Ulus Jochi, self-name Great State in the Russian tradition - Golden Horde - a medieval state in Eurasia.
In the period from 1224 to 1266 it was part of the Mongol Empire. In 1266, under Khan Mengu-Timur, it gained complete independence, retaining only formal dependence on the imperial center. Since 1312, Islam became the state religion. By the middle of the 15th century, the Golden Horde split into several independent khanates. Its central part, which nominally continued to be considered supreme - the Great Horde, ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.
Story
The division of the Mongol Empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of the Ulus of Jochi. After the Western campaign led by Jochi’s son Batu (in Russian chronicles, Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai was held in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed great khan. Batu, “the eldest of the family,” supported Mongke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided between Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids who recognized their power.
Rise of the Golden Horde. After Batu's death, his son Sartak, who was in Mongolia at that time, was to become the legal heir. But on the way home, the new khan unexpectedly died. Soon the young son of Batu Ulagchi, proclaimed khan, also died.
Berke, Batu's brother, became the ruler of the ulus. Berke converted to Islam in his youth, but this was, apparently, a political step that did not entail the Islamization of large sections of the nomadic population. This step allowed the ruler to gain the support of influential trading circles in the urban centers of Volga Bulgaria and Central Asia and to attract educated Muslims to the service. During his reign, urban planning reached significant proportions; Horde cities were built up with mosques, minarets, madrassas, and caravanserais. This primarily applies to Saray-Batu, the capital of the state, which at this time became known as Saray-Berke. Berke invited scientists, theologians, poets from Iran and Egypt, and artisans and merchants from Khorezm. Trade and diplomatic ties with the countries of the East have noticeably revived. Highly educated immigrants from Iran and Arab countries began to be appointed to responsible government posts, which caused discontent among the Mongolian and Kipchak nomadic nobility. However, this dissatisfaction has not yet been openly expressed. During the reign of Mengu-Timur, the Ulus of Jochi became completely independent of the central government. In 1269, at a kurultai in the valley of the Talas River, Munke-Timur and his relatives Borak and Khaidu, rulers of the Chagatai ulus, recognized each other as independent sovereigns and entered into an alliance against the Great Khan Kublai Khan in case he tried to challenge their independence.
After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis began in the country associated with the name of Nogai. Nogai, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, held the post of beklarbek, the second most important in the state, under Batu and Berke. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde. Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state, and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu and Tula-Buga, he managed to subjugate a vast territory along the Danube, Dniester, and Uzeu (Dnieper) to his power.
Tokhta was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored. During the reign of Khan Uzbek and his son Janibek, the Golden Horde reached its peak. The Uzbek proclaimed Islam the state religion, threatening the “infidels” with physical violence. The revolts of the emirs who did not want to convert to Islam were brutally suppressed. The time of his khanate was characterized by strict reprisals. Russian princes, going to the capital of the Golden Horde, wrote spiritual wills and paternal instructions to their children in case of their death there. Several of them were actually killed. Uzbek built the city of Saray al-Jedid and paid a lot of attention to the development of caravan trade. Trade routes became not only safe, but also well-maintained. The Horde traded with the countries of Western Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, and China. After Uzbek, his son Janibek, whom Russian chronicles call “kind,” ascended the throne of the khanate. From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans changed on the Golden Horde throne, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called the “Great Jam.”

The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklyaribek of the murdered khan, Temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatai, an influential emir of the times of Uzbek Khan, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, right up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisid, Mamai had no rights to the title of khan, so he limited himself to the position of beklyaribek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan. Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They really failed to do this; the khans changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in the strong power of the khan.
Troubles in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Transoxiana in 1377-1380, first captured the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai came into direct conflict with the Moscow principality. In 1380, Tokhtamysh defeated the remnants of troops gathered by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo on the Kalka River.
Collapse of the Golden Horde. In the sixties of the 13th century, important political changes took place in the life of the former empire of Genghis Khan, which could not but affect the nature of Horde-Russian relations. The accelerated collapse of the empire began. The rulers of Karakorum moved to Beijing, the uluses of the empire acquired actual independence, independence from the great khans, and now rivalry intensified between them, acute territorial disputes arose, and a struggle for spheres of influence began. In the 60s, the Jochi ulus became involved in a protracted conflict with the Hulagu ulus, which owned the territory of Iran. It would seem that the Golden Horde had reached the apogee of its power. But here and within it, the process of disintegration, inevitable for early feudalism, began. “Splitting” began in the Horde state structure, and now a conflict arose within the ruling elite. In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, the Uzbek Khanate in 1428, the Nogai Horde in the 1440s, then the Kazan, Crimean Khanates and the Kazakh Khanate arose in 1465. After the death of Khan Kichi-Muhammad, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state. The Great Horde continued to be formally considered the main one among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Rus' was finally freed from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.
Golden Horde: myths and reality
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongol tribes, united under the rule of Genghis Khan, began campaigns of conquest, the goal of which was to create a huge superpower. Already in the 2nd half of the 13th century, the spaces from the Pacific Ocean to the Danube came under the control of the Genghisids. Immediately after its appearance, the gigantic empire was divided into separate parts, the largest of which was the ulus of the descendants of Jochi (the eldest son of Genghis Khan), which included Western Siberia, part of Central Asia, the Urals, the Middle and Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, Crimea, the lands of the Cumans and other Turkic nomadic peoples. The western part of the Dzhuchiev ulus became the yurt of Dzhuchi’s son Batu and received the name “Golden Horde” or simply “Horde” in Russian chronicles.
The beginning of the political history of the Golden Horde dates back to 1243, when Batu returned from a campaign in Europe. In the same year, Grand Duke Yaroslav was the first of the Russian rulers to arrive at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan for a label to reign. The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages. Its military power had no equal for a long time. The rulers of even distant countries sought friendship with the Horde. The most important trade routes connecting the East and West passed through the territories of the Horde.

Stretching from the Irtysh to the Danube, the Golden Horde from an ethnic point of view represented a motley mixture of various peoples - Mongols, Volga Bulgars, Russians, Burtases, Bashkirs, Mordovians, Yasses, Circassians, Georgians, etc. But the bulk of the Horde’s population were Polovtsy, among whom, already in the 14th century, the conquerors began to dissolve, forgetting their culture, language, and writing. The multinational character of the Horde was inherited by it along with the conquered territories that previously belonged to the states of the Sarmatians, Goths, Khazaria, and Volga Bulgaria.
One of the stereotypical ideas about the Golden Horde is that this state was purely nomadic and had almost no cities. This stereotype transfers the situation from the time of Genghis Khan to the entire history of the Golden Horde. Already the successors of Genghis Khan clearly understood that “you cannot rule the Celestial Empire while sitting on a horse.” More than a hundred cities were created in the Golden Horde, serving as administrative, tax, trade and craft centers. The capital of the state - the city of Saray - had 75 thousand inhabitants. By medieval standards it was a huge city. The vast majority of the Golden Horde cities were destroyed by Timur at the end of the 14th century, but some have survived to this day - Azov, Kazan, Old Crimea, Tyumen, etc. Cities and villages were built on the Golden Horde territory. predominance of the Russian population - Yelets, Tula, Kaluga. These were the residences and stronghold garrisons of the Baskas. Thanks to the union of cities with the steppe, crafts and caravan trade developed, and economic potential was created, which for a long time contributed to the preservation of the power of the Horde.
Cultural life of the Horde characterized by multi-ethnicity, as well as the interaction of nomadic and sedentary lifestyles. In the initial period of the Golden Horde, culture developed largely due to the consumption of the achievements of the conquered peoples. This does not mean, however, that the Mongolian substrate of the Golden Horde culture did not have independent significance and influence on the conquered tribes. The Mongols had a complex and very unique ritual system. Unlike the situation in neighboring Muslim countries, the role of women in the public life of the Horde was quite high. Very characteristic of the Mongols was an extremely calm attitude towards any religions. Religious tolerance led to the fact that very often, even in the same family, adherents of different confessions coexisted peacefully. Traditional folk culture developed - especially rich and vibrant folklore of a heroic-epic and song nature, as well as ornamental and applied art. The most important cultural feature of the nomadic Mongols was the presence of their own written language.
City building accompanied by the development of architecture and house-building technology. After the adoption of Islam as the state religion in the 14th century, the construction of mosques, minarets, madrassas, mausoleums, and monumental palaces began intensively. In different regions of the Golden Horde, zones of specific influence of various urban planning traditions - Bulgar, Khorezm, Crimean - were quite clearly identified. Gradually, various elements of a multi-ethnic culture were united into one whole, developing into a synthesis, into an organic combination of various features of the spiritual and material culture of the different peoples inhabiting the Golden Horde. Unlike Iran and China, where Mongolian culture quickly and easily dissolved without noticeable traces, in the Golden Horde the cultural achievements of different peoples merged into one stream.
One of the most polemical in Russian historiography is the question of relations between Russia and the Horde. In 1237-1240, the Russian lands, divided in military and political terms, were defeated and devastated by Batu’s troops. The Mongol attacks on Ryazan, Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal, Galich, Tver, and Kyiv left the Russian people with an impression of shock. After Batu's invasion in the Vladimir-Suzdal, Ryazan, Chernigov, and Kiev lands, more than two-thirds of all settlements were destroyed. Both urban and rural residents were massacred. It is difficult to doubt that the Mongol aggression brought cruel misfortunes to the Russian people. But in historiography there were other assessments. The Mongol invasion inflicted a severe wound on the Russian people. During the first ten years after the invasion, the conquerors did not take tribute, engaging only in looting and destruction. But such a practice meant a voluntary renunciation of long-term benefits. When the Mongols realized this, the collection of systematic tribute began, which became a constant source of replenishment of the Mongol treasury. Relations between Rus' and the Horde took predictable and stable forms - a phenomenon called the “Mongol yoke” was born. At the same time, however, the practice of periodic punitive campaigns did not stop until the 14th century. According to V.V. Kargalov’s calculations, in the last quarter of the 13th century. The Horde conducted at least 15 major campaigns. Many Russian princes were subjected to terror and intimidation in order to prevent anti-Horde protests on their part.
Russian-HordeChinese relations were not easy, but to reduce them only to total pressure on Rus' would be a delusion. Even S. M. Solovyov clearly and unequivocally “separated” the period of devastation of Russian lands by the Mongols and the subsequent period when they, living far away, cared only about collecting tribute. With a general negative assessment of the “yoke,” the Soviet historian A.K. Leontyev emphasized that Rus' retained its statehood and was not directly included in the Golden Horde. A. L. Yurganov assesses the influence of the Mongols on Russian history negatively, but he also admits that although “the disobedient were humiliatingly punished... those princes who willingly obeyed the Mongols, as a rule, found a common language with them and even moreover, became related, stayed in the Horde for a long time.” The originality of Russian-Horde relations becomes understandable only in the context of that historical era. In the middle of the 13th century, decentralized Rus' was subjected to double aggression - from the East and from the West. At the same time, Western aggression brought no less misfortunes: it was prepared and financed by the Vatican, which injected into it a charge of Catholic fanaticism. In 1204, the crusaders sacked Constantinople, then turned their attention to the Baltic states and Rus'. Their pressure was no less cruel than that of the Mongols: the German knights completely destroyed the Sorbs, Prussians, and Livs. In 1224. they massacred the Russian population of the city of Yuryev, making it clear what would await the Russians if the Germans successfully advanced to the east. The goal of the crusaders - the defeat of Orthodoxy - affected the vital interests of the Slavs and many Finns. The Mongols were religiously tolerant; they could not seriously threaten the spiritual culture of the Russians. And in terms of territorial conquests, the Mongol campaigns differed markedly from the Western expansion: after the initial attack on Rus', the Mongols retreated back to the steppe, and they did not reach Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk at all. The Catholic offensive went along the entire front: Poland and Hungary rushed to Galicia and Volyn, the Germans to Pskov and Novgorod, the Swedes landed on the banks of the Neva.
State structure in the Golden Horde
During the first century of its existence Golden Horde was one of the uluses Great Mongol Empire. The descendants of Genghis Khan ruled the Golden Horde even after the fall of the empire, and when the Horde collapsed, they owned the states that replaced it. The Mongol aristocracy was the highest stratum of society in the Golden Horde. Therefore, government in the Golden Horde was based mainly on the principles that guided the government of the empire as a whole. The Mongols constituted a national minority in Golden Horde society. The majority of the population in the Horde were Turks.

From a religious point of view, the spread of Islam among both the Mongols and the Turks in the Horde became a factor of great importance. Gradually, Muslim institutions established themselves along with the Mongol ones. Most of the Mongols of the Golden Horde came from the four thousand army that was transferred to Jochi by Genghis Khan; they belonged to the Khushin, Kyiyat, Kynkyt and Saijut tribes. In addition, there were also Mangkyts, but they, as we know, kept aloof from the rest and, since the time of Nogai, formed a separate horde. As already mentioned, the Turks were recognized as full members of the steppe society. In the western part of the Golden Horde, the Turkic element was represented mainly by the Kipchaks (Cumans), as well as a remnant of the Khazars and Pechenegs. To the east of the middle Volga, in the Kama River basin, lived the remaining Bulgars and semi-Turkified Ugrians. To the east of the lower Volga, the Mangkyt and other Mongol clans ruled over a number of Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchaks and Oghuzs, most of whom mixed with the Iranian aborigines. The numerical superiority of the Turks made it natural that the Mongols should gradually become Turkicized, and the Mongolian language, even within the ruling classes, should give way to the Turkic. Diplomatic correspondence with foreign countries was conducted in Mongolian, but most of the documents from the late 14th and 15th centuries concerning internal administration that we know are in the Turkic language.
From an economic point of view, the Golden Horde was a symbiosis of nomadic and sedentary populations. The South Russian and North Caucasian steppes provided the Mongols and Turks with vast pastures for herds and livestock. On the other hand, some parts of this territory on the periphery of the steppes were also used for growing cereals. The country of the Bulgars in the region of the middle Volga and Kama was also agricultural with highly developed agriculture; and, of course, Western Rus' and the southern principalities of Central and Eastern Rus', especially Ryazan, produced grain in abundance. Sarai and other large cities of the Golden Horde, with their highly developed crafts, served as points of intersection between nomadism and sedentary civilization. Both the khan and the princes lived part of the year in cities, and during the other part of the year they followed their herds. Most of them also owned land. A significant part of the urban population lived there permanently, so that an urban class was created, consisting of a variety of ethnic, social and religious elements. Both Muslims and Christians had their own temples in every major city. Cities played a role of primary importance in the development of Golden Horde trade. The complex economic organism of the Horde was focused on international trade, and it was from this that the khans and nobles received a large share of their income.
Organization of the army in the Golden Horde was built mainly according to the Mongolian type established by Genghis Khan, with decimal division. Army units were grouped into two main battle formations: the right wing, or western group, and the left wing, or eastern group. The center, in all likelihood, was the khan's guard under his personal command. Each large army unit was assigned a bukaul. As in other parts of the Mongol Empire, the army formed the basis of the khan's administration; each army unit was subordinate to a separate region in the Horde. From this point of view, we can say that for administrative purposes the Golden Horde was divided into myriads, thousands, hundreds and tens. The commander of each unit was responsible for order and discipline in his area. All together, they represented local government in the Golden Horde.

The label on the immunity of Khan Timur-Kutlug from 800 AH, issued to the Crimean Tarkhan Mehmet, was addressed to “the oglans of the right and left wings; venerable commanders of myriads; and commanders of thousands, hundreds and tens.” For the collection of taxes and other purposes, the military administration was assisted by a number of civilian officials. Timur-Kutlug's label mentions tax collectors, messengers, people serving horse-mail stations, boatmen, officials in charge of bridges, and market police. An important official was the state customs inspector, who was called a daruga. The basic meaning of the root of this Mongolian word is "to press" in the sense of "to stamp" or "to stamp". The duties of the daruga included overseeing the collection of taxes and recording the amount collected. The entire system of administration and taxation was controlled by central boards. In each of them, the business was, in fact, conducted by a secretary. Chief Bitikchi was in charge of the Khan's archive. Sometimes the khan entrusted general supervision of the internal administration to a special official, whom Arab and Persian sources, speaking of the Golden Horde, call the “vizier.” It is unknown whether this was actually his title. Officials at the khan's court, such as stewards, butlers, falconers, keepers of wild animals, and huntsmen, also played important roles.
The legal proceedings consisted of the Supreme Court and local courts. The competence of the first included the most important matters affecting state interests. It should be remembered that a number of Russian princes appeared before this court. Judges of local courts were called yarguchi. According to Ibn Batuta, each court consisted of eight such judges chaired by the chief. He was appointed by a special yarlyk of the khan. In the 14th century, a Muslim judge, along with lawyers and clerks, also attended sessions of the local court. All matters falling under Islamic law were related to it. In view of the fact that trade played an important role in the economy of the Golden Horde, it was quite natural that merchants, especially those who had access to foreign markets, enjoyed great respect from the khan and nobles. Although not officially associated with the government, eminent merchants could quite often influence the direction of internal affairs and foreign relations. In fact, Muslim merchants were an international corporation that controlled the markets of Central Asia, Iran and Southern Rus'. Individually, they swore an oath of allegiance to one or another ruler, depending on the circumstances. Collectively, they preferred peace and stability in all countries with which they had to deal. Many of the khans were financially dependent on the merchants, since they controlled large amounts of capital and were able to lend money to any khan whose treasury was depleted. Merchants were also willing to collect taxes when required of them, and were useful to the khan in many other ways.
The bulk of the urban population were craftsmen and a wide variety of workers. In the early period of the formation of the Golden Horde, gifted artisans captured in conquered countries became slaves of the khan. Some of them were sent to the Great Khan in Karakorum. The majority, obliged to serve the Khan of the Golden Horde, settled in Sarai and other cities. Mostly they were natives of Khorezm and Rus'. Later, free workers also, apparently, began to flock to the craft centers of the Golden Horde, mainly to Sarai. The label of Tokhtamysh dated 1382, issued to Khoja-Bek, mentions “elder artisans.” From this we can conclude that artisans were organized into guilds; most likely, each craft formed a separate guild. One craft was given a special part of the city for workshops. According to evidence from archaeological research, in Sarai there were forges, knife and weapon workshops, factories for the production of agricultural implements, as well as bronze and copper vessels.

The Golden Horde was formed in the Middle Ages, and it was a truly powerful state. Many countries tried to maintain good relations with him. Cattle breeding became the main occupation of the Mongols, and they knew nothing about the development of agriculture. They were fascinated by the art of war, which is why they were excellent horsemen. It should be especially noted that the Mongols did not accept weak and cowardly people into their ranks. In 1206, Genghis Khan became Great Khan, whose real name was Temujin. He managed to unite many tribes. Possessing strong military potential, Genghis Khan and his army defeated East Asia, the Tangut Kingdom, Northern China, Korea and Central Asia. Thus began the formation of the Golden Horde.

This state existed for about two hundred years. It was formed on the ruins of the empire of Genghis Khan and was a powerful political entity in Desht-i-Kipchak. The Golden Horde appeared after the Khazar Khaganate died; it was the heir to the empires of nomadic tribes in the Middle Ages. The goal that the formation of the Golden Horde set for itself was to take possession of one branch (northern) of the Great Silk Road. Eastern sources say that in 1230 a large detachment consisting of 30 thousand Mongols appeared in the Caspian steppes. This was an area of ​​nomadic Polovtsians, they were called Kipchaks. The Mongol army of thousands went to the West. Along the way, the troops conquered the Volga Bulgars and Bashkirs, and after that they captured the Polovtsian lands. Genghis Khan assigned Jochi to the Polovtsian lands as an ulus (region of the empire) to his eldest son, who, like his father, died in 1227. Complete victory over these lands was won by the eldest son of Genghis Khan, whose name was Batu. He and his army completely subjugated the Ulus of Jochi and stayed in the Lower Volga in 1242-1243.

During these years, the Mongolian state was divided into four divisions. The Golden Horde was the first of these to be a state within a state. Each of the four sons of Genghis Khan had his own ulus: Kulagu (this included the territory of the Caucasus, the Persian Gulf and the territories of the Arabs); Jaghatay (included the area of ​​present-day Kazakhstan and Central Asia); Ogedei (it consisted of Mongolia, Eastern Siberia, Northern China and Transbaikalia) and Jochi (the Black Sea and Volga regions). However, the main one was the ulus of Ogedei. In Mongolia there was the capital of the common Mongol empire - Karakorum. All state events took place here; the leader of the Kagan was the main person of the entire united empire. The Mongol troops were distinguished by their belligerence; they initially attacked the Ryazan and Vladimir principalities. Russian cities again turned out to be targets for conquest and enslavement. Only Novgorod survived. In the next two years, Mongol troops captured all of what was then Rus'. During the fierce hostilities, Batu Khan lost half of his army. The Russian princes were divided during the formation of the Golden Horde and therefore suffered constant defeats. Batu conquered Russian lands and imposed tribute on the local population. Alexander Nevsky was the first who managed to come to an agreement with the Horde and temporarily suspend hostilities.

In the 60s, a war broke out between the uluses, which marked the collapse of the Golden Horde, which the Russian people took advantage of. In 1379, Dmitry Donskoy refused to pay tribute and killed the Mongol commanders. In response to this, the Mongol Khan Mamai attacked Rus'. The Battle of Kulikovo began, in which Russian troops won. Their dependence on the Horde became insignificant and the Mongol troops left Rus'. The collapse of the Golden Horde was completely completed. The Tatar-Mongol yoke lasted for 240 years and ended with the victory of the Russian people, however, the formation of the Golden Horde can hardly be overestimated. Thanks to the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Russian principalities began to unite against a common enemy, which strengthened and made the Russian state even more powerful. Historians assess the formation of the Golden Horde as an important stage in the development of Rus'.

Mongol-Tatar state, founded in the early 40s. XIII century Khan Batu (1208-1255) - the son of Khan Jochi - in the lower reaches of the Volga River (Ulus Jochi). The capital was the city of Sarai-Batu (in the area of ​​modern Astrakhan). At the beginning of the 14th century. the capital was moved to Sarai-Berke (in the area of ​​modern Volgograd). It included Western Siberia, Volga Bulgaria (Bulgaria), the North Caucasus, Crimea and other territories.

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GOLDEN HORDE

Ulus Jochi) - feud. state, founded in the beginning. 40s 13th century Khan Batu (1236-1255), son of Khan Jochi, whose ulus (allocated in 1224) included Khorezm, North. Caucasus. As a result of Batu’s campaigns of 1236-40, the region of the Volga Bulgarians, the Polovtsian steppes (see Desht-i-Kipchak), the Crimea, and Western Oblast entered the Western Oblast. Siberia. The power of the Z. O. khans extended to the territory. from bottom Danube and Finnish Hall. on the W. to the bass. Irtysh and lower Ob on the east, from the Black, Caspian and Aral seas and lake. Balkhash in the south to the Novgorod lands in the Northern region. Arctic Ocean in the north. However, the indigenous Russians. the lands were not part of the Z.O., but were in vassal dependence on it, paid tribute and obeyed the orders of the khans in a number of important political matters. questions. Z. O. existed until the 15th century. To the east state sources called Ulus Jochi, in Russian. chronicles - Z. O. The center of Z. O. was Nizh. The Volga region, where under Batu the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan) became the capital, in the 1st half. 14th century the capital was moved to Sarai-Berke (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266), near modern Volgograd). Initially, Z.O. was in some subordination to the leader. Mong. Khan, since the time of Batu Khan's brother Berke, she became completely independent. Z.O. was an artist. and fragile state unification. The population of Z. O. was varied in composition. Volga Bulgarians, Mordovians, Russians, Greeks, Khorezmians, etc. lived in settled areas. The majority of nomads were Turks. tribes of the Cumans (Kipchaks), Kanglys, Tatars, Turkmen, Kyrgyz, etc. The Mongols themselves in the 13th and 1st half. 14th centuries gradually adopted Turkic. languages. Level of society. and the cultural development of the population of Z. O. was also different. The nomadic population was dominated by semi-patriarchal, semi-feudal. relations, in districts with a settled population - feud. relationship. After the conquests, accompanied by monstrous destruction of people. victims, ch. The goal of the Golden Horde rulers was to rob the enslaved population. This was achieved through brutal exactions. The lands that were in vassal dependence on Z.O. paid tribute, the collection of which was often accompanied by predatory raids. Peasant farmers of the Z. O. ("sabanch") paid "kalan", i.e. rent in kind, a tax on cultivated land. plots, collection from vineyards, arts. irrigation - from ditches, paid emergency taxes, as well as fees in favor of officials. In addition, they carried out road, bridge, underwater and other duties. There was probably also a working rent, which was performed by peasant sharecroppers (“urtakchi”). Nomads, as well as farmers who had livestock, paid “kopchur” - a tax on livestock in kind. The severity of taxation increased due to the spread of the tax-farm system of tax collection in Z.O., which led to massive abuses. Basic part of the lands and pastures was concentrated in the hands of the Mong. feud. nobility, in favor of the swarm and the working population bore duties. Craft. The production of Z. O. nomads took the form of home crafts. In the cities of Z. O. there were various crafts with production for the market, but the producers were, as a rule, artisans of the conquered regions. Even in Sarai-Batu and Sarai-Berk, craftsmen brought from Khorezm, North were engaged in crafts. Caucasus, Crimea, as well as newcomers Russians, Armenians, Greeks, etc. Many cities in the conquered territories, devastated by the Mongols, were in decline or completely disappeared. Large centers, ch. arr. caravan trade, there were Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Urgench, the Crimean cities of Sudak, Kafa (Feodosia); Azak (Azov) on the Azov metro station, etc. The state was headed by khans from the house of Batu. In especially important cases, political. life, kurultai were convened - congresses of military feudal rule. nobility led by members of the ruling dynasty. State affairs were led by the beklyare-bek (prince over princes), and individual branches (“divans”) by the vizir and his assistant (naib). Darugs were sent to cities and their subordinate regions, ch. whose duty was to collect taxes, taxes, and tributes. Often, along with the Darugs, military leaders - Baskaks - were appointed. State The device was worn by paramilitary. character, because military. and adm. positions, as a rule, were not divided. The most important positions were occupied by members of the ruling dynasty, princes (“oglans”), who owned appanages in the Western Oblast and stood at the head of the left and right wings of the army. From among the Begi (Noyns) and Tarkhanovs came the main. command cadres of the army - temniks, thousanders, centurions, as well as bakauls (officials who distributed military maintenance, booty, etc.). The fragile character of the state. associations of Z.O., as well as the development of feud. relations that strengthened the position of large feudal lords and created the ground for internecine struggle between them, and especially growth will liberate. the struggles of the conquered and dependent peoples became ch. reasons for the weakening, and then the collapse and death of Z.O. Already during its formation, Z.O. was divided into uluses, which belonged to 14 sons of Jochi: 13 brothers were semi-independent. sovereigns who were subordinate to the top. Batu's authorities. Decentralization tendencies appeared after the death of Khan Mengu-Timur (1266-82), when the feud began. war between the princes of the house of Jochi. Under the khans Tuda-Mengu (1282-87) and Talabuga (1287-91) actual. Temnik Nogai became the ruler of the state. Only Khan Tokhta (1291-1312) managed to get rid of Nogai and his supporters. After 5 years, a new turmoil arose. Its termination is associated with the name of Khan Uzbek (1312-42); under him and his successor Khan Janibek (1342-1357), Z. O. reached its maximum. rise of the military power. Z. O. was at this time one of the strongest states in the Middle Ages. There was a centralization of power. The former uluses were turned into regions led by emirs. The strengthening of the power of the khans was also expressed in the termination of the convening of kurultai. Military the forces under Uzbek numbered up to 300 thousand. However, the unrest that began in 1357 with the murder of Janibek testified to the beginning of its collapse. From 1357 to 1380, more than 25 khans occupied the Golden Horde throne. The unrest in Z. O. reached the stage when it increasingly ceased to be a state from the center. power. In the 60-70s. actual Temnik Mamai became the ruler with the help of dummy khans, and he subjugated the lands to the west of the Volga, including Crimea. In the lands east of the Volga there was a struggle between the Genghisids from the house of Batu and the house of his brother Ichen. In the beginning. 60s 14th century Khorezm fell away from Z.O., where a state of Sufis was formed; Poland and Lithuania seized lands in the basin. R. Dnieper, Astrakhan separated. Mamai, in addition, had to face the strengthened alliance of Russians. prince headed by Moscow, whose dependence on Z.O. became formal (cessation of tribute payments). Mamai's attempt to again weaken Rus' by organizing a huge predatory campaign led to the defeat of the Tatars by the united Russians. troops in the Battle of Kulikovo 1380. In the 80-90s. 14th century general political the situation temporarily developed in favor of Z.O. Under Khan Tokhtamysh (1380-95), the unrest ceased, and the center. the authorities began to control the main territory of Z. O. Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the army of Mamai on the river. Kalka, in 1382 went to Moscow, captured it by deception and burned it. But this was only a temporary success. After strengthening his power, he opposed Timur (Tamerlane) and made a series of campaigns against Transoxiana, Azerbaijan, and Iran. But in the end the row will be empty. campaigns (1389, 1391, 1395-96) Timur defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh, captured and destroyed the Volga cities, including Sarai-Berke, plundered the cities of the Crimea and others. I couldn't recover. The last attempt to revive the power of Z. O. is associated with the name of Edigei, who for a short time managed, relying on dummy khans, to subjugate most of Z. O. to his power. But after the unsuccessful siege of Moscow by Edigei’s army (1408), the unrest intensified even more, leading to the complete collapse of Z. O. In the beginning 20s 15th century The Siberian Khanate was formed in the 40s. - Nogai Horde, then the Kazan Khanate (1438) and the Crimean Khanate (1443) arose, and in the 60s. - Kazakh, Uzbek and Astrakhan khanates. In the 15th century Rus''s dependence on Z.O. was significantly weakened. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, which for some time was the successor of Z.O., tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully. In 1480 Russian the people were finally freed from the Tat.-Mong. yoke. The Great Horde ceased to exist in the beginning. 16th century Lit.: Tizengauzen V., Collection of materials related to the history of the Golden Horde, vol. 1, St. Petersburg, 1884; Nasonov A.N., Mongols and Rus', M.-L., 1940; Grekov B.D. and Yakubovsky A.Yu., The Golden Horde and its fall, M.-L., 1950; Safargaliev M. G., The Collapse of the Golden Horde, Saransk, 1960; Merpert N. Ya. (et al.), Genghis Khan and his legacy, "ISSSR", 1962, No. 5. V. I. Buganov. Moscow. -***-***-***- Golden Horde in the second half of the 13th century.

The Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi) is a medieval state in Eurasia.

The beginning of the Golden Horde era

The formation and formation of the Golden Horde begins in 1224. The state was founded by the Mongol Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and until 1266 it was part of the Mongol Empire, after which it became independent, retaining only formal subordination to the Empire. The majority of the state's population were Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, and Mari. In 1312, the Golden Horde became an Islamic state. In the 15th century. the unified state broke up into several khanates, the main one among which was the Great Horde. The Great Horde existed until the mid-16th century, but the other khanates collapsed much earlier.

The name “Golden Horde” was first used by the Russians after the fall of the state, in 1556, in one of the historical works. Before this, the state was designated differently in different chronicles.

Territories of the Golden Horde

The Mongol Empire, from which the Golden Horde emerged, occupied territories from the Danube to the Sea of ​​Japan and from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, and one of the parts went to Jochi. A few years later, Jochi’s son, Batu, undertook several military campaigns and expanded the territory of his khanate to the west; the Lower Volga region became the new center. From that moment on, the Golden Horde began to constantly capture new territories. As a result, most of modern Russia (except for the Far East, Siberia and the Far North), Kazakhstan, Ukraine, part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan fell under the rule of the khans of the Golden Horde during its heyday.

In the 13th century. The Mongol Empire, which had seized power in Rus' (), was on the verge of collapse, and Rus' came under the rule of the Golden Horde. However, the Russian principalities were not ruled directly by the khans of the Golden Horde. The princes were only forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde officials, and soon this function came under the control of the princes themselves. However, the Horde did not intend to lose the conquered territories, so its troops regularly carried out punitive campaigns against Rus' to keep the princes in obedience. Rus' remained subject to the Golden Horde almost until the collapse of the Horde.

State structure and management system of the Golden Horde

Since the Golden Horde left the Mongol Empire, the descendants of Genghis Khan were at the head of the state. The territory of the Horde was divided into allotments (uluses), each of which had its own khan, but smaller uluses were subordinate to one main one, where the supreme khan ruled. The ulus division was initially unstable and the boundaries of the uluses were constantly changing.

As a result of the administrative-territorial reform at the beginning of the 14th century. the territories of the main uluses were allocated and assigned, and the positions of ulus managers - ulusbeks - were introduced, to whom smaller officials - viziers - were subordinate. In addition to the khans and ulusbeks, there was a national assembly - kurultai, which was convened only in emergency cases.

The Golden Horde was a paramilitary state, so administrative and military positions were often combined. The most important positions were occupied by members of the ruling dynasty, who were related to the khan and owned lands; smaller administrative positions could be occupied by mid-level feudal lords, and the army was recruited from the people.

The capitals of the Horde were:

• Saray-Batu (near Astrakhan) - under the reign of Batu;
• Sarai-Berke (near Volgograd) - from the first half of the 14th century.

In general, the Golden Horde was a multi-structured and multinational state, therefore, in addition to the capitals, there were several large centers in each region. The Horde also had trading colonies on the Sea of ​​Azov.

Trade and economy of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was a trading state, actively engaged in buying and selling, and also had multiple trading colonies. The main goods were: fabrics, linen canvases, weapons, jewelry and other jewelry, furs, leather, honey, timber, grain, fish, caviar, olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, Central Asia, China and India began from the territories that belonged to the Golden Horde.

In addition, the Horde received a significant part of its income from military campaigns (robberies), collection of tribute (yoke in Rus') and the conquest of new territories.

The end of the era of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde consisted of several uluses, subordinate to the authority of the Supreme Khan. After the death of Khan Janibek in 1357, the first unrest began, caused by the absence of a single heir and the desire of the khans to compete for power. The struggle for power became the main reason for the further collapse of the Golden Horde.

In the 1360s. Khorezm separated from the state.

In 1362, Astrakhan separated, the lands on the Dnieper were captured by the Lithuanian prince.

In 1380, the Tatars were defeated by the Russians during an attempt to attack Rus'.

In 1380-1395 the unrest ceased and power was again subordinated to the Great Khan. During this period, successful Tatar campaigns against Moscow were made.

However, at the end of the 1380s. The Horde attempted to attack Tamerlane's territory, but were unsuccessful. Tamerlane defeated the Horde troops and ravaged the Volga cities. The Golden Horde received a blow, which marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire.

At the beginning of the 15th century. New khanates were formed from the Golden Horde (Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, etc.). The khanates were ruled by the Great Horde, but the dependence of new territories on it gradually weakened, and the power of the Golden Horde over Russia also weakened.

In 1480, Rus' was finally freed from the oppression of the Mongol-Tatars.

At the beginning of the 16th century. The Great Horde, left without small khanates, ceased to exist.

The last khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Muhammad.

The Golden Horde, or the Jochi ulus, is one of the largest states that has ever existed on the territory of what is now Russia. It was also partially located in the territories of modern Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. It existed for more than two centuries (1266-1481; other dates for its rise and fall are also accepted).

The “Golden” Horde was not called at that time

The term “Golden Horde” in relation to the Khanate, on which ancient Rus' found itself dependent, was coined retroactively by Moscow scribes of the 16th century, when this Horde no longer existed. This is a term of the same order as "Byzantium". Contemporaries called the Horde, to which Rus' paid tribute, simply the Horde, sometimes the Great Horde.

Rus' was not part of the Golden Horde

Russian lands were not directly included in the Golden Horde. The khans limited themselves to recognizing the vassal dependence of the Russian princes on them. At first, attempts were made to collect tribute from Rus' with the help of khan administrators - the Baskaks, but already in the middle of the 13th century, the Horde khans abandoned this practice, making the Russian princes themselves responsible for collecting tribute. Among them they singled out one or more, who were given the label for a great reign.

At that time, Vladimir was revered as the oldest princely throne in North-Eastern Rus'. But along with it, Tver and Ryazan, as well as, at one time, Nizhny Novgorod, acquired the importance of an independent great reign during the period of Horde rule. The Grand Duke of Vladimir was considered chiefly responsible for the flow of tribute from all over Rus', and other princes competed for this title. Over time, however, the Vladimir throne was assigned to the dynasty of Moscow princes, and the struggle for it took place within it. At the same time, the princes of Tver and Ryazan became responsible for the receipt of tribute from their principalities and entered into vassal relations directly with the khan.

The Golden Horde was a multinational state

The book name of the main people of the Horde - “Mongol-Tatars” or “Tatar-Mongols” - invented by German historians in the 19th century, is historical nonsense. Such a people never really existed. The impulse that gave rise to the “Mongol-Tatar” invasion was apparently based on the movement of the peoples of the Mongol group. But in their movement, these peoples carried away numerous Turkic peoples, and quite soon the Turkic element became predominant in the Horde. We don’t even know the Mongolian names of the khans, starting with Genghis Khan himself, but only Turkic ones.

Moreover, the currently known peoples among the Turks took shape only at that time. So, although, apparently, back in the 13th century, some of the Turks called themselves Tatars, the people of the Volga Tatars began to form only after the separation of the Kazan Khanate from the Golden Horde in the middle of the 15th century. The Uzbeks were named after Khan Uzbek, who ruled the Horde in 1313-1341.

Along with the nomadic Turkic population, the Golden Horde had a large settled agricultural population. First of all, these are the Volga Bulgarians. Further, on the Don and Lower Volga, as well as in the steppe Crimea, lived the descendants of the Khazars and numerous peoples who were part of the long-vanished Khazar Khaganate, but in some places still retained an urban lifestyle: Alans, Goths, Bulgars, etc. Among them were Russian wanderers , who are considered the predecessors of the Cossacks. In the far north-west, the Mordovians, Mari, Udmurts, and Komi-Permyaks were subordinate to the Horde's authority.

The Golden Horde arose as a result of the division of the empire of the Great Khan

The prerequisites for the independence of the Golden Horde arose under Genghis Khan, when before his death he divided his empire between his sons. The lands of the future Golden Horde were received by his eldest son Jochi. Campaigns against Rus' and Western Europe were undertaken by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (Batu). The division finally took shape in 1266 under Batu Khan’s grandson Mengu-Timur. Until this moment, the Golden Horde recognized the nominal dominion of the Great Khan, and the Russian princes went to bow for a label not only in Sarai on the Volga, but also in distant Karakorum. Afterwards they limited themselves to a trip to the nearby Sarai.

Tolerance in the Golden Horde

During the great conquests, the Turks and Mongols worshiped traditional tribal gods and were tolerant of different religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. The “heretical” branch of Christianity – Nestorianism – was quite important in the Golden Horde, including at the Khan’s court. Later, under Khan Uzbek, the ruling elite of the Horde converted to Islam, however, even after this, freedom of religion remained in the Horde. Thus, until the 16th century, the Sarai bishopric of the Russian Church continued to operate, and its bishops even tried to baptize one of the members of the khan’s family.

Civilized way of life

The possession of a large number of cities by conquered peoples contributed to the spread of urban civilization in the Horde. The capital itself stopped wandering, and settled in one place - in the city of Saray on the Lower Volga. Its location has not been established, since the city was destroyed during the invasion of Tamerlane at the end of the 14th century. The new Barn no longer achieved its former splendor. The houses there were built of mud brick, which explains its fragility.

Royal power in the Horde was not absolute

The Khan of the Horde, called the Tsar in Rus', was not an unlimited ruler. He depended on the advice of the traditional nobility, as the Turks had from time immemorial. Attempts by the khans to strengthen their power led to the “great turmoil” of the 14th century, when the khans became a toy in the hands of senior military leaders (temniks) who actually fought for power. Mamai, defeated on the Kulikovo Field, was not a khan, but a temnik, and only part of the Horde was subordinate to him. Only with the accession of Tokhtamysh (1381) was the power of the khan restored.

The Golden Horde collapsed

The turmoil of the 14th century did not pass without a trace for the Horde. It began to disintegrate and lose control over the territories under its control. During the 15th century, the Siberian, Uzbek, Kazan, Crimean, Kazakh khanates and the Nogai Horde separated from it. Moscow stubbornly maintained vassalage to the Khan of the Great Horde, but in 1480 he died as a result of an attack by the Crimean Khan, and Moscow, willy-nilly, had to become independent.

Kalmyks have no relation to the Golden Horde

Contrary to popular belief, Kalmyks are not descendants of the Mongols, who came with Genghis Khan to the Caspian steppes. Kalmyks moved here from Central Asia only at the end of the 16th – beginning of the 17th centuries.