading enterprise .
Answer In conditions of developing competition and increasing uncertainty in the environment external to the enterprise, it becomes increasingly necessary strategic approach to management of trade assortment. This approach is ensured by the development of an assortment policy for organizing trade. Assortment policy of a trade organization - a system of strategic measures aimed at creating a competitive model ensuring a stable position of the enterprise in the market and obtaining the necessary profit.
This policy is a central element of the organization's commercial strategy in the retail market. Its main goal in modern economic conditions is to determine the set of goods that are most preferable to the consumers being served.
However, it is difficult to satisfy the product needs of all consumers without exception, since they differ in their requirements for the product and service. This problem is resolved segmentation- division of potential buyers into certain groups based on certain characteristics (gender, age, level of income, social status, etc.).
Main goal of segmentation - ensure the targeting of goods and services sold. Market segmentation- one of the most important tools of assortment policy, and the competitiveness of the organization largely depends on how correctly the market segment(s) are chosen.
The choice of market segment(s) and the development of all components of the trade organization policy in the area of assortment, taking into account the requirements of a specific group of consumers, taking into account environmental factors, allows define such an assortment policy as active.
Thus, active assortment policy involves solving the following most important tasks: meeting the demand of specific consumer groups; flexible response to market requirements; ensuring the financial stability of a trading organization.
The assortment policy for a specific store (or trade organization), expressed in a developed, approved and agreed upon assortment list(s), requires implementation assortment positioning .
Assortment positioning of a trade organization - the process of selecting special competitive advantages in the range of goods and services offered, and communicating information about them to the target consumer.
The purpose of positioning is to find a special niche within the target segment that is not occupied by competitors. For example, Milavitsa brand stores present themselves in the group of corsage products of all types and a significant number of varieties.
The development and implementation of assortment policy requires compliance with the following conditions:
A clear understanding of the organization’s commercial strategy in the retail market;
Good knowledge of the retail market and the nature of consumer requirements;
A clear idea of your capabilities and resources now and in the future.
A well-thought-out assortment policy of a retail trade organization is a kind of guarantor of not only the construction of an optimal assortment model of the store, but also the preservation of competitive positions in the market, and influences the formation of the image of the enterprise
Question 13. Indicators characterizing the state of the store’s product range .
Answer. The assortment of any store can be characterize using a system of indicators. This will allow the process of managing the trade assortment to be carried out on a scientific basis, i.e. to plan, organize its formation, control and regulate the assortment, improve the motivation of sellers and sales promotion.
Breadth of assortment - the number of groups and subgroups of goods included in the store’s assortment. Based on their share in turnover and inventories, the assortment structure is distinguished specialty and department stores .
Depth of assortment - the number of types and varieties (names) of goods within groups and subgroups in the store’s assortment.
For example, latitude The assortment of the department store with a sales area of 650 m2 is represented by the following groups: fabrics, garments, knitted goods, shoes and haberdashery. And 99 varieties of fabrics, 316 varieties of garments, 311 varieties of knitted goods and 139 varieties of shoes and 109 haberdashery products define depth of assortment of this store .
Assortment structure - this is the ratio of groups, subgroups, types and varieties of goods in the store’s assortment. It is characterized by indicators of breadth and depth. The structure of the assortment is of decisive importance when organizing its formation in the store.
There are concepts macro- and microstructures assortment of store goods.
Under macrostructure understand the relationship between groups of goods in the general assortment, and by microstructure - the ratio of species and varieties in each product group.
In maintaining the range of goods in accordance with the demand of the population, they play an important role completeness and stability assortment of goods in the store.
Completeness of assortment - this is the compliance of the actual availability of goods in the store with the approved assortment list.
Assortment renewal - replenishment of the assortment with new varieties of goods in accordance with the assortment policy of the enterprise. It is acceptable to update up to 10% of the store’s assortment per year.
A special place among indicators of the state of the assortment is occupied by its profitability indicator. Under profitability of the retail assortment understand such an assortment set, which in its entirety ensures that business entities receive the planned amount of net profit, i.e. a certain excess of income over costs of selling goods and tax and non-tax payments
Question 14. Formation of an assortment of goods in wholesale trade enterprises
Answer: Wholesale trade, acting as an intermediary between production and the consumer, must ensure a rhythmic supply of goods to the retail trading network that meets the demand of customers in terms of quantity, range and quality. Therefore, the formation of the assortment of the wholesale base is its most important commercial function.
Formation of product range in wholesale trade involves the development and establishment in a certain order of a product range designed to satisfy customer demand and ensure the profitable operation of the base
The formation of the product range of wholesale organizations is influenced by:
1. Specialization of a wholesale intermediary
2. Contingent of wholesale buyers
3. Conditions of goods supply, etc.
The range of wholesale organizations includes group and intragroup
structure of goods, therefore the formation of the assortment is carried out in two stages, i.e.:
Establish a group assortment based on marketing research;
Calculate the number of varieties of each type of product;
Formation process The wholesale organization's assortment includes:
1. Assessment of the current situation in wholesale trade
2. Development of a product policy strategy
3. Expanding the range with new products and improving its structure;
4. Ensuring the sustainability of the range of consumer goods;
5. Achieving conditions conducive to the growth of trade turnover and trading income
organizations.
In practice, the development of assortment models for wholesale warehouses is often used.
It consists of three stages:
Determination of the group assortment structure of the wholesale base;
Justification of the number of varieties of goods required to form the annual assortment;
Determining the minimum required number of varieties of goods that must be constantly in the warehouses of the base (irreducible assortment
Question 15. Principles and stages of organizing the range of goods in retail enterprises
Answer: Basic principles formation of a product range in trade organizations are:
1. Compliance with the established assortment profile of the organization
2. Ensuring complexity in the selection of goods in accordance with public demand
3. The range of goods in organizations should stimulate the consumer to purchase and be wider than the range of requested goods in order to provide him with a choice.
Specific factors influencing the formation of a product range reflect the specific operating conditions of a trading organization. These include the type of store and the size of the store, conditions of goods supply, the number and composition of the population served, transport conditions, the presence of other trade organizations in the area of operation of this store.
The process of forming an assortment of goods in various stores has its own characteristics. Thus, in supermarkets food and non-food products are distinguished, and within groups the entire range of goods is divided into product subgroups, groups and names, and varieties are distinguished within names.
In the Republic of Tatarstan, the process of forming an assortment includes 3 stages:
1. A group assortment of goods is established
2. The structure of the group assortment is calculated
3. The intra-group expanded range of goods is determined, specific varieties of goods are selected within each group.
Question 16. Formation of the assortment of goods in stores according to consumer complexes
Answer. When forming an assortment in non-food stores consumer complexes, products are combined by the principle of unity of their consumer purpose. The introduction of such complexes into the practice of trade organizations allows:
1. Improve customer service culture by:
Serving a certain category of customers and reducing their time spent on purchasing;
Providing services for the acquisition of several purchases in one place, including related products that were not planned in advance;
Better display of goods in consumer complexes, consultations, provision of services, etc.
2. Ensure systematization of the range of goods.
3. Identify patterns in needs and in the formation of a product range.
The range of consumer complexes can be formed according to the following characteristics:
Gender and age groups (women's clothing, men's clothing);
Lifestyle, leisure activities for the population (products for young technicians);
Formal events (items for wedding gifts);
Traditions and habits of buyers (knitting, sewing and handicrafts);
Seasonality of demand (winter clothing), etc.
Distinguish macro and micro complexes.
Macro complexes represent sets of goods that are formed from the point of view of specialization with a certain breadth of assortment and volume of turnover; as an independent department of a department store.
Micro complexes are distinguished from macro complexes to meet consumer needs. They create a deep assortment of goods, increasing attention to the inclusion of various little things in the assortment.
Question 17. Inventories, their role in ensuring the uninterrupted trading process.
Answer. Wholesale, speaking intermediary between production and consumer, must provide rhythmic supply of goods retail chain that meets customer demand in terms of quantity, assortment and quality. Properly formed inventory plays a big role in increasing the level of trade service. Work to create optimal inventory at wholesale warehouses includes:
sizing optimal inventory;
operational inventory accounting and monitoring their condition;
regulation inventory.
Proper work with inventory solves a number of commercial problems related to the formation and maintenance of the range of goods at the required level in order to satisfy customer demand.
The need for commercial activities to manage inventory is due to the fact that demand for specific goods is dynamic, is influenced by many factors, which makes it difficult to make the right purchasing decisions. That's why there are miscalculations in this activity, which lead to the formation of reserves above or below demand. At presence of surplus goods, i.e. goods that are not in demand, have slowed down or stopped their movement, the costs of the wholesale organization for their storage, lending, and costs associated with deterioration in quality increase.
Inventory shortage leads to unsatisfaction of customer demand. As a result, sales volumes of goods are restrained, which leads to a deterioration in the economic and financial condition of the wholesale organization
Various factors influence the size of inventory and its turnover. : consumer properties, quality of goods, price, transportation conditions, packaging and etc.
One of the main tasks of inventory management is ensuring acceleration of the turnover of funds invested in inventory.
For a wholesale organization, a product represents the main source of income only if it is sold, if it was purchased for resale for the purpose of making a profit. That's why commercial service the wholesale base must carry out competent work on procurement competitive products that satisfy consumer demand.
If range , quantity and quality of goods do not correspond to consumer requirements demand, this indicates an unsatisfactory state of inventory and ineffective commercial activities.
Increasing inventory, purchasing they require large quantities and large financial resources...
Inventory that is not in demand is not a valuable investment for the wholesaler. .
Speed of circulation of goods is quality indicator activities of a wholesale organization and characterizes the efficiency of using funds invested in inventory.
Working with inventory it is necessary to take into account the reliability of fulfillment of supply contracts, the time it takes to bring the goods from the manufacturer to the final consumer, data from the analysis of the volume and structure of sales, both current and statistical reporting.
By investing heavily in the purchase of goods, wholesale centers expose themselves commercial risk. Justify commercial risk can only be a profitable activity. If this does not happen, the base's activities will be unprofitable.
A slowdown in turnover leads to a decrease in turnover, which, in turn, means a decrease in the capital turnover of the wholesale base and leads to an increase in the costs of storing and maintaining inventory in normal condition. This interdependence reflects the essence of the commercial work of managing inventory in both wholesale and retail trade.
Question 18. Essence and classification of economic relations for the supply of goods
Answer. The wholesale market is a market of enterprises (organizations) purchasing goods for their subsequent resale for profit.
The wholesale market is quite capacious and is characterized by a small number of entities operating in it compared to the retail market. The main subjects of the wholesale market are manufacturers of goods, intermediaries and retail organizations. As a rule, they purchase goods in large quantities. This kind of trade is called wholesale. It connects almost all sectors of the economy, material production and commodity circulation, and includes all stages of product promotion from manufacturers to retail organizations.
Wholesale trade on the commodity market is an integral part of the sphere of circulation. Through it, the accumulation and movement of goods in space and time is managed, and almost all commodity resources pass through. It is an important lever for maneuvering commodity resources both across regions and across commodity markets. Through wholesale trade, the consumer influences the manufacturer in the direction of balancing supply and demand.
In turn, the manufacturer is looking for a market for its products, selecting a buyer taking into account its capabilities and on terms that suit him.
Main commercial tasks wholesale trade are:
Comprehensive study of the wholesale and retail markets;
Distribution of commodity resources across regions in accordance with demand, movement of goods from points of production to points of consumption;
Accumulation and storage of inventory in volumes necessary for the uninterrupted supply of goods to a wide range of intermediary, retail organizations, and end consumers;
Balancing the import and export of goods to the regions, taking into account justified needs;
Rhythmic supply of goods;
Ensuring reliability and stability of economic relations based on consumer priority;
Managing relationships between wholesale market entities using economic levers, reducing total costs associated with promoting goods from manufacturers to consumers;
provision of services to business partners.
Commercial work in the wholesale market consists of operations for wholesale purchases and wholesale sales of goods.. Unlike bases, retail organizations act mainly as wholesale buyers. They carry out wholesale sales only in the form of small wholesale to government institutions (hospitals, kindergartens, etc.).
The legal mechanism for regulating commercial activities is an integral part of the relationships between business entities and forms their legal relations with each other and with government bodies, as well as during arbitration consideration of business disputes.
In the process of promoting goods to the market, trade performs a connecting function between production and consumers. The relationships that arise between them are called economic ties.
The concept of “economic relations” includes economic, organizational, commercial, legal, administrative and other relations that develop between buyers and sellers in the process of supplying goods.
The system of economic relations is formed on the basis of freely performed acts of purchase and sale at the initiative of the parties and the centralized distribution of certain types of goods according to quotas and for state needs.
The opportunity to independently regulate relationships between market entities on the basis of legal norms provided for by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus is expanding.
The Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus determines the procedure for concluding, amending, executing and terminating supply contracts.
It defines the right of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus to approve Regulations on the supply of goods. For certain types of goods can be developed Special delivery conditions, which are approved in the manner established by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus.
Economic ties for the supply of goods are distinguished by structure and number of participants, duration of validity, and departmental characteristics.
Structure of economic relations can be simple or complex .
Simple business connections are concluded directly between the manufacturer of goods and retail trade organizations. They are installed when purchasing many food products, especially perishable ones, as well as non-food products that have a simple assortment and large ones. Such connections are called direct. The advantages of direct economic relations are that unnecessary links in the transshipment of goods are eliminated, commodity turnover is accelerated, the effectiveness of influencing the manufacturer on issues of updating the assortment, improving the quality of goods is increased, and the time for agreeing on delivery conditions is reduced.
Complex structure of economic relations involves the participation of intermediaries, the number of which may vary. This structure of economic relations is less effective, reduces the efficiency of managing the process of bringing goods to the consumer, and reduces the effectiveness of influencing the manufacturer to produce the required assortment. It is appropriate for the supply of goods when accumulation, sub-sorting, and transformation of the assortment at the intermediary is required.
By validity period concluded contracts distinguish between one-time, short-term (up to one year) and long-term (more than a year) economic relations. If the need for goods is systematic, preference should be given to direct long-term economic ties; they guarantee greater stability.
By departmental affiliation participants are distinguished between intersystem and intrasystem economic relations.
At intersystem In economic relations, supply relationships are established between organizations of different systems, ministries, and departments.
In-system Economic relations are contractual relations between organizations of the same system, for example, consumer cooperation. The organization of economic relations involves performing the following commercial functions:
The impact of trade on the production of goods needed by the market by industrial enterprises through its participation in the formation of production plans;
Work on concluding business contracts;
Ensuring the fulfillment of contractual obligations and property liability for their non-compliance;
Establishing optimal relations between business partners;
Legal regulation of economic relationships, etc.
These functions and their significance change as market relations develop and the independence and responsibility of the parties entering into
Question 19. Contractual work and its content.
Answer. General provisions and basic rules governing the system of contractual relations are established by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus. They are based on the principles of contract law. In connection with the declaration of the Republic of Belarus as a sovereign state and the transition to a market, the organization of contractual relations has undergone serious changes. The essence of these changes is that the range of business entities has expanded significantly and they have been given greater independence.
A supply agreement is a document that stipulates the rights and obligations of the parties for the supply of goods.
Subject of the agreement delivery is commodity. The supplier undertakes, within an agreed time frame that does not coincide with the moment of conclusion of the contract, to transfer it to the buyer as ownership for business activities (and not for personal consumption), and the buyer undertakes to pay a certain price for it.
Parties to the agreement are the supplier and the buyer, both legal entities and individuals engaged in business activities. The supplier can be either a manufacturer or an intermediary. The buyer can be either a wholesale intermediary or a retail trade organization.
A supply agreement creates a long-term relationship between the parties; its execution, as a rule, is carried out in parts in agreed installments and within a certain time frame.
The contract for the supply of goods is concluded in writing.
Depending on the location of the parties, contracts for the supply of goods can be divided:
For those concluded between business entities of the Republic of Belarus (intra-republican);
Agreements concluded with business entities of other states ( interstate) .
They, in turn, are divided:
For contracts concluded on the basis of free will,
Agreements on supplies for government needs.
In the new economic conditions, the contract is a priority, because the independence of business entities is expanding, it becomes possible to more quickly respond to changes in market conditions, and better take into account the interests of the end consumer.
Preparation for concluding supply contracts. The development of a draft agreement in trade organizations is entrusted to commercial and legal services. All interested services endorse the contracts. The signatures of the heads of economic planning, production and financial departments, as well as the chief accountant, are required.
The use of typical x contracts for the supply of goods.
A standard contract is a model contract that sets out in writing uniform terms and conditions based on trade practice. The model contract can be used in two ways.
First way - unconditional agreement of the parties with the conditions set out in it, which must be expressed by signing the agreement. Second way - use of a standard contract as a sample, which can be changed in accordance with the agreement of the parties on specific conditions.
Procedure for concluding contracts. Agreements can be concluded on the basis of:
State order for the supply of goods for state needs;
Initiatives of the parties and their mutual consent to enter into an agreement (commercial agreements).
Contractual relations based on government orders. State regulation of the economy is used in almost all countries of the world, but the forms and extent of such regulation are different. In the Republic of Belarus, one of the tools for this is an order for the supply of goods for government needs, which is widely used in other countries.
All contracts, regardless of the forms and grounds for conclusion, must be documented, signed by officials and recorded on a tangible medium with details that allow signatures to be identified. These documents must reflect the agreement of the parties on the mandatory terms of the contract.
The supply agreements concluded in this way come into force. After this, mutual responsibility arises for fulfilling the terms of the contract. Disputes arising between the parties are considered by economic courts. The procedure for changing and terminating a supply agreement is regulated by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus and is reflected in Regulations on the supply of goods in the Republic of Belarus. The initiating party must notify the partner of the termination or amendment of the contract within the period specified in the contract. The party that received a proposal to terminate or amend the contract must respond within 10 days. If she agrees, an additional agreement is drawn up and signed by both parties, or the parties exchange letters and telegrams.
Question 20. Legal regulation of economic relations for the supply of consumer goods
Answer.Question 21. Economic relations for the supply of goods for government needs in the Republic of Belarus
Answer.Question 22. Sources of wholesale purchases and suppliers of consumer goods
Answer: Source of income goods to the domestic market of the Republic of Belarus is:
1. Intra-republican sectors of the national economy producing consumer goods
2. Import of goods from CIS countries
3. Centralized import procurement
4. Cooperatives, joint ventures, small businesses
5. Barter transactions carried out centrally
Suppliers of goods are specific enterprises from various sources of income. All suppliers of goods are divided by:
a) t territorial basis:
* local
* interregional (regional)
* Republican
* foreign
b) By belonging to various economic systems
* in-system
* off-system
V) By occupation
*manufacturer suppliers
* intermediary suppliers (wholesale organizations at the republican and regional level of various product ranges)
Question 23. Wholesale fairs (concept, purpose, classification )
Answer: In the fair industry, two directions are defined depending on the nature of trade operations:
1. Fairs for the sale of products entered into primary circulation
2. Fairs for the sale of unused and surplus products
Before the fairs first type a wide range of tasks is set:
Strengthening the active influence of market trade on the formation of production plans based on marketing research;
Introduction into production of new products that meet the requirements of world standards; simultaneous identification of products with obsolescence, economically impractical to operate, and, therefore, recommended for discontinuation;
Work related to demonopolization in the sphere of production and circulation of products;
Responsibilities to ensure priority for consumers, increase economic impact on the supplier in case of violation of contractual obligations; an obstacle to the strong-willed methods and decisions of central authorities regarding the production and sale of products that contradict the economic interests of enterprises, regions, and industries.
Trade fairs second type solve problems regarding the rational use of labor, financial, material, and production resources.
By scale and nature Trade fairs carried out are divided into:
International fairs;
Republican fairs - connect the interests of a large number of enterprises, associations with various areas of economic activity, specialization of production. Fairs focus on products of a very wide profile and range;
Regional (regional, regional, republican) fairs function to promptly satisfy consumers with necessary goods. Organizationally, they are more accessible to participants. The place, time, and theme of the fair are determined by the relevant departments with the participation of commercial structures of enterprises and associations. Fairs operate according to a schedule with a pre-set time and place. When coordinating schedules, it is necessary to ensure that the timing of fairs does not coincide in order to avoid their parallel work in nearby regions.
Specialized exhibitions can be stationary and mobile .
Every year, exhibitions in every industry provide favorable opportunities to learn something, appreciate something, and sell something.
If the exhibition is visited by the general public, the manufacturer has a unique chance to sell some of their goods and communicate directly with a large number of end buyers and find out their opinion regarding their quality and range.
To question 24 Operations performed during the wholesale sale of goods
Answer: commercial activity– the sphere of operational and organizational activities of trade organizations and enterprises aimed at carrying out processes of purchase and sale of goods to satisfy the demand of the population and make a profit.
Question 24. Methods for the wholesale sale of goods from warehouses of wholesale enterprises
Answer. Methods for wholesale sales of goods
Question 25. Concept, role and indicators of economic efficiency of advertising in commercial activities
Answer. The now widely used term "advertising" comes from the Latin word advertise - shout out (in Ancient Greece and Rome, trade announcements were loudly shouted or read out in squares and other crowded places).
By its essence, advertising is information about the consumer properties of goods and various types of services with the aim of selling them and creating demand for them. The Law “On Advertising” says that Advertising is information distributed in any form, by any means about an individual or legal entity, goods, ideas and endeavors (advertising information), which is intended for a certain circle of people and is designed to create or maintain interest in these goods, ideas and initiatives and facilitate the sale of goods, ideas and initiatives."
The most common area of advertising activity is trade advertising, the object of which is goods, trading enterprises, and services provided by these enterprises. By its essence trade advertising- targeted dissemination of information about the consumer properties of goods and various types of services accompanying the sale of these goods in order to attract the attention of consumers to them in order to create demand for these goods and services and increase the volume of their sales.
Advertising messages differ from ordinary informational messages in that they perform the function of a persuasive influence on a person in order to encourage him to purchase certain goods (services). Advertising is part of marketing, the task of which is to ensure uninterrupted sales of manufactured products.
Advertising must accurately and truthfully inform the consumer about the quality, properties, range, rules of use (operation) and consumption of goods, as well as provide other information about goods and services. It is unacceptable to use exaggerated data about the quality of goods in advertising messages or, moreover, to deceive consumers, present a counterfeit product as a full-fledged one, or influence the base inclinations of a person and other negative motivations. The design of advertising must meet modern aesthetic requirements, and the costs of its organization should not exceed reasonable (rational) sizes.
Advertising, on the one hand, conveys to consumers various information necessary for the purchase and use of goods, on the other hand, combining its informational content with persuasiveness and suggestibility, it has an emotional and mental impact on a person.
In addition, trade advertising should help improve the quality of trade customer service. With the help of advertising, buyers quickly find the goods they need, purchase them with the greatest convenience and the least amount of time.
It is equally important to inform the population about individual trading enterprises, the services they offer, opening hours, sales methods, and the features of their activities.
Truthfulness- compliance of information about goods, their quality, advantages and benefits with reality
Specificity is expressed in convincing arguments and digital data used in the text of the advertising message; accordingly, in advertising graphics, compliance with this principle eliminates unjustified formalism and techniques that are incomprehensible to a wide range of advertising users
Focus advertising means that its starting point is the advertised goods and market conditions, and its object is the consumer. Compliance with this principle prevents irrational spending of funds, allows you to evaluate the effectiveness of using one or another means of advertising, its impact on increasing the turnover of a trading enterprise, as well as its emotional and psychological impact.
In modern conditions, a wide variety of advertising media are used, among which it is necessary, first of all, to highlight print advertising, radio and television advertising, press advertising, audiovisual, outdoor, display and exhibition advertising and other types.
Determination of economic efficiency
Determination of psychological effectiveness (assessment of consumer response to
complex of communications).
Cost effectiveness is determined by measuring the impact of advertising on turnover, profits and profitability.
Additional turnover under the influence of advertising is determined by the formula:
T d = (T 2 – T 1) D, where:
P = T d P/100 – Z, where
P – profitability of sales;
Profitability calculated by the formula:
The main means of internal advertising of a store is the interior of the sales area; advertising display and display of goods inside a retail establishment; advertising signs, posters and posters, as well as promotional activities such as in-store radio advertising, tasting of new products, usually food products, etc.
Advertising purposes are served not only by window displays, but also by in-store exhibitions of goods. The placement of goods inside the store should be convenient for inspection and selection, increase the independence of customers, and help them make purchases with the least amount of time. In stores that use the traditional sales method, an in-store exhibition is organized on wall and counter equipment, which forms the basis of salespeople’s workplaces. In self-service stores, the sales area should be an exhibition of goods that guides customers, helping them find the right section and the desired product. In modern self-service stores (department stores, supermarkets), the façade of the building is often a solid glass wall, through which the entire sales floor is clearly visible. Therefore, in these stores it is necessary to arrange in-store exhibitions of goods, visible through the glazed facade, or install multi-tiered double-sided display cases close to the glazed facade. On one side of such a display rack, facing the sales floor, customers select goods.
With self-service, the first place comes to the decorative and artistic design of store windows and the sales area of the store, and advertising information for visitors. This information concerns the location of departments, sections and the placement of goods on the sales floor, indicating the most rational flow patterns of customers, and the procedure for selecting payment for goods.
The means of advertising goods in a store also include printed advertising - advertisements and articles in newspapers and magazines, as well as posters, leaflets, brochures, catalogs, advertising letters, posters and leaflets, memos and inserts, product labels, labels, advertising texts on packaging materials etc. This type of advertising occupies the main share in advertising of goods. With the help of print advertising, you can inform the population on a wide variety of issues regarding the purchase, use, and consumer properties of goods sold by the store.
- Advertising broadcasts on the radio - This is an operational and mass means of communication and psychological influence on customers both inside the store and outside the store. Radio advertising is very diverse in terms of broadcast forms. Radio advertising uses such genres as dialogues, reports, announcements, often accompanied by music.
- Demo advertising involves holding a show (demonstration) of new models of ready-made clothing, hats, shoes, timed to coincide with the beginning of the corresponding season; demonstration of technically complex products in action and consultation on the rules of their use; tasting of new food products little known to the population, etc.
Question 27. The essence and goals of commercial activities to stimulate sales
Answer. Sales promotion is a set of techniques used throughout the entire life cycle of a product in relation to three market participants (consumer, wholesaler, seller) with the aim of short-term increasing sales volume, as well as increasing the number of new buyers.
Depending on the purpose incentives can be:
non-price;
price .
Establishing sales promotion goals is focused on the main goals of the commercial strategy of a retail organization. Therefore, along with strategic goals, specific and one-time ones can be implemented.
Management, and therefore the establishment of incentive goals, is carried out by managers of the commercial department, taking into account the opinions of sales floor managers and sales representatives of manufacturing enterprises.
Non-price means of sales promotion
Under non-price means of stimulation mean the use of commercial, technological, organizational and economic opportunities aimed at increasing sales, but not related to changes in the price of the product.
Among non-price incentives, a special role belongs to oral consultations And seller advertising .
An effective means of non-price incentives is also rational placement And efficient display of goods. The main task of the sales floor manager is the most advantageous presentation of the entire assortment and each product separately.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “placement” and “display” of goods on the sales floor.
Product placement involves the distribution of the assortment over the entire area of the sales floor, taking into account the frequency of demand, the complexity of acquisition, interchangeability, dimensions and weight of goods, and the specific properties of the goods.
Under display of goods You should understand certain ways of laying and displaying goods on the display area of the sales floor. For each product, the most appropriate way to display it must be determined.
Stores use vertical, horizontal, combined systems for displaying goods and displaying in bulk.
Display in self-service stores based on principles merchandising
Display for self-service stores plays a special role, since it is the display that should influence the purchasing decision.
The following types of display are distinguished in self-service stores:
The main one is the display on the shelves of island and wall slides;
Display of products on trays;
Special display.
The sales floor manager must know and ensure the implementation of the following principles of placement and display of goods, based on knowledge of buyer psychology and merchandising:
1. "Inexpensive forward." Inexpensive goods create a favorable impression of the store's price level, so they are placed at the beginning of the sales floor.
2. "The principle of stripes." Products with low prices and high-profit products alternate as the buyer moves through the sales area. But the goods that provide the greatest profit should not be placed at the end of the route, otherwise, by the time they reach it, the buyer will already have a full basket and an empty wallet.
3. "The two-finger principle." The height of the shelf must correspond to the product being sold. It is believed that if you can fit two fingers between the top edge of the product and the next shelf, you need to change the distance between the shelves.
4. "Shelf extensions." The use of plywood, wire, metal shelf extensions, and wire baskets can increase the efficiency of shelving displays.
5. "Overview and Accessibility." The product must be laid out with the front part of the packaging facing the buyer.
6. 6.“Neatness of display and constant replenishment of supplies.”
7."The shelves are full." Maximum turnover in self-service stores is only possible when the shelves are completely filled. If the main assortment is sold out, you can fill the empty shelves with impulse items.
World experience. The human eye can perceive a product if at least 3-5 identical packs (packages) are presented nearby. Whatever the width of the shelf, the product should stand relatively freely.
Display of products on trays - a popular way of placing goods both on shelves (if a lot of front row goods can be placed on them) and in mass displays.
The packaging is a tray with a product wrapped in a stretchable thin film and has the following characteristics:
Special display. The main display on the slides creates the necessary background for a special display of goods in the sales area (occupies about 5% of all store sales). It serves as the main means of attracting the attention of buyers to the sale of special, from a commercial point of view, goods.
Mass displays used mainly for everyday goods and goods in high demand.
Price Sales Promotion Tools
All types of incentives based on direct or indirect, immediate or delayed reduction in the selling price are classified as price
A fairly common price incentive is selling at reduced prices.
Retail sales professionals often highlight not only the advantages, but also the commercial disadvantages of discount sales. Generalization of different points of view made it possible to identify the following advantages and disadvantages.
Question 28. A system of indicators characterizing the effectiveness of commercial activities.
Answer. It is very difficult to evaluate and analyze the activities of a trading enterprise. The difficulty lies in the fact that any commercial organization, regardless of its size, scope of activity, profitability or unprofitability, is a complex system that interacts with the market environment. Therefore, it is unlikely that there is a single indicator that could comprehensively reflect all aspects of the commercial activity of an enterprise. Even profit cannot be such an indicator.
For a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of commercial activities, it is necessary indicator system. These indicators are: (profit will still come first)
Profit (from sales and balance sheet) is the most important indicator of the effectiveness of the commercial activities of a trading enterprise. It reflects the results of all trading activities of the enterprise - the volume of products sold, its composition and assortment structure, labor productivity, cost level, the presence of unproductive expenses and losses, etc.:
The volume of trade turnover and its growth rate;
Inventories (in amount and days) and compliance with their standards;
Turnover (in days and turnover) - the time during which the goods are sold;
Profitability (ratio of profit to turnover);
Level of distribution costs (ratio of the sum of distribution costs to turnover);
Financial stability ratio (ratio of equity and borrowed funds);
Current liquidity ratio (ratio of current assets to the amount of current short-term liabilities, accounts payable and loans);
The coefficient of provision of own working capital (the ratio of SOS to the same current assets).
Question 29. Concept, essence, subject and subject of leasing
Answer. The term "leasing" comes from the English verb to 1ease- rent, lease. The history of leasing relations dates back to the 20th century. BC e., as evidenced by archaeological excavations in the ancient state of Sumer, and not, as is commonly believed, in the last century in America. However, the term "leasing" came into use in 1877, when the Bell Telephone Company decided not to sell its telephone sets, but to lease them. The first independent leasing company, United States Leasing Corporation, was created in San Francisco (USA) in 1952.
"Leasing- a type of investment activity for the acquisition of property and its transfer on the basis of a leasing agreement to individuals or legal entities for a certain fee, for a certain period and under certain conditions stipulated by the agreement, with the right to purchase the property by the lessee." In addition, there is a definition given by the group World Bank: "Leasing is a contractual relationship between two parties that allows one party (the lessee) to use property owned by the other party (the lessor) in exchange for agreed upon periodic payments."
From an economic point of view property is leased for a certain period (lease term) with the condition of its return, for which the owner receives a reward (leasing payments). Thus, all conditions of credit relations are met: urgency, repayment and payment, and, therefore, Leasing can be considered as a specific method of lending.
The Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus (Article 636) establishes the concept of a financial lease agreement: “Under a financial lease agreement (leasing agreement), the lessor undertakes to acquire ownership of the specified property from a specific seller and provide the lessee with this property for a fee in temporary possession and use for business purposes."
According to current legislation (Article 637 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus) subject of leasing“can be any non-consumable things used for business activities, except for land and other natural objects.”
The obligation to use the property leased only for business activities predetermines that the subject of leasing can be both movable and immovable property, which is an object of fixed assets.
Real estate objects include buildings and structures for industrial purposes.
Leasing subjects. The Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On Leasing” defines three leasing entities: the lessor, the lessee, and the seller.
Depending on the period of use of the property acquired under the contract, there are financial and operational leasing .
financial leasing- a type of leasing in which the lessor undertakes to acquire ownership of the property specified by the lessee from a specific seller and transfer this property to the lessee as a leased item for a certain fee, for a certain period and under certain conditions for temporary possession and use
Operating leasing- a type of leasing in which the lessor purchases property at his own risk and transfers it to the lessee as a leased item for a certain fee, for a certain period and under certain conditions for temporary possession and use
Mixed leasing- is a leasing that contains elements of financial and operational leasing
Question 30. The essence of franchising and its role in the development of small businesses
Answer. The word "franchising" comes from the French " franchise ", which means "benefit, privilege, exemption from tax, contribution." Subsequently, this word took hold in English-speaking countries. In the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Article 1027), this term is called “commercial concession” and “commercial concession agreement.”
By its essence franchising is a system of relationships consisting in the paid transfer by one party (a company that, as a rule, has a pronounced image and high reputation in the market of goods and services) to the other party (a company or an individual private entrepreneur) of its means of individualizing the goods produced, work performed or services provided ( trademark or service mark, corporate identity), business technology and other commercial information, the use of which by the other party will promote growth and a secure foothold in the market for goods and services.
In this case, the transferring party undertakes to assist in the establishment of the business and provide technical and consulting assistance.
The emergence of franchising dates back to the early 1800s, with the so-called associated house system used by British brewers. In 1860, the Singer factory, specializing in the production of sewing machines, operated under a scheme very close to franchising.
Formula developed in 1886 "Coca-Co1a"and its sale in 1900 led to a powerful impetus in the development of franchising; the system began to rapidly spread under the Coca-Co1a brand, known to everyone to this day. The greatest success in the development of this system was achieved in the 50s of the last century by the brothers Mac Donald. Currently, the McDonald's franchise system includes about 20 thousand enterprises in different countries of the world.
In the Republic of Belarus, McDonald's can serve as an example of franchising.
Stabilization and further revitalization of the Russian economy are most directly related to solving the problems of small business development. The role of this sector of the economy has been seriously rethought in recent decades. Now it is considered as a necessary condition for self-development and stability of one’s economic system. Thus, there are about 20 million small firms in the USA, and more than 6.5 million in Japan.
Franchising proved its high efficiency and viability even in the conditions of the economic recession of the mid-70s. The position of franchising companies has been especially strong since the early 80s, when during the presidency of R. Reagan, the United States experienced economic growth. The following statistics were cited in American literature: during these years, one franchise enterprise was opened in the United States every 6.5 minutes.
Having gained a lot of domestic experience, American franchising has moved abroad to take root in other markets. Many companies have sold their franchises in other countries, and some of them have rapidly expanded their international network. Currently, more than 350 U.S. firms and their franchisees operate more than 32,000 retail outlets in other countries.
The rapid development of franchising is observed in Canada, Western Europe, Japan, the countries of the Pacific region, Australia, and the countries of the Caribbean Sea region. Franchisors from other countries are also looking at the Russian market. Apparently, international franchising will develop at an even faster pace in the near future. Franchisors are looking for potential franchisees in foreign countries, and many individuals and firms are actively looking for franchisors from other countries in order to acquire their license and rights and, with their financial support, to use their production and service technologies to do their profitable business.
Lecture No. 1
Topic: “The concept and essence of commercial activity”
Number of hours in accordance with the work program of the discipline: 2 hours
Lecture outline
1. Definition of the concepts of “commerce” and “commercial activity”. Subjects, objects, tasks and stages of commercial activity
2. Functions and principles of commercial activity
3. Classification of commercial enterprises
Definition of the concepts of “commerce” and “commercial activity”. Subjects, objects, tasks and stages of commercial activity
Commerce in Latin means “trade”:
Commerce - bargaining, trade turnover, merchant trades (from V. I. Dahl’s Explanatory Dictionary);
Commerce - trade, trade operations (from the Explanatory Dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov).
Thus, commercial activity refers to the purchase and sale of goods with the aim of making a profit while satisfying customer demand for goods and services.
Commercial activity is part of entrepreneurial activity and differs from it only in that it does not cover the process of manufacturing goods itself. An entrepreneur always strives to acquire resources and services in accordance with his own commercial interests. The task of an entrepreneur comes down to creating a quality product and the benefits from its sale. Therefore, logistics, advertising, concluding a contract, bringing goods to the consumer are important elements of commercial activity. In addition to knowledge in the field of economics, a businessman must know the theory and practice of business communication, negotiations, be able to make non-standard decisions, and have analytical skills to identify highly profitable areas of employment.
However, in its pure form, commercial activity is present precisely in trade organizations. Therefore, “Commercial activity” as an economic discipline considers the organization of commercial processes mainly at enterprises in the sphere of circulation, i.e., it uses a narrow interpretation of the defined concept. Thus, commercial activity is the activity of legal entities and individuals associated with the implementation of purchase and sale transactions in order to satisfy demand and make a profit.
The subjects of commercial activity are legal entities and individuals who have the right to carry out it; the objects of commercial activity are goods and services. In modern business conditions, commercial activity is not limited to just completing a trade transaction. Commercial success directly depends on knowledge of the market situation, understanding of consumer needs and the ability to satisfy them by offering an appropriate range of products. Therefore, commercial activities include the study of consumer demand, product range management, advertising and information work and service organization. In addition, commercial workers must be able to search and select profitable suppliers, establish contractual relations with them, organize the transportation of goods, and also create and maintain optimal inventory.
Commercial activity is a set of sequentially performed trade and organizational operations that are carried out in the process of buying and selling goods and providing trade services with the aim of making a profit.
Both trade organizations and enterprises, as well as individual entrepreneurs, can act as subjects of commercial activity, that is, carry out it. Goods and services should be considered as objects of such activity (Figure 1).
Figure 1 - Basics of business activity
A commodity is an integral product of the market, having a use value; the form of exchange is money. Services mean servicing and bringing goods to the consumer. The basis of commercial activity is capital (financial support), material and technical base and information and computer tools that form a data bank for making management decisions. Market entities influencing commercial activities include: commodity producers - product suppliers, intermediaries, creditors (banks), control and inspection institutions, audit services, insurance agencies, etc. With the development of market relations, these components will be subject to quantitative and qualitative changes, introducing thereby making adequate changes in commercial activities.
Informatics and computerization are adjacent to commerce. They are aimed at managing commercial activities. For this purpose, information flows are received, processed, analyzed, and the results are used in management.
It is known that the resources of an enterprise and the requirements of profitable operation to a certain extent limit maneuvering in the range of goods and their prices. But it is the focus on customer demand and its active formation that should determine the use of available resources. The successful sale of goods ensures the efficiency of the enterprise. Commercial work in trade is the activity of an enterprise aimed at solving a special set of problems. Studying the processes of their implementation is an important element of operational research at the level of a trading enterprise and region.
The main participants in commercial activities are not only business structures, but also consumers (whose participation in the limit-distribution economy was insignificant). This statement is based on the fact that for entrepreneurs the most important factor when concluding transactions is income (economic benefit), and for consumers, the benefit is the product (service) they need if it satisfies their needs (consumer interests) to a greater extent. The consumer is not a passive buyer, but a full participant in commercial activity, its regulator. Thus, the most important subject of business relations between suppliers of goods and the retail chain is the consumer (Fig. 2).
Figure 2 - Complex of tasks of commercial activity in the market of goods and services
Subjects of the consumer market should be considered through meeting the needs of the population.
The consumer, realizing his interests, has a decisive influence on the behavior of entrepreneurs in the market when concluding transactions, choosing a market segment, organizing the marketing and sale of goods, forming an assortment and pricing policy.
Commercial activity can be divided into several stages. These stages are:
Studying demand and determining needs for goods;
Identification of suppliers of goods and establishment of economic relations with them;
Commercial activities for the wholesale sale of goods;
Commercial activities for the retail sale of goods;
Formation of assortment and inventory management;
Providing trade services.
At each of these stages, certain commercial operations are performed. It should be borne in mind that the content of operations may differ depending on at what stage of the product distribution process they are carried out.
Thus, the nature and content of the operations performed when carrying out commercial activities will depend on the chosen form of promotion of the product and the stage at which this product is located.
Effective commercial work is possible only if there is complete and reliable information about market conditions, that is, socio-economic, trade, organizational and other conditions for the sale of goods that prevailed in a certain period of time and in a specific place. To obtain such information, it is necessary to collect information both about the product itself and about its manufacturers.
It is also important to have information about social, economic, demographic and other factors that determine the demand for goods, and about the purchasing power of the population. Along with this, it is necessary to have reliable information.
Commerce or commercial activity is carried out at certain phases of the movement of a product (good) from production to consumption. The content of these phases is the process of exchange or trade. In general, this movement can be represented by the following diagram:
Production... (T "- TOThe circulation phases are indicated in brackets, i.e. purchase and sale of goods. In the first case, this is the purchase of means of production and labor, and in the second, the sale of goods ready for consumption. This whole process can be represented as a process of circulation, which is interrupted for some time by the process of production. It is organized solely for the purpose of making a profit and is called entrepreneurial activity or entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship is the expedient activity of organizing and operating an enterprise with the aim of generating income (profit).
By organizing an enterprise, we mean the realized ability of an entrepreneur to connect and make the factors of production of goods and services function in a special way in order to make a profit.
The totality of acts of purchase and sale of various types of entrepreneurs forms a market. The entire market, depending on the objects of sale and purchase, is divided into the following types:
Labor market;
Financial market:
a) securities market;
b) loan capital market;
c) foreign exchange market;
d) money market;
Factors of production market:
a) land market;
b) natural resources market;
c) capital market or market for means of production;
Consumer market;
Technology Market;
Services market:
a) trade services;
b) health care and recreational services;
c) educational services;
d) utilities;
e) transport services, etc. (tourist, financial,
management, real estate...).
Each market forms its own type of commercial activity with its own specific characteristics.
For example, commercial activities in the education sector are different from commercial activities in the technology market and the natural resources market. Moreover, the techniques and methods used in commerce within the same market are fundamentally different from each other. It is clear that it is necessary to sell educational services in other ways than utility services. At the same time, the purpose of commercial activity and principles remain identical.
The role of commerce in entrepreneurial activity cannot be overestimated, because real profit (in the form of monetary units or a useful effect) appears only in the exchange phase, upon completion of the process of buying and selling goods, i.e. as a result of commercial activities.
Elements of commercial activity can be carried out in all types of entrepreneurship in the form of purchase and sale of goods, raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, services, etc. However, these elements are not decisive for entrepreneurship. They are only an integral part of it, along with production, specific (technological) processes.
Thus, any entrepreneur who produces bread, fur products, reinforced concrete structures, etc., at certain moments becomes a merchant - when he needs to buy raw materials and when he needs to sell finished products.In this example, commerce appears only as an integral part of entrepreneurship when an entrepreneur sells his product, and there is no difference whether it is a product or a service. Based on this, commercial activity is an integral part of entrepreneurship.
Another form of manifestation of commerce is as a special type of entrepreneurship. Here the entrepreneur consciously chooses the type of activity, which consists of the purchase and sale of goods or services. Such an entrepreneur can rightfully be called a merchant, since all his activities consist of the rational organization of transactions of exchanging goods or services for money, goods or services.
The main goal of commerce, like entrepreneurship, is to make a profit, only not through the production of goods or services, but through the exchange (purchase and sale) of goods, services, etc., since commerce takes place not only in the sphere of commodity circulation. In market conditions, in addition to goods and services, money, new technologies, products of intellectual labor, and other products of real value are sold.
In a market economy, commercial activity is carried out through the implementation of its inherent functions.
In our opinion, the study of commercial activity should begin with the identification of main and subordinate functions. This provision is especially important when solving such practical issues as the development of a system of evaluation indicators of commercial activities, the development of criteria and indicators of the effectiveness of commercial activities, the development of a system for stimulating the work of employees of commercial enterprises.
The main objective function of commercial activity is making a profit. Methods and techniques for obtaining this result are reproduced in the implementation of other functions.
Thus, there is a main target function of commercial activity - making a profit, and all the others through which it manifests itself are subordinate. These are specific commercial functions. Their implementation leads to commercial activities.
Based on the fact that the essence of an object or phenomenon is determined by its main target function, and the main target function of commercial activity is making a profit, its essence consists of making a profit through the purchase and sale of goods, services, products of intellectual labor, etc.
In modern economic literature, authors identify a number of functions implemented by commerce. Thus, the following functions are distinguished: exchange (change of forms of value, change of forms of ownership), information, related to the organization of the purchase and sale process, the organization of sales activities, the organization of customer service, etc. Moreover, some functions are called basic, others - non-basic.
In order for the purchase and sale of a product or service to be completed, it is necessary to carry out certain interrelated actions (implement the following functions):
Research and analyze the market for goods or services;
Determine needs for goods or services;
Find a seller or buyer of goods or services;
Negotiate with him on the upcoming deal;
Conclude a transaction-contract with him, in which all the conditions are stipulated: the product (service), its quantity, quality, price, delivery time, etc.;
Fulfill the contract: organize the wholesale purchase of goods, wholesale or retail sale of goods, make payments for the delivered goods;
Organize the sale of services.
These operations constitute the content of commercial activities (CA).
All subordinate functions of the business enterprise consist of a certain hierarchy relative to the main function - making a profit. Functions that directly “serve” the main function (on the implementation of which profit directly depends) are subordinate functions of the 1st order.
Those functions of commercial activity that are aimed at creating the necessary conditions for the implementation of subordinate functions of the first order are classified as subordinate functions of the 2nd order. These include:
Financial support - involves the capitalization of profits, accumulation of income from sales, mobilization of finance from external sources (investors and creditors), management of the use of capital and income, control and management of settlements with suppliers and customers. Financial support is a primary condition for commercial activity, since the enterprise constantly needs funds to carry out its functions. To effectively manage the assortment, financial sources of cash flow are required, including equity and borrowed capital. On the other hand, the assortment dictates the amount and structure of financial resources for the purchase and maintenance of the necessary product groups.
Logistics support is associated with the acquisition of machinery, equipment, raw materials, components, inventory, that is, everything that is necessary for economic activity. Logistics support is aimed at creating optimal material conditions for carrying out commercial activities, including assortment management. They presuppose the presence of premises, trade and technological equipment, inventory and other items necessary for the implementation of the trade and technological process with product groups that make up the trade assortment. The need for material resources depends on the range of goods sold in the store.
Purchasing labor - by hiring employees is intended to provide a personal factor carrying out commercial activities. For an enterprise to be competitive and operate successfully in the market, it requires qualified personnel with knowledge and experience in assortment management. On the other hand, the assortment specialization of the store determines the parameters and requirements for hired workers.
Information support - through the systematic collection, processing and analysis of the necessary information of an external and internal nature, supplies commercial specialists with relevant information to make the right decisions in the purchase and sale processes. The basis for successful implementation of assortment management is its information support. It involves studying the market conditions of buyers and suppliers, the enterprise’s own capabilities, and determining the effectiveness of assortment management. This allows you to make the right decisions regarding the purchase of necessary goods. The main objectives of information support are to obtain reliable information from buyers about demand and transfer it in full to suppliers.
Thus, commercial activity is a set of processes and operations aimed at purchasing and selling goods, services, money, new technologies, products of intellectual labor, etc. for the purpose of making a profit.
We must not forget, however, that all these actions are carried out only in order to make a profit, and the functions in which the content of commercial activity is manifested serve to implement the main target function, that is, they are of a subordinate nature.
Some economists attribute these processes and operations to the essence of commercial activity, and consider its content to be “operations related to the implementation of commercial activity,...operations performed at the appropriate stage of commercial activity.” Here, in our opinion, there is a substitution of the essence of commercial activity with content, and the content with technological processes in trade, which are the object of study in the discipline “Organization and Technology of Trade”.
Based on the nature of the functions performed, the processes performed in trade can be divided into two main types:
Commercial (or purely trading);
Production (or technological).
Commercial processes are associated with a change in forms of value, i.e. with the purchase and sale of goods. These also include organizational and economic processes that are not directly related to acts of purchase and sale, but ensure the continuity of their implementation and are not of a production (technological) nature (studying consumer demand, concluding sales contracts; advertising, etc.).
Commercial processes are the object of commercial activity in trade.
Technological processes are associated with the movement of goods as a use value and are a continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation (transportation, storage, packaging, packing, subsorting, etc.).
Technological processes are the object of study in the special discipline “Organization and Technology of Trade”.
Let's consider the points of view of some experts regarding the basic principles of commercial activity (Table 1).
Table 1
The organization of commercial activities in market conditions is considered; factors influencing its effectiveness. The role of business entities in the market is characterized. The main forms, methods and tools of commercial activity in wholesale and retail trade are described. The previous edition was published in 2010. For students of the specialty “Commercial activity (merchandising)” of secondary specialized education institutions, students of higher education institutions, trade specialists, and entrepreneurs.
A series: University For students of higher educational institutions
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by liters company.
1. The essence and content of commercial activity in the market of goods and services
1.1. Commercial activity as an economic category, its essence and goals
The concept of “commercial activity”
It is important to clearly define the concept of “commercial activity” and the relationship with other related categories, such as “business”, “entrepreneurship”, “marketing”, in order to understand the economic meaning and role of commercial activity in the business sector.
Business - a general economic term that characterizes the economic activities of entities in a certain area of entrepreneurship, generating income or providing benefits in the presence of a certain risk.
Entrepreneurship in accordance with the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus, it represents the independent activity of legal entities and individuals, the product of whose activity is intended for sale to other persons in order to make a profit, carried out at their own risk, on their own behalf and under their own property liability.
Marketing in a broad sense, it is considered as a philosophy, a market concept of entrepreneurship and offers tools, methods, techniques with which you can achieve your goals. These tools and methods are used in commercial activities in the market of goods and services to perform their own functions and operations. There is a direct connection between marketing and commercial activities due to the homogeneity of their goals: making a profit by satisfying customer needs. But there are also differences: marketing acts as a concept aimed at creating a need, demand, and incentive to buy, but does not serve the buying and selling process itself. This function is performed by commercial activities, through commercial operations that have an absolutely independent meaning and are not covered by marketing. Therefore, it is possible to achieve a common goal and the desired effect using marketing and commerce together.
Thus, commercial activity is an independent type of activity, which is based on market laws and principles, manifests itself in various forms and occupies an important place in the sphere of circulation.
In the economic literature there are various definitions of commercial activity. The term “commerce” (from the Latin commercium – trade) has a dual meaning: firstly, it covers the trade industry, and secondly, trade processes aimed at activating and implementing purchase and sale, accompanied by a commercial transaction, exchange and promotion of goods to the final consumer. In this case, in a market economy, the general medium of exchange is money, and the place of exchange of goods for money is the market, which most fully reflects commercial activity.
Based on the above, we can formulate the concept of commercial activity in the market of goods and services, which best reflects its essence and specific features.
Commercial activities in the market of goods and services represents organizational and economic operations serving exchange, performing acts of purchase and sale in order to obtain profit (benefit) through the best satisfaction of demand.
Commercial activity involves the implementation of a complex of trade and organizational operations and their management. It is based on theoretical and practical knowledge of the organization and technology of commercial operations.
In order for an exchange to take place, it is necessary to perform interrelated actions, arranged in a certain sequence, ensuring the organizational, economic, social and legal aspects of the process. These activities are of a commercial nature. These include: studying the market and determining the need for goods, searching for suppliers, buyers, concluding contracts, ensuring their implementation, etc. Through commercial activities, connections between manufacturers of goods and end consumers are established, and exchange management is carried out. The transactions carried out in the process of this activity are of a commercial nature and affect the final results of the work of trading organizations.
The economic nature of commercial activity determines the increase in its role in the development of market relations. In this case, it is necessary to focus on the following important characteristics of commercial activity:
It is carried out in the process of exchange of labor products of economically independent subjects;
Promotes the alienation of labor products from their owner and for the exchange and satisfaction of other people's needs;
Promotes exchange organized according to the laws of economic feasibility.
The above emphasizes that commercial activity should be focused on achieving the desired economic and financial results within the legal framework, and not only on the qualified technical performance of operations serving the purchase and sale process.
The success of commercial activity is determined by its continuous cycle, which involves the implementation of the economic essence:
Optimization of costs when purchasing facilities, equipment, raw materials, involvement of labor, information, financial and other resources in the formation of the infrastructure of commercial entities;
Formation of profitability potential by reducing all types of costs;
Optimizing sales profits through innovative and efficient technologies.
Interruption of this cycle and failure to implement the targets outlined at each of the listed stages lead to an increase in commercial risks up to and including bankruptcy.
The essence of commercial activity
Commercial activity acts as a way to implement commercial relations between market entities, which become dominant in a market-oriented economy. These relations are designed to stimulate production, develop needs, and intensify commodity-money exchange. Therefore, commercial activity, being an objectively necessary category of a market economy, has priority importance and occupies a leading place.
The essence of commercial activity is an integrated approach to organizing a set of commercial processes and operations aimed at performing commercial functions in the implementation of commodity-money exchange at all its phases.
As noted above, commercial activities include processes and operations of an organizational, managerial, legal and economic nature. It does not cover technological operations performed along the entire path of movement of goods from production to the consumer, such as loading, unloading, packaging, packaging, storage, sorting, and preparing goods for sale. These operations reflect the technology of trading processes. Commercial activities and technology of trading processes are interrelated, but each of them has its own place and functions.
Without commercial activity there can be no technology, just as without technology there can be no commercial activity. These disciplines form the system of functioning of the trading industry. Commercial activity takes place not only in the trading industry, but also in manufacturing, in the service sector, in the market for intellectual property, technology, and securities. It is based on the organization and management of commercial processes.
Commercial process means the sequential execution of operations that provide organizational, economic, social, legal aspects of commodity-money exchange.
The set of specific operations depends on what stage of the exchange the commercial process serves and according to what scheme the exchange is carried out. For example, in the presence of intermediaries, the path of movement of commodity-money exchange is as follows: manufacturer → one or more wholesale intermediaries → retail trade → final consumer, and in their absence: manufacturer → final consumer without intermediaries. Commercial operation is an important component of commercial activity, which is a set of techniques and methods that ensure the functioning of different stages of commodity-money exchange. All commercial operations can be divided into main and auxiliary. Some of them have specific features (for example, exchange, auction operations).
Thus, commercial activity consists of commercial processes and transactions that take place in the interaction of market entities with the aim of ensuring the effective exchange of goods and services.
Commercial activity as a function ensures consistency and complexity, integrating organizational, managerial, financial, economic, and legal aspects of the entire exchange system, in order to achieve the greatest efficiency and profit. In a market economy, this function is a priority, as it can ensure a foothold in the market, competitive advantages, and prevent bankruptcy. It ensures success not only in the national market, but also in foreign markets, serving international exchange. It is necessary to study the specifics, advanced achievements in this area and use all the best in practical work.
Purpose of business activity
The main goal of commercial activity is to make a profit. It can be implemented in various fields of activity: production, trading, financial, exchange, intermediary, etc. Most often, entities are forced to engage in several types of activities, diversify them, responding to market changes.
Despite the fact that in the conditions of development of market relations the role of commercialization (making a profit) is increasing, solving social problems is also important. On the part of the state, a system of economic levers must be defined that ensures the solution of social problems while creating favorable conditions for effective commercial activity. This type of activity should be beneficial to everyone who is engaged in it, ensure active development of the economy and sufficient flow of funds to solve social problems.
At the same time, making a profit is also an intermediate goal for both businessmen and the state. Profit is necessary to satisfy certain needs, solve assigned tasks, achieve intended goals, and ensure innovative development. If consumption is activated, production also develops, and the economy as a whole revives. Needs are the driving force of commercial activity: no need - no demand, no need for the production of goods; no profit - no investment, no development. Therefore, commercial success lies in finding and creating needs and the most effective ways to satisfy them. This is done through the implementation of deeds of sale and purchase. It is important to track how much profit is made and how it is used. Commercial goals must be achieved not at any cost, but through the implementation of the most effective commercial solutions.
1.2. The role of commercial activity in a competitive environment
Prerequisites for changing the role of commercial activity in new economic conditions
In a market economy, when carrying out commercial activities, economic management methods should be used to a greater extent, focused on making a profit by meeting consumer demand.
The creation of favorable conditions for the development and improvement of commercial activities, which play a significant role in the socio-economic development of the country, is facilitated by Directive No. 4 of December 31, 2010 “On the development of entrepreneurial initiative and stimulation of business activity in the Republic of Belarus”, which provides for the development of fair competition, increased the quality of legal regulation and responsibility of business entities, the creation of equal working conditions in the territory of the single customs space of Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan.
In this case, in order to adapt commercial activities to market conditions, it is necessary to form preconditions, most favorable for the active development of commodity-money relations. The most important of them are:
Legal equality of all forms of ownership;
Economic independence of economic market entities, their responsibility for the results of their work;
Freedom to enter the market;
Demonopolization, denationalization, ensuring the emergence of a large number of competitors on the market, creating conditions for healthy competition;
Free pricing that balances supply and demand;
Sustainable financial system;
Openness of the economy;
Development of market infrastructure.
The creation of a market mechanism requires a long time for reforms. It is important to correctly determine the role of the state in the formation of market relations, the degree and forms of participation. This role should manifest itself:
In improving the legal framework that promotes the development of market relations;
Stabilization of the economy;
Using an effective tax and credit system;
Customs policy;
Protection of competition;
Protection of consumer rights;
Formation of a mechanism for managing natural and raw materials, ensuring their effective use and increase.
Directions for improving commercial activities
As market relations develop, there is a need to improve commercial activities as follows:
Adapt commercial functions and operations to market conditions;
Create competitive advantages of the product, concentrate efforts by improving sales methods and service support;
Calculate commercial risks and take proactive measures to reduce them;
Constantly improve the qualifications of commercial service employees, providing a creative, innovative approach to solving assigned tasks;
Use a strategic approach to organizing commercial activities, ensuring its dynamic development for a long period;
Effectively satisfy existing needs, create new ones, develop demand, search for additional market segments, create competitive advantages;
To achieve profit through the best satisfaction of consumer demand while reducing costs.
The use of principles, tools and methods of marketing in its organization contributes to increasing the efficiency of commercial activities. This will focus commercial activities on specific consumers, their requirements for goods and sales. This approach allows you to achieve your goals while reducing costs and commercial risks.
Let's consider the features of commercial activities based on the marketing concept.
Trade organizations that operate in market conditions are forced to use other methods to make a profit - the main commercial goal. This goal can be achieved primarily by identifying, shaping and satisfying customer needs. To solve this problem, more attention needs to be paid to marketing research, analysis and use of the information obtained to justify commercial decisions.
If a trading organization sets itself the goal of achieving profit and a stable position in the market, then it is forced to use the most effective tools and methods that marketing offers. The tougher the competition, the more actively and competently it is necessary to do this. Competition forces us to constantly improve our business activities using an innovative approach.
Commercial activity in market conditions with a high level of market saturation with goods should be aimed at a comprehensive study of the market and consumer requirements for goods and services, and effective management of commercial processes. To do this, it is necessary to use market mechanisms for managing commercial activities, economically justify commercial decisions that ensure the most complete consideration of the interests of specific consumers and satisfy them at the lowest cost.
In a competitive environment, it is not enough to pay attention only to the product and its quality; it is very important to strengthen the commercial and marketing support of the product, which is an active means of competition in the market.
The use of marketing concept tools in commercial activities in new economic conditions will improve its efficiency, ensure the formation of competitive advantages, and solve strategic problems. This is precisely the practical significance of marketing when applied in commercial activities in the consumer market in new economic conditions.
Factors determining the development of commercial activities
Commercial activity is carried out in a certain environment, under the influence of which the tools and methods used in solving the tasks change. This necessitates the identification of factors that have the most significant impact on commercial activities.
Factors that determine the development of commercial activities can be divided into external and internal.
TO external factors, independent of trade organizations include:
Economic liberalization;
Economic development trends;
The degree of development of commodity-money relations;
Income level, their growth rate;
Taxation and financing system;
Legislative framework, its stability and loyalty to business;
The degree of favorable external environment for the development of commercial activities;
The degree of diversity of organizational and legal forms of commercial entities operating in the market, forming a competitive environment;
Trends in the development of foreign economic relations.
Internal factors, which depend on the activities of trade organizations are:
The degree of efficiency and adaptation to real conditions of forms and methods of working with subjects of commercial relations and consumers;
Scale of commercial activity;
The structure of the commercial apparatus, its qualifications, performance;
Effectiveness of commercial strategy;
Innovativeness of commercial solutions;
Use of modern achievements and best practices in organizing commercial activities.
1.3. Principles, functions, tasks of commercial activity in modern conditions
Business Principles
Principles commercial activities are the basic provisions and rules that reflect its nature and emphasize the features of its organization in the market for goods and services. They are based on the laws of the market and are fundamental in organizing relationships between commercial entities.
Commercial activity in a market economy is based on the following principles:
Economic freedom of business entities;
Competitiveness;
Adaptability;
Risk reduction;
Efficiency.
Principle economic freedom assumes that commercial entities are free to choose partners for commercial transactions, forms and methods of interaction with them, and independently determine the volume and structure of purchases, terms of delivery, and mutual responsibility. The implementation of this principle is possible only in market conditions, when there are no limits, funds, quotas, attachment of buyers to suppliers, plans for the distribution of goods and other administrative measures. Refusal of them forces business entities to expand and intensify their initiative in commercial activities and take responsibility for the validity of decisions made.
Principle competitiveness is that in a market economy there are many sellers with an identical range of goods and buyers have a choice, which increases competition. Competitors are forced to fight for their market share, for their consumers, which forces them to find ways to stand out using both price and non-price methods, improve commercial activities, perform commercial operations better than competitors, and secure competitive advantages in the market. The implementation of the principle of competitiveness gives dynamism to commercial activity, forces it to quickly respond to customer requirements and changes in market conditions. To implement it, it is necessary to justify and anticipate the results of commercial activities based on deep knowledge, analysis and consideration of market factors. The foundation on which this work is built must ensure the stable development of the trading organization and its stable financial position in the market.
Adaptability as a principle of commercial activity expresses its ability to adapt to market conditions, to respond timely and adequately to its changes. This requires the development of forms and methods of managing commercial activities that are appropriate to the market environment and changing market conditions. A necessary condition for the implementation of this requirement is the decentralization of regulation of commercial activities, providing maximum economic and creative freedom to commercial entities.
Risk reduction is an integral principle of commercial activity. There are many business risk factors. Commercial activity is carried out in conditions of uncertainty, dynamic market conditions, a changing legal framework, credit system, taxation and other variables, which the subject of commercial relations often cannot influence, but is forced to look for ways to minimize risks. The search for acceptable solutions is an important component in increasing the efficiency of commercial activities, forcing specialists in this field to look for extraordinary, innovative solutions.
Efficiency commercial activity is associated with the need to make a profit by developing new markets, increasing sales volumes, accelerating product turnover, optimizing the assortment, improving service culture, creating a positive image, and making informed commercial decisions. The implementation of this principle should be approached in a differentiated manner: in some markets immediate results are needed, in others it is necessary to work for the future, to the detriment of today's results. We must not forget about social efficiency, health protection, environmental protection, safety, and service culture. Ultimately, commercial activities must bring profit to business entities.
Functions of commercial activity
As already noted, commercial activity in the new economic conditions is based on the laws of the market, which determines it functions.
The concept of commercial activity in a market economy requires a clear justification of its strategy and the development of effective implementation tactics.
Based on this concept, commercial activities should perform the following functions:
Justification of the behavior of a trade organization in the market, increasing influence on it in order to optimize the range and profit, increase competitiveness, and the level of trade service;
An integrated approach to organizing commercial activities, ensuring the effective operation of all departments of the trade organization;
Management of purchase and sale in order to ensure the economic interest of all participants in the commercial process and the stability of economic relations;
Study and development of potential needs, markets, segments in order to create competitive advantages;
Adaptation of commercial activities to the market environment in order to timely and adequately respond to its changes;
Optimization of costs associated with commercial activities, preparation and execution of commercial transactions.
Objectives of commercial activity
In the process of commercial activity, both economic and social tasks. The goal that comes to the fore is to make a profit, which also serves as a means for solving other equally significant problems, including social ones, and presupposes high economic training of a specialist in commercial work.
The main objectives of commercial activity are:
Formation of relations between economic entities in the market on a mutually beneficial basis;
Increasing the role of supply contracts, strengthening contractual discipline;
Development of stable direct economic relations, increasing their efficiency;
Protecting the interests of consumers, ensuring their priority;
Introduction of progressive methods of wholesale and retail trade;
Increasing the level of work on studying demand, economic justification for the need for goods;
Improving the mechanism for managing commodity resources, supply and demand, creating a competitive assortment;
Promotion of sales of goods, maintenance, provision of additional services;
Timely and adequate response to changes occurring in the market.
Achieving a positive commercial result requires efforts to increase the advantages of a trading organization in any situation, even if it operates successfully in the market. Commercial work must be carried out actively, ensuring a systematic increase in the volume of sales of goods and services while ensuring the profitable operation of the trading organization.
1.4. Subjects of legal relations and objects in commercial activities
Based on the fact that the implementation of commercial operations is a management activity, it is assumed that there are entities carrying out it and objects to which this activity is directed. The most favorable conditions for the development of commercial activity are equality of subjects of all forms of ownership, voluntary, mutually beneficial interaction of subjects operating in the market, free pricing, economic responsibility for decisions made, fair competition, balancing the roles, functions and tasks of the state and commercial subjects.
To understand the mechanism of relationships between participants in the market for goods and services, let us consider the main components of this system. These include subjects and objects of commercial legal relations involved in wholesale and retail trade in certain territories. With their help, the circulation of goods in commodity markets is ensured through purchase and sale, which serves commercial activities.
Characteristics of subjects of commercial legal relations in the market of consumer goods and services
According to the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus (Article 46), economic entities by legal status can be commercial and non-profit organizations. Commercial are organizations that consider making a profit as the main goal of their activities and distribute it among participants. Non-profit are considered organizations that do not have the goal of making a profit and distributing it among participants (public, religious organizations (associations), charitable foundations, etc., which are created to achieve social, environmental, charitable, cultural, educational, spiritual goals).
The legal status of organizations is determined depending on who and to what extent is liable for obligations, who has the right to enter into contracts on behalf of the organization, what is the procedure for taxation of profits received, reporting forms, liquidation procedure and other extremely important issues when establishing business relations with partners On the market.
The subjects of commercial legal relations are the parties entering into contractual relations for the purchase and sale of goods or the provision of services.
Let's consider entities pursuing commercial goals.
As subjects of commercial legal relations in trade are legal entities and individual entrepreneurs engaged in trade and registered in the prescribed manner (STB 1393–2003 “Trade. Terms and definitions”). They are entitled to carry out commercial transactions in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Belarus.
Legal entities - organizations that have separate property in ownership, economic management or operational management, bear independent responsibility for their obligations, can acquire and exercise property and personal non-property rights in their own name, perform duties, be a plaintiff and defendant in court, having passed the state procedure in accordance with the established procedure registration as a legal entity or recognized as such by legislative act. Legal entities must have an independent balance sheet (Article 44 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Individual entrepreneurs are individuals (citizens) engaged in entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity from the moment of state registration as an individual entrepreneur (Article 22 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
The mechanism for regulating relations between business entities in trade should be considered as an integral part of the general mechanism for regulating legal relations between business entities in general in the market. It includes the following components:
Legal relations with government bodies at all levels;
Relations of organizations and enterprises with each other;
Legal norms for organizing economic relations;
Legal relations in arbitration consideration of economic disputes.
Subjects of legal relations of commercial activity can be created in the following organizational and legal forms (Article 46 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus):
Business partnerships and societies;
Production and consumer cooperatives;
Unitary enterprises;
Peasant (farm) farms.
It is allowed to create associations of commercial organizations and (or) individual entrepreneurs in the form of holdings, associations and unions, state associations.
The main differences between the above forms are the ownership of capital, separate property, which can be owned, economic management, operational management, as well as in the appropriation and distribution of profits, liability for obligations.
Economic partnerships And societies commercial organizations with a charter fund divided into shares (shares) between founders (participants) are recognized. Property created through the contributions of the founders, as well as produced and acquired by them in the process of economic activity, belongs to the partnership or company by right of ownership (Article 63 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Business partnerships can be created in the form of a full or limited partnership.
The partnership is complete in the event that, in accordance with the agreement concluded between them, all participants (general partners) are engaged in entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and jointly and severally bear subsidiary liability with their property for the obligations of the partnership (Article 66 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Limited is considered a partnership in which, in addition to general partners, there are one or more participants (investors, limited partners) who bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the partnership, within the limits of the amounts of contributions made by them, and do not take part in the partnership’s business activities (Article 81 of the Civil Code The Republic of Belarus).
TO business companies include: limited liability companies, additional liability companies, joint-stock companies, subsidiaries and dependent business companies.
Limited Liability Company (LLC) established by two or more persons. The number of participants must not exceed the limit established by legislative acts, otherwise the company is subject to reorganization within a year. The authorized capital of the LLC is divided into shares of sizes determined by the founders. Participants in the company are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, within the value of the contributions they made (Articles 87–93 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Additional liability company (ALC) established by two or more persons. The authorized capital of an ODO is divided into shares, which are determined by the constituent documents. The participants of such a company jointly and severally bear subsidiary liability for its obligations with their property within the limits determined by the constituent documents, but not less than the amount established by the legislative acts of the Republic of Belarus. In case of economic insolvency (bankruptcy) of one of the participants, his responsibility for the obligations of the company is distributed among the remaining participants in proportion to their contributions, unless a different distribution procedure is provided for by the constituent documents of the company (Article 94 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Joint Stock Company (JSC) has an authorized capital divided into a certain number of shares with the same par value. Shareholders (participants of a joint stock company) are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with its activities within the limits of the value of the shares they own (Article 96 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus). The following organizational forms of joint stock companies are possible:
An open joint-stock company (OJSC) is characterized by the fact that its participant can alienate his shares without the consent of other shareholders to an unlimited number of persons. Such a joint-stock company has the right to conduct an open subscription for the shares it issues and freely sell them under the conditions established by the legislation on securities. In the case of placement of additionally issued shares at the expense of the own funds of this company and (or) its shareholders, as well as in other cases provided for by legislative acts, the JSC may carry out a closed (among a limited circle of persons) placement of additionally issued shares (Article 97 of the Civil Code of the Republic Belarus);
A closed joint-stock company (CJSC) is a company in which a participant can alienate shares owned by him only with the consent of other shareholders and (or) to a limited circle of persons. A closed joint stock company has the right to carry out only closed (among a limited circle of persons) placement of additionally issued shares. Shareholders of a CJSC have a pre-emptive right to purchase shares sold by other shareholders of this company (Article 97 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus);
Subsidiaries and dependent business companies.
Subsidiaries A business company is recognized if another (main) business company or partnership has the power of a predominant participation in its authorized capital, or the power of a predominant participation is determined by an agreement concluded between them. In this case, the decisions of the main company (partnership) are decisive. The subsidiary is not liable for the debts of the parent company (partnership). The parent company is jointly and severally liable with the subsidiary for transactions concluded by the subsidiary on the instructions of the parent company. In the event of bankruptcy of a subsidiary due to the fault of the main company, the latter bears subsidiary liability for its debts (Article 105 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Dependent A company is recognized as a business company if another business company has a share (shares) in the authorized capital of this company in an amount corresponding to 20% or more of the total number of votes that it can use at the general meeting of participants of such a company (Article 106 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus ).
Production cooperatives (artels) are commercial organizations. Their participants are required to make a property share contribution, take personal labor participation in the activities of the production cooperative, bear subsidiary liability for its obligations in equal shares or in the amounts established by the charter, but not less than the amount of annual income received in the production cooperative (Article 107 of the Civil Code of the Republic Belarus).
Unitary enterprise (UE) A commercial organization is recognized that is not vested with the right of ownership to the property assigned to it by the owner. The property of a unitary enterprise is indivisible and is not distributed among contributions (shares, shares), including among employees of the enterprise. In the form of unitary enterprises, state (republican or communal) unitary enterprises (their property is in state ownership) and private (their property is in the private property of an individual or legal entity) can be created. There are unitary enterprises based on the right of economic management and on the right of operational management (state-owned enterprise).
Property republican unitary enterprise (RUE) is owned by the Republic of Belarus and belongs to the UE And operational management.
By decision of the Government of the Republic of Belarus, on the basis of property owned by the republic, a unitary enterprise based on the right can be formed operational management, so-called government enterprise, the constituent document of which is the charter approved by the Council of Ministers. The Republic of Belarus bears subsidiary liability for the obligations of a state-owned enterprise if its property is insufficient. A state-owned enterprise may be reorganized or liquidated by decision of the Government.
Property communal unitary enterprise is owned by an administrative-territorial unit and belongs to such an enterprise
Property private unitary enterprise is privately owned by an individual (joint property of spouses or a peasant (farm) enterprise) or legal entity and belongs to such an enterprise on the right of economic management.
Property subsidiary unitary enterprises is owned by the founder owner and belongs to the subsidiary on the right of economic management(Article 113115 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Peasant (farm) holding a commercial organization is recognized, created by one citizen (members of the same family), who made property contributions for the implementation of entrepreneurial activities in the production of agricultural products, as well as their processing, storage, transportation and sale, based on his (their) personal labor participation and use of land in accordance with the legislation on the protection and use of land. A peasant (farm) enterprise is liable for its obligations with all the property belonging to it (Articles 115-1, 115-2 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
To increase the efficiency of management of state-owned enterprises, one can resort to the separation of management and economic functions by creating associations(including with the participation of foreign capital), associations, unions, financial and industrial groups, holding companies, determined by legislation relating to such groups. The first document implementing legal regulation of the creation of holdings (holding companies and other business groups) in the Republic of Belarus is Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus dated December 28, 2009 No. 660 “On some issues of the creation and activities of holdings in the Republic of Belarus.” A holding, unlike business groups, not being a legal entity, is an association of commercial organizations (holding members), in which one of them (the management company) has the opportunity to influence decisions made by other commercial organizations - holding participants (subsidiaries of the holding ). Appear cooperative-integrated associations, including the production of agricultural products, their processing and trade (for example, the Grodno Association of Bread Products, the cooperative farm “Snov”, etc.).
The diversity of business entities makes it possible to develop market infrastructure and create the most favorable environment for effective commercial activity. Subjects of commercial relationships can be both public and private, and carry out their activities individually and in a collective form.
Subjects of state ownership (republican and municipal) occupy a leading position, which requires increasing the efficiency of their commercial work, ensuring rapid adaptation to the market situation.
The development of market relations determined the growth of subjects of commercial legal relations based on private property. This process is most active in the trading industry. On the basis of private property, commercial activities are carried out by both individual citizens and their teams (enterprises, organizations).
Enterprise As an object of law, a property complex used to carry out business activities is recognized. The enterprise as a whole or its individual parts may be the object of purchase and sale, pledge, lease and other transactions (Article 132 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus).
Company - This is a general name used in relation to many organizations (enterprises) engaged in commercial activities for the purpose of making a profit. They can have different volumes of activity, or they can be very small.
Those who are not owners can also engage in commercial activities. For example, there are intermediaries working in the market who do not assume ownership of the goods, do not own property, but derive profit from their activities and appropriate it. They are also participants in commercial activities, performing specific operations.
Industrial enterprises and trade organizations of various forms of ownership and departmental affiliation operate as subjects of commercial relations in the market of the Republic of Belarus.
With the development of market relations, the organizational and legal forms of entities engaged in the implementation of commercial activities are improving and becoming more diverse. More favorable conditions are being created for the activation of small and medium-sized businesses. Persons engaged in commercial activities without forming a legal entity may use the right granted by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus to create simple partnerships. In this case, two or more persons enter into a joint activity agreement, pledging to combine their contributions and act together without forming a legal entity (after registration and obtaining a license, if required by law) to make a profit within the legal framework.
Trade is divided into domestic and foreign. Domestic trade is carried out in the domestic market of the country and covers wholesale and retail trade.
In the trade sector, commercial activities are carried out by public and private trade organizations.
TO state include trade organizations of ministries, departments, committees: Ministry of Trade, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ministry of Transport and Communications, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Communications and Informatization, etc. In the consumer market of the Republic of Belarus, a number of concerns subordinate to the government act as state entities of commercial transactions :
Belarusian State Concern for Oil and Petroleum Products (Belneftekhim Concern);
Belarusian State Concern for the Production and Sales of Light Industry Goods (Bellegprom Concern);
Belarusian State Concern of the Food Industry (Belgospischeprom Concern);
Belarusian production and trading concern of the forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries (Bellesbumprom concern), etc.
They carry out wholesale and retail trade, including through a network of their company stores.
Commercial participants (legal entities and individuals) operate on the market. with private ownership. In the trading industry their number is increasing. Among them, it is worth highlighting business entities of consumer cooperation, cooperatives, individual entrepreneurs (individuals), organizations and enterprises with foreign capital.
Subjects of commercial legal relations can be entrepreneurs' unions. Unlike firms (enterprises), the purpose of their activities is not to make a profit, but to represent and protect the interests of their constituent groups of entrepreneurs in government bodies, to promote and support the expansion of their activities. They can provide advisory assistance, assistance in personnel training, standardization and certification of products, etc. They are created in the form of unions, associations, federations, etc., they can be industry-specific (for example, in the chemical industry) or unions by type of activity (in industry, trade, etc.).
As a rule, entrepreneurs' unions do not act on the market as an economic entity, but nevertheless, on behalf of trade organizations and production enterprises that are members of the union, they can do this.
The parties entering into contractual relations for the purchase and sale of goods or provision of services may be government bodies(various ministries and departments). They do not consider the main goal to enter directly into economic relations, and in most cases they are representatives and defenders of the interests of their organizations and enterprises and can carry out direct purchase and sale transactions on their behalf. Examples include the ministries of agriculture and food, health, and industry.
Situations are possible when relationships involving the purchase and sale of goods and services are entered into by public organizations. These may be international organizations of the UN system, which act as large buyers of goods, medicines, medical equipment, services, etc., when implementing some international programs (for example, when providing assistance to victims of accidents and natural disasters). In addition, such public organizations as the Society of Hunters and Fishermen, the Union of Artists, the Society for Nature Conservation, the Society of the Disabled, the Defense Sports and Technical Society, the Physical Culture and Sports Society "Dynamo", the Society of the Deaf, and the Association of the Visually Impaired operate in the market of the Republic of Belarus. and etc.
The subjects of commercial legal relations of the Belarusian Republican Union of Consumer Societies (“Belkoopsoyuz”) are: own manufacturing enterprises, cooperative procurement industries, wholesalers, wholesale-retail, retail organizations, markets, unitary enterprises.
Own enterprises Consumer cooperatives are mostly engaged in the production of food products (bakery plants, agricultural processing enterprises, sausage shops, mini-factories for the production of drinks, ice cream, etc.).
Koopzagotpromy purchase and sell fruits and vegetables, nuts, honey, mushrooms, fur, leather raw materials, etc. Their activities should provide a high level of trade services to the rural population in accordance with the Rural Development and Rural Entrepreneurship Program. The interaction of consumer cooperation organizations with personal subsidiary plots and peasant (farm) enterprises will create the conditions for ensuring sustainable economic growth of consumer cooperation and improving the quality of life of rural residents.
Active commercial activity in the market of goods and services is carried out by wholesale, wholesale-retail and retail business entities.
IN wholesale trade such entities are wholesale organizations with their own infrastructure (wholesale bases, commodity warehouses, refrigerated warehouses, fruit and vegetable warehouses, wholesale food markets, etc.).
IN consumer cooperation an important place is occupied by such commercial entities as republican, regional, interdistrict and district wholesale depots, refrigerators, storage facilities, unitary trade organizations and enterprises that purchase goods, seasonal agricultural products, printed products (regional book trading) for subsequent wholesale and uninterrupted supply of retail trade networks of its area of activity.
In the field trade intermediation commercial activities are carried out by exchanges, auctions, agency organizations, distributors, consignors, brokers, brokerage houses, leasing, factoring companies, etc.
TO wholesale and retail organizations include business entities that combine the functions of wholesale procurement and retail sale of goods directly to end consumers for personal use. For example, the Trading House, as a subject of commercial relations, is a diversified organization engaged in wholesale and retail trade in a wide range of goods and services. In addition to direct purchase and sale transactions, its functions include credit and financial transactions, as well as various services.
IN retail trade commercial activities are carried out by trade organizations through stores of various formats, catering establishments, pharmacies, facilities selling printed materials, etc.
Retail trade organizations of consumer cooperation that carry out commercial activities include district consumer societies, cooperative department stores, unitary enterprises, etc.
Trade organizations of consumer cooperation can carry out other types of activities in addition to purchase and sale operations.
Objects of commercial transactions in the consumer market
Objects of commercial transactions As managerial activities in the consumer market are goods and services. Let's take a closer look at them.
Product is a product of labor that satisfies any needs of the buyer, intended for exchange in the form of purchase and sale. Thus, a product includes any thing that is not limited in circulation, freely alienable and transferred from one person to another under a sales contract.
Service - the result of the activities of a subject of commercial relations, aimed at assisting customers when making a purchase, delivering goods and during use, in order to satisfy the needs of customers and increase competitiveness and commercial results.
The active saturation of the market with goods and services, their diversity and increased consumer demands for them determine the need to improve commercial work.
Managing a product as an object of commercial legal relations involves systematizing information about it and using this information when making strategic and tactical decisions.
Services are very diverse and complex as an object of legal relations in commercial activities. Requirements for them from consumers are systematically growing, they are becoming an important component of the competitiveness of a product on the market. Often, a product only together with the service and all the attributes (packaging, labeling, design, form, etc.) can provide a solution to the consumer’s problems and be competitive.
Objects of commercial activity in trade (goods and services) are subject to certain requirements, some of which are determined by international, national standards, current legislative and regulatory acts. Another part of the requirements, and what is especially important in conditions of increasing competition, is presented by the market, by consumers.
1.5. Characteristics of the main elements that determine the content of commercial activity
Elements of commercial activity
Let's consider the main elements that reflect the content of commercial activity.
1. Information support for commercial activities. The main source of obtaining the necessary commercial information is a comprehensive market study. It is important to know supply and demand, market conditions, information about the product, its consumer properties, quality, and purpose. To work successfully in the market, you should study in detail the consumer (the number of the population served, its structure, social composition, purchasing power) and competitors (their strengths and weaknesses, potential capabilities and intentions).
2. Determining the need for goods. At this stage of commercial work, based on the necessary information, it is necessary to determine the capacity of the market and its segments, justify the assortment structure of goods, delivery times and sizes of one-time batches.
3. Selecting partners for establishing business connections and distribution channels. This work begins with a study of possible sources of goods receipt, location of manufacturing enterprises, volumes and structure, goods offered by them, terms of delivery, forms of payment and methods of shipment, etc. Based on the information received, partners and participants in the distribution of goods are selected, and functions are distributed between them . This must be economically justified. When choosing partners to establish economic ties, you should strive to identify the most effective option.
4. Commercial activities to establish economic ties between partners. After selecting partners to bring goods to consumers, commercial operations are carried out to establish economic ties. This activity involves determining the form of economic relations, developing a draft agreement, the negotiation process to agree on the terms of the agreement, and signing the agreement.
5. Organization of wholesale purchases of goods. The presence of contractual relations between the supplier and the buyer presupposes the possibility of choosing organizational forms of procurement, conducting procurement using the most effective of them (wholesale fairs, exchange platforms, tenders). It is important to defend the most favorable terms of contracts, correctly arrange wholesale purchases and ensure the fulfillment of contractual obligations.
6. Commercial activities for the wholesale sale of goods. At this stage, it is necessary to select a form of wholesale sales, justify the feasibility of its use, determine operations that ensure effective sales in warehouse and transit forms, correctly register sales, and monitor compliance with the terms of the contract.
7. Commercial activities involving the organization of retail sales of goods. This part of commercial work is very responsible, since it is in the retail trade network that the process of bringing goods from production to the consumer is completed and the form of value changes; it is revealed how successful and expedient all the previous work was. The main commercial operations at this stage are managing the assortment of goods in stores, justifying the frequency and size of delivery batches, choosing forms and methods of sale, sales promotion, image formation, and merchandising.
8. Management of commodity resources. Considering that the demand for goods is dynamic and market conditions are changeable, the state of inventories in trade should be systematically monitored. The presence of goods in quantities exceeding needs leads to a slowdown in turnover and an increase in costs associated with their storage and sale. A shortage of goods can cause a decrease in sales volumes and a decrease in profits. Therefore, at this stage of commercial work, it is necessary to form commodity resources in accordance with demand, organize a rhythmic, uninterrupted supply of goods in the required batches, systematically monitor the movement of goods, sales deadlines, and make timely commercial decisions to manage them.
9. Work on promoting goods to the market, ensuring the formation of demand, stimulating the sale of goods. This work must be systematic and effective. It is achieved through the correct selection of tools and means that ensure their effective use, justification of the feasibility of their use, and evaluation of effectiveness. The main task at this stage of commercial activity is to provide effective advertising and information support for the product on the market, forming a positive attitude towards it in the buyer and encouraging action - purchasing the product.
10. Provision of services, service support of goods. With the development of the goods market, there is a need to expand the services provided to the population and business partners. As the market becomes saturated with goods and competition intensifies, services and their quality may become decisive for attracting buyers and strengthening positions in the market. Services must accompany the goods along the entire route of its movement. They appear in the pre-sale period, at the time of sale and in the post-sale period. The task is to study the needs of customers for services and offer those that they are willing to pay.
11. Development of a commercial strategy for a trading organization. Involves carrying out analytical work, using commercial information, defining the mission, goals and objectives of commercial activities, developing a strategy, assessing its effectiveness, developing tactics for its implementation, taking into account the potential of the trading organization and market conditions, monitoring implementation, timely adjustments when market conditions change.
Interrelation of elements of commercial activity
Commercial activity is systemic in nature, as it consists of individual elements (parts) that ensure the implementation of certain functions, combined to achieve a common goal. These elements interact with each other and the environment. The elements that form a commercial system are discussed above. Confirmation of consistency is the presence of the following properties:
Interaction and integrity - suggests that the elements included in a commercial activity are intended to perform different functions, but together provide unity of purpose and commercial focus;
The presence of a close connection between the elements of commercial activity requires high-quality implementation of each element to ensure the effectiveness of the system as a whole;
Organization – ensures the operation of all elements of the commercial system in the required sequence and with the required result, which contributes to orderliness and organization;
Integrativeness – defines an integrated approach to the use of all elements, ensures the cumulative effect of the commercial system.
No element of the commercial system can be excluded without compromising the final result. None of the elements, taken separately, can provide a solution to the set goals, but together in the system they enhance the positive result.
Commercial activities are carried out throughout the entire route of a product entering the market. In order for the promotion of goods to begin, it is necessary to perform a number of commercial operations: calculation and justification of the need for goods for the region both in volume and structure, selection of suppliers and ways to promote goods, conclusion of contracts for the supply of goods. Only after this does the distribution of goods begin.
Next, it is necessary to determine the commercial operations that must be carried out at the moment when the goods enter the sphere of circulation, into the wholesale chain: monitoring the execution of supply contracts, forming an assortment of wholesale bases, influencing manufacturers of goods regarding the release of the required assortment, concluding and fulfilling supply contracts with retailers trade, development of the commodity supply system.
In retail trade, commercial work involves organizing the sale of goods to customers: forming a product assortment in stores, choosing the most appropriate methods for selling goods and payment systems for them, intensifying sales and promoting sales, providing services, after-sales service.
Thus, we can distinguish groups of commercial operations serving various stages of the commercial process (Table 1.1).
TO first group These include operations that are performed when establishing relationships with manufacturing organizations.
Second group includes commercial work regulating the relationship between wholesale and retail trade.
Third group combines commercial operations related to the retail sale of goods.
Fourth group includes operations that are necessary to varying degrees along the entire distribution route from producer to consumer.
Depending on the chosen route of goods distribution and the system of economic relations, the number of commercial transactions, their sequence and significance are determined.
Considering that commercial activity is associated with the promotion of a product to the market and its sale, it is a special type of activity that always takes place when buying and selling occurs. The forms and methods of its implementation are different in different economic conditions.
In market conditions, the forms and methods of commercial activity undergo significant changes and must be improved.
Table 1.1
Commercial operations serving various stages of the commercial process
The main thing should be attention to the interests of the end consumer. In market conditions, a comprehensive study of the market, requirements for goods and methods of their sale, as well as for service, acquires exceptional importance. The merchant is obliged to provide effective use of the commercial activity management mechanism, which implies:
Deep knowledge and skillful application by business entities of the latest achievements in conducting commercial transactions;
Effective combination of main and supporting operations;
Rational use of the advantages arising from the specific situation in which commercial transactions have to be carried out;
Skillful application of forms and methods of trade in goods, services and management of this process.
The openness of the economy necessitates the unification of the elements of the economic mechanism regulating the sphere of exchange, forms and methods of conducting commercial transactions.
Features of commercial activities in wholesale trade
Features of commercial activity in wholesale trade determined by the fact that wholesale trade entities purchase goods in large quantities for the purpose of their subsequent sale to other business entities, usually in smaller quantities, at a profit for themselves. In addition, there is a need to provide various services to its wholesale customers.
This forces them to search for suppliers of goods and potential wholesale buyers. Operational efficiency is determined by how profitable the difference between costs and income will be for wholesale purchases and wholesale sales in the aggregate.
A feature of commercial activity in wholesale trade is the need to accumulate and create conditions for the safety of inventory, transform the production assortment into a commercial one, and ensure uninterrupted satisfaction of the demand of its customers both in terms of volume and assortment. In addition, the peculiarity of commercial work in the wholesale market involves performing a complex intermediary function between manufacturers of goods and retail trade organizations.
The peculiarity of commercial work is also due to the fact that the commercial services of wholesale trade organizations must have an effective system for collecting, processing and practical use of commercial information in order to ensure an active influence on the formation of the product range produced by commodity producers. On the other hand, commercial work in the wholesale market requires close interaction with its customers - retail trade organizations, individual retail outlets. There is a need to provide them with all possible practical assistance of a material, advertising, informational, and advisory nature.
Features of commercial activities in retail trade
Commercial work in retail has its own specific features. This is where the recognition or non-recognition of the product by the end consumer is carried out. If the consumer comes to the conclusion that the product, its service support, the availability of related products, as well as market attributes (trademark symbols) meet his requirements, he buys it. There is a change in the form of value and compensation for costs associated with the production and delivery of goods to the consumer. If the product does not find its buyer, then the costs increase with each day it is stored. This situation has a negative impact on the final results of the retail trade organization. Frequent repetition of a similar situation can lead to financial insolvency of a trading organization.
Therefore, we can conclude that the success of commercial work in retail trade largely depends on how skillfully and timely the commercial service can study, take into account and satisfy customer requirements. The result of this work is considered positive if the trade organization is able to create a competitive assortment of goods and promptly manage it.
The features of commercial work in retail trade are determined by the forms and methods of sales, their stimulation, service policy, and the need to take into account the interests of a huge number of customers whose requirements are changeable and purchase lots are small.
1.6. Commercial services of trade organizations, their functions
Commercial services of trade organizations, their functions
Commercial Services Depending on the goals and objectives, they have different structures and functions. In the conditions of market relations, there is a move away from unified organizational structures, as there is a need for their formation, taking into account adaptation to specific goals and objectives.
We can distinguish different levels of organization of commercial activity and its management:
Macro level (national economic);
Meso level (industry);
Micro level (level of a business entity).
On macro level The task is to coordinate the actions of all participants in commercial activities, to create a mechanism for balancing their interests and a legal framework for effective work. It is entrusted to the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus.
On meso level Trade management tasks are assigned to the Ministry of Trade of the Republic of Belarus, which is subordinate to the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus. Decisions made by the Ministry of Trade are binding on trade organizations at all levels, for business entities of different systems, organizational and legal forms and forms of ownership.
The Ministry of Trade has a vertical structure, including departments (departments) of local authorities. Main functions taking into account modern market standards are:
Implementation of state policy in the field of trade, public catering, consumer services;
Creating a competitive environment, overcoming monopolism in the sphere of commodity circulation, ensuring equality of all forms of ownership in trade;
Coordination of the activities of all state industry management bodies, local executive and administrative bodies and public organizations, elimination of regional and departmental barriers to the movement of goods, ensuring the necessary commodity flows to meet the needs of the domestic market;
Monitoring the situation in the domestic consumer market, ensuring access to the information received by legal entities and entrepreneurs to the information necessary to justify decisions made;
Strategic planning for trade development, identification of priority areas for the Republic of Belarus, development of draft republican programs for the development of the trade industry;
Generalizing the practice of applying the legislation of the Republic of Belarus in trade, ensuring control over its compliance by trade organizations of all forms of ownership, regardless of departmental affiliation, sending proposals for its improvement;
Protecting consumer rights and ensuring compliance with guarantees of quality and safety of goods;
Carrying out work on the formation of commodity resources for the country’s consumer market, as well as conducting procurement and commodity interventions, accumulating goods of seasonal demand, determining the list of goods purchased from the budget on a tender basis;
Formation of modern commodity distribution networks, optimization of logistics flows, creation of transport and logistics centers;
Creating conditions for growing demand for domestic products;
Providing conditions for the use of modern technologies in the trade industry;
Coordination of work on the development and effective use of innovative technologies and funds allocated for their development, determination of modern requirements for the development of formats of retail facilities, organization of processes for the sale of goods and services, management of inventory, ensuring acceleration of turnover, reduction of distribution costs;
Carrying out work on the creation and development of information systems;
Coordination of exhibition, fair, advertising and foreign trade activities;
Consideration, within its competence, of complaints from citizens, including entrepreneurs, providing consulting assistance to legal entities and individuals on trade issues.
The Ministry of Trade of the Republic of Belarus focuses its activities to a greater extent on strategic issues, and local trade management bodies, showing initiative, focus their activities on the effective, innovative implementation of assigned tasks.
Commercial services of specific trade organizations perform operational functions related to servicing the purchase and sale process and ensuring the efficiency of commercial activities.
On issues that are not within the competence of the Ministry of Trade, the norms determined by other ministries, such as the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Taxes and Duties, the Ministry of Economy, etc., which regulate issues of their competence relating to commercial activities, are mandatory for trade organizations . At this level, the formation of mandatory rules for conducting commercial activities for all subjects of commercial legal relations is carried out by forming a legal framework for its functioning and organizing control over their compliance.
In the system of consumer cooperation, which is subordinate to the above-mentioned structures on general issues, the role of the industry level is performed by the Belkoopsoyuz. Commercial work in Belkoopsoyuz is carried out by the Trade Department of Belkoopsoyuz, which includes departments formed according to functional and product characteristics. In addition, the marketing department and Belkoopvneshtorg provide commercial activities within the framework of their tasks.
Main functions of the commercial service of Belkoopsoyuz are:
Managing the commercial activities of all business entities in its system and creating effective relationships with other market entities;
Protecting the interests of cooperative trade in higher authorities;
Development of a strategy for the development of the trade industry of consumer cooperation;
Management of procurement activities of business entities;
Dissemination of best practices, new technologies in the trade industry, including information;
Interaction with industry to protect their own interests;
Determining the strategy of foreign economic activity;
Determination of the Belkoopsoyuz's innovation policy in the trade sector.
The implementation of the above commercial functions at the regional level is carried out by the commercial service of regional consumer unions. It is represented by the Trade Department of the Regional Consumer Union, which has departments specialized in product and functional principles, departments involved in marketing and foreign economic activities.
In addition to the named functions that the commercial service of the regional consumer union implements in its area of operation, it has to:
Justify the need for goods in your area of activity;
Organize work on the formation of commodity resources;
Manage commodity resources, optimally distributing them among the regions of the region, using effective distribution routes and channels;
Work in contact with industry, including local and own sources of goods;
Develop and implement a commercial strategy for the trading industry based on modern effective technologies;
Provide a high level of trade service and consumer protection.
In the trading industry, the lowest level engaged in commercial work on micro level, are business entities, retail facilities of different formats with different sales volumes and functions. They are very diverse, so it is not possible to unify the structure of these services. However, what they have in common is their performance of operational commercial functions, many of which are complex, costly, and constantly critically assessed by customers.
Taking into account the wide variety of business entities engaged in commercial activities and the differences in their goals and objectives, let us consider the structure and functions of wholesale and retail trade organizations and retail facilities.
The main functions of the commercial apparatus of a trade organization are distributed as the job responsibilities of commercial apparatus specialists. These include:
Studying market conditions, population demand in the area of operation;
Justification of the need for goods for its retail facilities;
Management of commodity resources;
Carrying out contract work;
Introduction of advanced technologies at retail facilities, their technical and material support;
Bringing retail facilities up to standard requirements, ensuring a high level of trade service, necessary working conditions and safety of inventory items;
Generating demand and stimulating sales;
Monitoring compliance with the legislative, regulatory framework, trade rules, consumer rights;
Ensuring profitable operation and competitiveness of the trading organization.
In the consumer cooperation system, these functions are implemented by the district consumer society (raipo).
In a retail establishment, all employees are involved in commercial activities. The positive contribution of a particular store to the overall effectiveness of the commercial activities of the trading organization as a whole largely depends on each of them understanding their role. But it is still possible to identify those who are responsible for organizing the commercial work of the store.
Overall responsibility rests with the store manager. In large stores, a commercial service can be created, represented by a sales department, or individual specialists who will be engaged in commercial work. As a rule, these are commodity experts performing relevant job responsibilities. Heads of departments, sections, salespeople, and cashier-controllers also play an important role in organizing the commercial work of a store.
The significance of the work performed by these workers is that they ensure the completion of the process of promoting goods from the manufacturer to the final consumer. It often depends on them whether the product will be sold and whether the buyer will come to this store to buy again.
To the most important commercial functions employees of a retail facility (store) should include:
Studying the demand of the population in your area of activity;
Study of competitors' retail facilities, their advantages and disadvantages;
Justification of batches and frequency of delivery;
Formation of a competitive, profitable assortment;
Promotion of goods of domestic producers, formation of a positive image of these goods;
Commercial work selling goods and providing services;
Managing the assortment, ensuring its updating taking into account demand, monitoring the availability of inventory, compliance with deadlines for the sale of goods, and the safety of their consumption;
Ensuring a high service culture;
Formation of a positive image of the store.
The commercial functions of wholesale trade are carried out by manufacturing suppliers and intermediary suppliers. Intermediary suppliers can be:
Wholesale organizations and unitary enterprises;
Wholesale intermediaries (distributors, brokers, brokerage houses, agents, dealers, etc.);
Organizers of wholesale turnover (wholesale fairs, auctions, commodity exchanges, wholesale and small wholesale markets, warehouse stores, etc.). Their diversity determines the different tasks and functions that they implement.
The commercial service of a wholesale trade organization reports to the director. Depending on the volume of work, it is possible that this work is managed by a commercial director. Specific functions are performed by specialists from the sales department. The trading department is divided by function into specialists involved in wholesale purchasing, wholesale sales, and marketing. Departments may have a different set and number of specialists (chief commodity expert, heads of trade departments, leading commodity experts for product groups, commodity experts-realizers, commodity experts-brokers, etc.).
Functions of the commercial service of wholesale trade organizations can be roughly divided into three groups:
1) functions ensuring procurement work:
Studying suppliers, selecting the most attractive ones;
Choosing the form of wholesale purchases (at a fair, exchange, auction, etc.) and participating in their implementation;
Pre-contract work;
Work on concluding contracts;
Organizing supplies, fulfilling contracts, monitoring this process;
Formation of an assortment model of a wholesale base;
Claims work together with the legal service;
2) functions providing wholesale sales:
Contractual work with buyers;
Managing the supply of goods to the retail network, uninterrupted provision of stores in the area of operation in the required volume and within the agreed time frame;
Rationalization of delivery schemes and the delivery system as a whole;
Providing services to wholesale customers;
3) organizational and market functions:
Market research, analysis of its conditions;
Expanding the service area, searching for new suppliers and buyers;
Influence on production regarding the release of competitive goods in demand;
Formation of a set of popular services;
Development of a commercial strategy;
Ensuring the profitable operation of a wholesale trading organization and a stable competitive position in the market.
The commercial functions of other wholesale intermediaries and organizers of wholesale turnover, due to their special specifics, will be discussed in the section “Commercial activities during wholesale purchases and wholesale sales.”
1.7. Requirements for commercial services specialists
The commercial functions of business entities operating in the market are complex and varied. Therefore, specialists engaged in commercial activities belong to a special category of workers who must have a large amount of knowledge and skills in solving complex problems, and comply with the legal regime in force in the territory of the corresponding country.
High qualifications require knowledge of laws and regulations governing commercial activities, the ability to conduct trade negotiations, formalize relationships when establishing economic ties, defend the most favorable conditions for the supply of goods, and ensure the fulfillment of the contract.
In his activities, a merchant must ensure that the economic potential of a trading organization is increased, its competitiveness is increased and advantages are created over competitors.
A competitive advantage can be achieved through a unique selling proposition, the use of effective means of promoting a product on the market, merchandising, a service needed by the consumer, etc. If a businessman is able to achieve significant competitive advantages, then he can count on successful work in the market.
A commercial service specialist must be able to identify strategic goals and ways to achieve them in order to effectively use all resources (financial, material, labor, information). This is possible with high competence and professionalism of specialists who are able to make informed innovative decisions.
Commercial activity will be successful and civilized if it is based on compliance with the requirements of business ethics. Business ethics is a system of social values based on principles that determine correct and incorrect behavior in the process of business relations between partners in the market and affect the goals and means of achieving them.
Commercial and legal culture is the basis of business, civilized conduct of commercial activities, ensuring the formation of a positive image in the business world. Bribery, producing unenvironmentally friendly products, destroying resources, harming a partner, falsifying documents, embezzling funds are examples of unethical behavior that do not contribute to success. A businessman must follow the rules developed over decades if he aims to work long and fruitfully in the market.
For commercial activity to be effective, a specialist must:
Possess analytical skills, scientific foresight, innovative thinking, quick and adequate reaction to the market situation;
Be able to take the initiative to combine raw materials, financial and labor resources into a single process;
Be able to make decisions that bring profit;
Show initiative and innovation;
Assess risks and justify ways to reduce them.
In a competitive environment, when organizing commercial activities, it is important not only to perform a technological function - to bring a product from the sphere of production to the sphere of consumption, but also to ensure its sale and after-sales service at the lowest cost. The most important requirements for commercial specialists are:
Understanding the essence of commercial activity as a market category, its role in the effective management of entities in the market;
Possession of knowledge in the field of legal regulation of commerce and entrepreneurship in general;
Possession of tools and methods for planning and managing commercial activities for long-term (strategic) and short-term periods;
Knowledge of modern achievements and technologies and the ability to use them in commercial activities;
Knowledge of methods of comprehensive market research, its conditions, timely and adequate response to ongoing changes;
Ability to identify needs and create new ones;
Studying the consumer, his requirements for commercial components, the ability to look at his activities through the eyes of the consumer;
Knowledge of methods and models for justifying commercial decisions to determine the need for goods, select suppliers and delivery channels, and optimize the assortment;
The ability to assess the effectiveness of commercial activities and risks, timely adjust commercial tactics taking into account the real situation on the market.
To meet the listed requirements, a commercial services specialist must have knowledge of many disciplines, a broad outlook, and market thinking.
Questions for control
1. What is a business activity? How is this concept defined?
2. What is the essence of commercial activity and what is its role in a competitive environment?
3. What problems are solved in the process of carrying out commercial activities?
4. What factors determine the development of commercial activity?
5. What principles underlie the organization of commercial activities?
6. What functions are implemented through commercial activities in modern conditions?
7. Who can act as subjects of legal relations in commercial activities in the consumer goods market?
8. What is the object of management when carrying out commercial operations in the consumer goods market?
9. What are the main elements that form the content of commercial activity and how are they characterized?
10. What are the features of commercial activities in wholesale and retail trade?
11. What functions are performed by the commercial services of the Ministry of Trade and the Belkoopsoyuz?
12. What are the differences between the functions of commercial services of trade departments of wholesale and retail trade organizations?
13. What are the requirements for commercial services specialists in modern conditions?
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The given introductory fragment of the book Commercial activities (S. N. Vinogradova, 2012) provided by our book partner -
In a market economy, commodity-money relations are dominant. Therefore, almost every product of labor produced at enterprises is necessarily sold and bought, i.e. goes through the exchange stage. Sellers and buyers of goods enter into purchase and sale transactions, carry out sales and purchases of goods, provide intermediary and other services.
Commerce As a type of human activity, most of us associate it with trade. This is completely natural, since this term comes from the Latin COMMERCIUM (trade). However, such an interpretation of commerce as a term is too narrow and clearly insufficient to clarify the concept and essence of commercial activity.
commercial activity represents a part of entrepreneurial activity in the commodity market and differs from it, by and large, only in that it does not cover the process of manufacturing a product or providing a service. In a broad sense, any organization that offers the labor products of its employees to the market, and therefore participates in the exchange process, can be classified as a subject of sale. It is important to take into account that if a given entity expects to receive income from the sale (sale) of goods or the provision of services that exceed the costs of their creation, then its activities are usually classified as commercial. In a similar way, an idea of the activity of acquiring raw materials, supplies and products for the production of goods and the provision of services is formed.
The entrepreneur always strives to acquire resources and use services in accordance with his own commercial interests. The task that the market sets before him comes down to the need to create a high-quality product and sell it profitably. Therefore, logistics (purchases, etc.), as one of the main conditions for the creation of goods, should be completely attributed to commercial activity and considered as its most important element.
The interpretation of the term “commercial” has, first of all, practical significance, since the organization of the work of commercial services involves taking into account many specific features, starting from economic fundamentals and ending with the structure of document flow. Professional training of commercial workers is carried out in a special way. In addition to traditional knowledge in the field of economics and management, a businessman must have a number of specific skills in the field of business communication and negotiations, and be able to make non-standard decisions to identify highly profitable areas of employment.
The professional activity of a businessman is carried out in the field of production and commodity circulation and is aimed at ensuring the functioning of enterprises of all organizational and legal forms for the purpose of rational organization of commercial activities, taking into account the industry, regional and nomenclature specifics of the enterprise. A merchant must, on the basis of professional knowledge, ensure effective commercial activities and thereby contribute to the solution of an important socio-economic problem - meeting the needs of customers.
The objects of professional activity of a merchant are tangible goods and intangible goods and services that are subject to purchase and sale or exchange in the sphere of circulation.
Main types of professional activities of a merchant:
- organizational and commercial;
- commodity expert;
- marketing;
- trade and economic;
- analytical;
- trade and purchasing;
- foreign trade
For science, it is very important to correctly determine the essence of commercial activity. Many problems associated with the study of economic patterns in the sphere of production and commodity circulation are still awaiting their solution. Among them, the most relevant are:
- a system of criteria and methods for assessing the performance of the enterprise’s commercial service;
- system of payment and economic incentives for workers of commercial services.
A significant problem is the clear definition of the boundaries of commercial activities for tax purposes. Thus, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, the main criterion for classifying a particular type of activity into a certain tax category is whether the corresponding enterprise or organization has a statutory goal of making a profit. In this case, the form of ownership and organizational and legal form of the business entity does not play a role. From a taxation perspective, it is only important to clearly establish that a commercial enterprise belongs to a specific type and field of activity: production and sale of any products (materials or raw materials), provision of production or non-production services, trade and intermediary operations, etc. Income tax rates vary in different cases.
All enterprises, organizations and institutions operating in the commodity market can be divided into two main groups: commercial and non-commercial. Commercial enterprises include almost all enterprises in the sphere of material production (plants, factories), a significant part of enterprises in the production infrastructure (transport and trade intermediary enterprises, communications enterprises, etc.) and non-production sphere (domestic services, entertainment industry, etc.) , almost all subjects of the securities market.
Non-profit activity has traditionally been concentrated in the health and education sectors, although sprouts of entrepreneurship have recently appeared here too. The activities of any non-profit (“non-profitable” – in Western economic literature) entity are based on the principle of maintaining a balance of equality of income and expenses. Russian tax legislation clearly defines the areas in which expenses included in the cost can be incurred. In addition, the sources of income generation for a non-profit organization are strictly determined. If a profit is generated, this organization must use it in strict accordance with the requirements of the law or carry out a special procedure for settlements in the state budget by revising the amount of financing or paying appropriate taxes. Non-profit organizations also include government agencies (federal and municipal).
The subject of commercial activity is the purchase and sale of goods. However, in the broadest sense of the word, not only produced tangible objects, but also services, and even intellectual property objects should be considered as goods. A product as an object of commercial transactions (purchase and sale transactions) has potential and actual utility.
Potential usefulness of the product (services, etc.) or the ability of any product of labor to satisfy individual specific needs, taking into account affordability, is determined by two of its integral characteristics: quality and price. The relationship between them, which has developed in a given market situation, makes it possible for a potential consumer to solve a fundamental issue - whether he needs and whether this offered product is available to him?
Real usefulness The product appears at the time of its acquisition by the consumer (sale by the seller), i.e. as a result of the exchange.
The prerequisites for a potentially useful product to become actually useful for the buyer are:
- the presence of a given product of potential usefulness, the correspondence of its consumer properties to existing needs, i.e. the presence of an internal factor influencing the buyer’s preliminary choice;
- whether the seller has a sufficient quantity of a potentially useful product in the right place and at the right time, or external conditions to implement the choice.
Creating conditions for realizing the potential usefulness of a product is the most important task of commercial activity. It is for these purposes that appropriate sales services are formed, inventories are accumulated, and trading and intermediary firms are created.
The main types of commercial activity fully reflect its essence. Firstly, we are talking about supply enterprises with the necessary raw materials, materials and products. The work associated with their procurement includes the following main operations:
- planning of material needs;
- organizing the acquisition of resources and their delivery to the enterprise;
- regulation of the size of material reserves;
- organization and control of resource consumption in an enterprise must be carried out by special units.
In typical situations, they (divisions) are given the following names:
- department of logistics (support); production department (production-technical and production-technological equipment);
- service for supplying equipment to facilities under construction.
In modern conditions, when the professional vocabulary of a businessman includes more and more new terms and concepts, departments for material resource management and logistics. The purchasing service of an enterprise usually deals with issues of obtaining the necessary commercial information.
It is necessary to highlight sales finished products (services). The sales function is performed by a special service of the enterprise, which organizes the formation of shipments, promotes goods on the market, searches for and formalizes relationships with buyers (clients). In modern conditions, the success of this activity largely depends on the professionalism of sales personnel, and therefore marketing becomes the main technology of the sales service.
Should be placed in a separate category trade and intermediary operations in the consumer and industrial (business) market, meaning, first of all, wholesale and retail trade. The participation of an intermediary in the process of product distribution in many cases is a necessary condition for concluding a purchase and sale transaction, as it provides wider consumer access to the product. Moreover, in the consumer market, a buyer can almost always purchase a product only through an intermediary (retailer), since manufacturing companies almost never work with individuals.
Commercial activity is always associated with the implementation of operations to bring material resources from suppliers to consumers. Such operations include:
- from manufacturers – preparation of products for shipment, shipment, release and its documentation;
- in warehouses of intermediary and transport companies in the process of product movement - its acceptance, storage, formation of complete batches, shipment;
- in warehouses of consumer enterprises – acceptance of products in terms of quantity and quality, storage, bringing purchased materials to a high degree of technological readiness for production consumption, release and delivery of materials to workplaces.
In general, all these operations, depending on the specific situation, can be divided into two categories - sales and supply. Sales operations and processes are associated with the production and delivery of products. The production process ends with the sale of products. Supply operations are associated with the production consumption of material resources, the receipt of material resources and the provision of them to enterprises in the production and non-production spheres.