John Locke is the father of not only modern empiricism, but also materialism. His philosophy of the theory of knowledge consists in the development of two main thoughts, of which the first is the denial of man's innate ideas, and the second is the assertion that the source of all our knowledge is experience.

Many, says Locke, are of the opinion that there are innate ideas, arising in the soul at the very moment of its inception. It (the soul) seems to bring these ideas with it into the world. The innateness of ideas is proven by the fact that they are something common, unconditional for everyone without exception. If the latter really took place, then the commonality of ideas would not serve as proof of their innateness. But we do not even see unconditional commonality, any ideas, either in theory or in practice. We will not find a single rule of morality that would exist among all peoples at all times. Children and idiots often have no idea about the simplest axioms. All this speaks against the innateness of ideas. We come to the knowledge of the simplest truths through reasoning, but they by no means precede reasoning. Our initial knowledge does not consist of general provisions, but of individual impressions of a particular nature. A child distinguishes bitter from sweet, dark from light, and so on. The mind or soul, when it comes into being, represents White list paper, empty space and so on. After all this, the question is inevitable: where do our ideas come from? Undoubtedly, we receive them from experience, which, therefore, determines all our knowledge and all its most general laws. Our experience is of two origins: we perceive the external world either through our senses (that is, sensations), or through consciousness of the internal activity of our soul, that is, by reasoning (reflection). Sensation and reasoning give our mind all ideas.

Locke set himself the task of understanding the origin of ideas from these two sources. He distinguishes between simple and complex ideas (conceptions). He calls simple ideas the reflections of reality in our soul, as in a mirror. For the most part, we receive simple ideas or ideas through one sense, for example, the idea of ​​color is given to us by sight, the idea of ​​hardness by touch, but they also partly include ideas that are the result of the activity of several senses: such are the ideas of extension and motion, obtained through touch and vision. Among simple ideas or representations we also find those that owe their origin exclusively to the activity of the understanding - this is the idea of ​​will. Finally, ideas can also be created by the joint activity of the senses and reflection - these are the concepts of force, unit, sequence.

All these simplest ideas taken together constitute the alphabet of our knowledge. Various combinations of sounds and words create language. In the same way, our mind, connecting ideas with each other in various ways, creates complex ideas.

Locke divides complex ideas into three classes: ideas of changes (modes), ideas of essences (substances) and ideas of relations. By the first, Locke means a change in space (distance, measurement, immeasurability, surface of a figure, etc.), time (duration, eternity), the process of thinking (impression, perception, memory, ability to abstract, etc.).

Locke's main attention is paid to the concept of essence. He explains the origin of this concept as follows: our feelings and our mind convince us of the existence of certain combinations of the simplest ideas that are most often encountered. We cannot allow these simplest ideas to connect themselves. We attribute this connection to some basis and call it essence. Essence is something unknown in itself, and we know only its individual properties.

From considering the concept of essence, Locke moves on to the idea of ​​relation. A relationship arises when the mind compares or compares two things. Such a comparison is possible for all things, so it is difficult to list all possible relationships between objects. As a result, Locke dwells on the most important of them - on the concept of identity and difference and on the relationship of cause and effect. The idea of ​​cause arises when we see that one phenomenon invariably precedes another. In general, the combination of ideas gives us knowledge. It relates to simple and complex ideas as a sentence relates to words, syllables and letters. From all this it follows that our knowledge does not go beyond the limits of experience, since we deal only with ideas, which, according to Locke, arise in us exclusively with the help of internal and external experience. This is Locke's main idea.

He expressed these views with great clarity and clarity in all his writings, devoting them mainly to “An Experience in the Study of the Human Mind.”

An Essay on the Human Mind consists of four books:

1) “On innate ideas”;

2) “On representations”;

3) “About words”;

4) "On knowledge and opinion."

The second book deals with representations in themselves, regardless of their truth. In the fourth book, Locke gives a critical assessment of knowledge, that is, he talks about ideas that give true knowledge of reality, and considers opinion and faith as intermediate steps to true knowledge. We can say that the content of the second and fourth books exhausts the most essential in this work. The third book examines language as a means for communicating and asserting knowledge.

As for the first book, it serves as a preparation for the reader to understand Locke’s views. Locke himself says in his conclusion that he intends his first book to clear the way for his own research, so its content is, in some way, negative in nature. Locke makes every effort to destroy the belief in the existence of innate ideas. In Locke's time, innate ideas played a large role in philosophy. Descartes considered the concept of God to be innate. His followers significantly expanded this concept and based the doctrine of morality and law exclusively on the basic principles that they recognized as innate. Such faith in innate ideas threatened the further development of science, so Locke considered his first duty to engage in the fight against innate ideas. For this struggle it was necessary to put the reader on a new point of view, which was clarified in the second book of the Experience.

The first book does not contain any rigorous evidence. Despite this, the reader is convinced from the very first pages that the truth is on Locke’s side, and there are no innate ideas in the sense in which they were understood at that time. Locke began his studies in philosophy by studying Descartes. Descartes' direction was dominant at that time in France and partly in England. Spinoza also held the opinion that the concept of God is innate. In ancient times, Cicero recognized this and used it to prove that God really exists. Locke, although he denied the innateness of the concept of God, was not inferior to his predecessors in piety and, of course, did not doubt the existence of a higher principle, but argued that we get the idea of ​​God through experience, considering his creations. Empiricism did not prevent Locke from remaining a religious man. This religiosity is clearly manifested in Locke's philosophy. He undoubtedly belonged to those rare people for whom philosophy happily coexists with religion and goes with it, as it were, hand in hand.

The third book of the "Experience", dedicated to research into the properties of language, deserves special attention. There are many observations here, directly snatched from life, which with their truthfulness can make any person think. Of course, the science of language has made enormous strides forward since Locke's time. At that time, the prevailing opinion was that the formation of language did not obey any specific laws. For a long time later they began to look for a natural relationship between the consonance of a word and the object that it denotes. Views and explanations of phenomena sooner or later become obsolete, but correctly captured facts, as the fruit of observations, never lose their meaning. Leibniz says: language is the best mirror of our mind and soul, and therefore the study of the origin of words can lead us to an understanding of the activities of our mind and the processes of our thinking. Locke was obviously of the same opinion as Leibniz in this regard and devoted a lot of time to studying the connection that exists between language and thinking.

The imperfection of language, according to Locke, depends on four main reasons.

It manifests itself:

1) when the ideas expressed in words are too complex and consist of many simple ideas connected together;

2) when ideas do not have any natural connection with each other;

3) when they relate to a subject inaccessible to us;

4) when the meaning of the word does not correspond to the essence of the subject.

Language abuse also depends on various reasons:

1) from the use of words with which no clear idea is associated;

2) from mastering a word before its meaning is understood; from using the same word in different meanings;

3) from the application of words to ideas other than those they usually designate;

4) from applying them to objects that do not exist or are inaccessible.

These remarks of Locke, having no scientific value, are very important in practice, where the use of language is usually not given due importance and is often abused.

Let us now move on to the presentation of other sections of Locke's philosophy, which are also very important for everyone. The theory of morality created by this philosopher had, as we will see, great influence.

Locke denied the existence of innate moral laws. By the latter, he understood the basic provisions of law and morality, with which mutual relations between individuals and nations must be consistent - in a word, all the rules of community life. But what should be understood by the name innate ideas of morality? What the Stoics recognized as true reason, Spinoza called spiritual love of God, and Grotius called the nature of things. All this meant something unknown, guiding our actions. Later, this unknown was called “innate ideas of morality.” By challenging the existence of such ideas, Locke unwittingly undermined the foundation of all moral teachings that had ever existed. He argued that there are no general moral laws and sought to prove that every single moral rule changes over time. Moreover, Locke cited as proof of the validity of his opinion the fact that even today in different countries we encounter directly opposite rules of morality, which could not possibly have happened if there had been one innate idea of ​​morality to which all others could be reduced . Locke also does not recognize the immutability of the so-called inner voice or voice of conscience, saying that conscience itself is not the same among different people and nations, because it is also the result of upbringing and living conditions. From childhood we get used to considering as good what our parents and other people whom we trust call good. We often have neither the desire nor the time to talk about what we took for granted in childhood, and we readily admit that we were born with such concepts, not knowing how and where they came from. This, according to Locke, is the true history of innate ideas. This is also explained by the fact that no doctrine of morality and law is possible without the assumption of the existence of a general law. The law can only come from the legislator, whose infallibility we cannot doubt, and who alone has the power to punish and pardon. Only the omniscient God can be such a legislator, and therefore law and morality find their basis not in innate ideas, but in Divine revelation. It is further seen that Locke, as easily as possible, deduces the general basis of morality, but encounters great difficulties in reconciling with this Divine revelation all the various rules of social life and morality, the variety of which in the eyes of the observer is infinite. He barely finds the opportunity to establish the three most general principles of morality:

1) faith in God and his omnipotence; recognition of the power of the sovereign and the people;

2) fear of punishment and desire for reward guides our actions;

3) recognition of Christian morality and no other.

One cannot help but admit that all this is not well understood, but we cannot strictly blame Locke for the fact that his theory of morality is not as clear as the theory of knowledge. And to this day, no one has yet managed to discover the fundamental law of our moral nature, although people such as, for example, Comte have taken on this task. In England, immediately after Locke, Shaftesbury and Hume were engaged in the theory of morality, who took the feeling of love for one's neighbor as the fundamental law. Wolf, in Germany, puts the same law in a different form and bases the theory of morality on man’s constant striving for spiritual perfection. Leibniz, in contrast to Locke, recognized the existence of innate ideas of morality, to which he attributed an instinctive character. He said: we are not aware of the rules of morality, but we feel them instinctively. All this, of course, also does not at all clarify the origin of the moral principle.

Questions about morality are closely related to the question of free will, so it is appropriate here to give Locke’s opinion on this as well. Locke recognizes that our will is governed solely by the desire for happiness. This view was involuntarily established under the influence of observation of reality. But the philosopher, obviously, did not like this engine of all our actions, and he tried to give the word “happiness” the broadest meaning, but he was unable to stretch this concept to such an extent as to explain, for example, the actions of voluntary martyrs...

Locke claims that thinking has the power to suppress all passion and give rational direction to the will. It is in this power of reason, in his opinion, that human freedom consists. If we accept this definition of free will, then we will have to admit that not all people have the same degree of free will, and others are completely deprived of it, because for some reason there is a German proverb: “I see and justify the best, but follow the bad.” Locke recognizes as moral only those actions that come from reason; he is convinced that if a person weighs his actions well and foresees their consequences, then he always acts justly.

Thus, Locke completely agrees with Socrates in this regard, recognizing that an enlightened mind certainly leads to good morality. It is remarkable that such an opinion in both Locke and Socrates was a consequence of direct study of reality. But the similarities between Locke and Socrates do not end there - both of them expressed their thoughts without further ado. To give an idea of ​​Locke's presentation, one should cite his definitions of pleasure, love, anger, and so on, which are borrowed from the Essay.

Pleasure and pain are simple concepts. Among the ideas received through the senses, the sensations of pleasure and pain are the most important; every impression is accompanied by a feeling of pleasure or a feeling of pain or does not cause any feeling. The same applies to the thinking and mood of our soul. The feeling of pain and pleasure, like any simple idea, cannot be described or defined. These feelings can only be known, like all impressions, through one's own experience.

From these elementary feelings Locke moves on to more complex ones. "What is called good and evil? All things are good or bad, depending on whether they cause pleasure or cause pain. We call good everything that gives us a feeling of pleasure or elevates it and eliminates pain or reduces it. On the contrary, we we call evil everything that excites pain, increases it or deprives us of good. By the name of pleasure and pain I understand as much bodily as mental states. They are usually distinguished from each other, whereas both are essentially only different states of the soul caused by changes occurring in the body or in the soul itself."

Pleasure and pain and their causes - good and evil - are the centers around which our passions revolve. The idea of ​​them arises through introspection and study of their various influences on changing the states and moods of the soul.

"Love. If anyone fixes his attention on the idea of ​​pleasure connected with a present or absent object, he will receive the concept of love. If someone says in the fall, while enjoying grapes, or in the spring, when they are not there, that he loves grapes, then this only means that the taste of grapes gives him pleasure. If poor health or a change in taste destroys this pleasure, then it will be impossible to tell him that he loves grapes.”

"Hatred. On the contrary, the thought of pain caused by an absent or present object is what we call hatred. The ideas of love and hate are nothing more than states of the soul in relation to pleasure and pain, without any distinction whatsoever between the causes from which they arise.”

Wish. “Desire is a more or less living feeling arising from the absence of that which is connected with the idea of ​​pleasure; it rises and falls with the increase and decrease of the last feeling.”

Joy. “Joy is a satisfied state of mind under the influence of the consciousness that the possession of good has been achieved or will soon be achieved.”

Locke defines sadness as the opposite feeling. The definitions of hope, fear, doubt, anger, envy and other passions characteristic of all people are of the same nature.

There is a general opinion that the character of a writer should be studied in his writings. This opinion is absolutely true in relation to Locke. We do not notice high inspiration in him, but we find touching attention to the needs of ordinary people.

He behaves easily with his reader, although he is aware that this is why he loses, perhaps, in the opinion of many. “I know,” he says, “that my frankness harms my fame,” and he continues to be frank.

In support of what has been said, I will cite Locke’s thought about the limitations of the human mind.

“Our ability to learn is commensurate with our needs. No matter how limited the human mind may be, we must thank the Creator for it, because it far leaves behind the thinking abilities of all other inhabitants of our Earth. Our mind gives us the opportunity to formulate the necessary concept of virtue and arrange earthly life so that it leads to a better life. We are not able to comprehend the hidden secrets of nature, but what we can understand is quite enough to form an idea of ​​​​the goodness of the Creator and of our own duties. We will not complain to the limits of our knowledge, if we engage in what is really useful for us. In the absence of sunlight, we will work by candlelight; our candle burns quite brightly for the work that we need to accomplish. If we do not have wings, then we will In case we can walk. We do not need to know everything, but only what is directly related to life. Man in vain climbs into the depths, losing the ground under his feet; he must not cross the circle separating the light from the dark, what is accessible to our minds from what is inaccessible. It is also unreasonable to doubt everything if we know a lot exactly. Doubt undermines our strength, deprives us of vigor, and makes us give up."

Reconciling philosophy with religion was the main task in Locke's life, and it is easy to imagine that this task was not easy. Locke's mind, humbled by religion, still often leaves the vicious circle he himself outlined, striving for bold conclusions, which then had to be justified and somehow connected with religion.

Recognizing experience as the only source of our knowledge, Locke stopped there and could not draw those consequences from this position, which were later drawn by Condillac and served to destroy many of the foundations of morality and religion.

Not a single one of Locke's followers in England went to such extremes, which were incompatible with the piety and conservatism of the English.

In conclusion, we will touch on the classification of sciences that Locke adhered to. He, like the ancient Greeks, divides science into physics, logic and ethics. What Locke calls logic can rather be called philosophy of knowledge. The science opposite to it is the philosophy of being; it breaks down into the philosophy of nature and the philosophy of the soul, the latter includes the theory of morality, law and aesthetics, or the doctrine of the arts. The old Aristotelian logic belongs to the philosophy of knowledge; it also includes the science of language. We do not find theology between the sciences, since, according to Locke, it is not a science, because it is based on revelation. Locke also considers the philosophy of history to be philosophy.

John Locke (1632-1704) is a famous English philosopher and teacher who had a serious influence on the subsequent development of philosophy and pedagogy.

He lived during the era of the English Revolution, which meant the transition from pre-industrial to industrial type of production, a time of profound changes in the life of European peoples, characterized by the emergence of new conditions for the development of personality.

John Locke was born into the family of a provincial lawyer who took part in the revolution. At school he received a scholastic education, then at Oxford University he became interested in natural sciences, medicine, and philosophy. After graduating from the university, he became a house doctor and teacher of the grandson of A. Shaftesbury, a famous liberal politician. The main pedagogical work is “Thoughts on Education.”

Feelings and experience. Locke considers one of the the most important problems philosophy - sensationalism, which is directly related to pedagogy. In his work “An Essay on Human Reason,” he opposes the concept of the innateness of ideas, which was proclaimed and propagated by the church and metaphysical philosophers, a concept that had great support in society. Locke, arguing that there are no innate ideas in the human soul, argues that he acquires knowledge, ideas, and principles through interaction with objects and people: the environment.

The sources of knowledge are sensations, i.e. impressions received through the senses; This is the most objective level of knowledge, excluding doubt. The knowledge acquired by a person is not a simple reflection of the world around him. Knowledge grows from understanding experience; experience is the source of knowledge.

These statements by Locke express a new view of man and his upbringing in his era.

If ideas are innate, then they predetermine the child’s entire future life and education cannot change anything. Denying the innateness of ideas (in newborns, for example, Locke writes, there is not the slightest sign of any ideas), he assigns in human development decisive role education. The soul of a child is a blank sheet of paper on which you can write anything, wax, from which you can fashion anything. “Nine-tenths of the people we meet are what they are - good or evil, useful or useless - due to their upbringing. This is what creates great differences between people,” writes Locke.

But here it is necessary to note one more feature of his reasoning: he never considered education capable of changing the world, like, for example, the French educators of the 18th century. He considered the existing system to be completely rational and it was only necessary to strengthen it by giving a rational education to the virtuous bourgeois.

Morality. Locke denies innate moral principles; a person is born neither moral nor immoral. Moral standards are acquired by a person in the process of life in this way, and there is no innate depravity of man - a favorite statement propagated by the church in the Middle Ages. Since the rules of morality begin to be instilled in the child from the very beginning early years, it seems that they are innate. Adults, brought up from childhood in respect for certain principles, believe that they were endowed with them from birth, are eternal and unchanging. According to Locke, moral principles arise as a result of experience and education and their main criterion is utility. The main principle of morality is virtue. Therefore, a moral person is virtuous, and a virtuous person is happy.

In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke defines good and evil this way. “Good” we call that which can bring pleasure or prolong it, reduce suffering, and “evil” is that which leads to suffering, reduces pleasure, or deprives us of some good. “A man’s happiness or unhappiness is the work of his own hands” and comes from what he chooses to adhere to in life - good or evil.

Heredity and environment. Denying the innateness of ideas, Locke at the same time recognized some influence of innate abilities on a person: “We are born into the world with such abilities and forces that contain the ability to master almost any thing, but only the exercise of these forces can impart to us the ability and guide us.” to perfection".

We cannot count on completely eradicating the innate characteristics of a child, “making a cheerful person into a thoughtful person,” or “making a melancholic person into a cheerful person.” “God has put a certain stamp on the soul” of each child, which can be slightly corrected.

The environment also influences human development, but it is unchangeable, and besides, leaving a certain environment for another is undesirable. People from the people, for example, cannot feel good among the rich, since they do not have the necessary tact and manners. People are adapted to certain living conditions, and changing these conditions is unnecessary and even harmful, Locke argues.

Thus, without completely denying some influence of heredity and environment, Locke considers upbringing to be decisive in the development of a child; it overcomes both the influence of heredity and the influence of environment. The first two factors are considered passive by him, while education, in his opinion, is active.

PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Education can create a special “breed” of people - gentlemen. The main goal of education is human happiness, based on virtue, “virtue in literally is a high and difficult to achieve goal of education.” It arises not only under the influence of the teacher’s instructions and conversations, “all work and all the art of education should be aimed at equipping the soul with virtue,” until the young man “organically falls in love with her,” then he will see in her your glory and enjoy it. Cultivating virtue makes it possible to achieve personal happiness without hindering others in this. The concept of God, who does good to all who love and honor Him, should be fixed in the child’s soul.

Thus, Locke connected the goals of education with purely earthly matters, and not heavenly ones, defining a person’s happiness as the goal of his life. If happiness is the goal of human life, then it should also be the goal of education.

Obstacles to achieving this goal are: a bodily feeling of unpleasantness; incorrect, false judgments.

Therefore, the first task of the teacher is to achieve good physical health of the pupil, who can reason intelligently and draw conclusions necessary for life.

Physical education is important and provides the health needed to get things done and thrive. “A healthy mind in a healthy body is a short but complete description of a happy state in this world.” One who has an unhealthy and weak body can never be happy.

You need to take care of your health early age child; harden him, teach him not to be afraid of the cold, for this purpose wash his feet every day with cold, even ice water, do not be afraid that your shoes will get wet from puddles; food should be the simplest, spices should be avoided; the child's bed should be hard, etc. Physical health is maintained through exercise and routine through sports and walks. Well-executed physical education helps develop courage and perseverance.

The most important tasks education recognizes the development of character, will, morality, mental development. Parents are advised: “Seek someone who knows how to wisely mold the boy’s character; give him into hands that can... protect his innocence, lovingly support and develop him good starts" Particularly important in character education are: exercises, experience, and the example of educators and parents.

You shouldn’t satisfy all the child’s desires, but you shouldn’t deny him his natural “legal” demands. At first, “fear and respect” will help guide the child’s behavior, and in later years the teacher will be able to influence the actions of the student through love and friendship with him.

Reasoning and teaching are of little use in education; more effective means are exercises, example, the child’s environment. “Children cannot be raised with rules,” teaching them to do something is done practically, as soon as the opportunity presents itself, “if possible, create the opportunity yourself.” The teacher must remember that rudeness and violence should be excluded from treating the child. A gentle, seemingly random suggestion, a gentle tone and kind words, not an order, but a reminder, will help achieve results in educational activities. Corporal punishment is undesirable, since “slave discipline creates a slavish character”; they are possible only in exceptional cases.

The gentleman about whose upbringing Locke writes must have a strong will and a strong character, but they must be subordinated to reason. “The highest authority to which a person has recourse in determining his behavior is his mind... Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to carefully take care of the mind, to take care to correctly guide it in the search for knowledge” and judgments.

It is the purpose of education that determines the role and place of mental education. After all, what, according to Locke, interferes with a person’s personal happiness? False judgment. Locke sharply criticizes the knowledge that young men received in school and homeschooling, - scholastic, divorced from life. We need knowledge that will help the student successfully manage his or her affairs and create personal happiness.

Which scientific knowledge should children be told? The task of education is not to give thorough knowledge in any science, but to... “to give such a development and disposition to the mind that would make them most capable of any science when they independently engage in it.” Consequently, thereby preparing the student for independent acquisition of knowledge.

Reading, writing, drawing, native and French languages, geography, mathematics, astronomy, chronology, ethics, history, law make up the range of disciplines necessary for a gentleman.

According to Locke, learning based on sensory experience should be preferred to the verbal form of teaching, because sensory representations form the basis for the emergence of complex concepts. To obtain correct judgments, normally developed senses are required, which is possible with physical health. A healthy body is the key to full mental development.

The teaching method should follow certain rules:

1. No subject that children must learn should be forced upon them as something obligatory, nor should it be turned into a burden. Everything that is imposed immediately becomes boring for children, even if it previously seemed pleasant to them. Children want to show that they are free, “that their good deeds come from themselves, that they are independent and independent.” If they themselves do not show such readiness, they should first be disposed to work and aroused the desire for upcoming activities, then “the child will learn three times more” of what he does reluctantly or under compulsion. “Ensure that it is not the teacher who has to call to learn, but that “they themselves ask him to teach them,” then they will feel free to choose and will be as passionate about learning as they are about playing.

2. It is necessary to teach children to dominate themselves so that they are able, if necessary, to easily and happily switch to studying a new subject, even if their passion for the previous one is strong. The child needs to learn to “shake off lethargy and energetically take on what the mind indicates,” to move from interesting to less attractive. You should not let your child get used to laziness because of a dislike for some subject.

An important aspect of education is the child’s mastery of crafts and his hardening at work. Painting, turning, carpentry, carpentry, gardening and other useful crafts deserve to be learned and improved in them. Manual labor and crafts improve health, develop dexterity and dexterity, and also serve as entertainment after engaging in mental work. People leading a sedentary or desk life should have some kind of exercise that could simultaneously entertain their soul and give something to their body, Lokk recommends. Rest does not consist in idleness, but in changing activities. Digging the earth, planting trees and others similar and useful activities can be no less entertainment “than any idle fashionable sport.”

When choosing a craft or other manual labor for a pupil, coercion should be avoided, “for command and violence often cause disgust.” The child will want to quit what he doesn’t like, and even if he does it, it will bring little benefit.

Locke believes that the study of accounting is necessary: ​​although knowledge of accounting will not help a gentleman make a fortune, it is necessary to preserve his wealth. A person will need the ability to keep accounts throughout his life.

Thus, Locke developed new pedagogical ideas, which can be summarized as follows:

A child from birth does not carry any innate ideas or vices;

Everything that is in a person’s consciousness is received by him thanks to sensations and own experience;

Education is omnipotent; it alone determines how a child will grow up;

The main goal of education is human happiness, based on virtue;

The health of the child is the first task of education;

The example of others, the child’s exercises are more effective than any words;

Coercion in education should be abandoned;

Benefit is the principle that should guide education and training.

Locke introduced new principles into pedagogy: experience as the basis of education, practicality and rationalism. Locke's pedagogical ideas were studied, critically comprehended and developed in the works of French enlighteners of the 18th century.

April 21, 2018

In any philosophy textbook you can read that John Locke is an outstanding representative of the New Time era. This English thinker made a huge impression on the later leaders of the minds of the Enlightenment. Voltaire and Rousseau read his letters. His political ideas influenced the American Declaration of Independence. Locke's sensationalism became the starting point from which Kant and Hume proceeded. And the ideas that human knowledge directly depends on sensory perception, which forms experience, gained extreme popularity during the thinker’s lifetime.

Brief description of the philosophy of the New Time

In the XVII-XVIII centuries Western Europe Science and technology began to develop rapidly. This was the time of the emergence of new philosophical concepts based on materialism, the mathematical method, as well as the priority of experience and experiment. But, as often happens, thinkers were divided into two opposing camps. These are rationalists and empiricists. The difference between them was that the former believed that we draw our knowledge from innate ideas, and the latter - that we process information that enters our brain from experience and sensations. Although the main “stumbling block” of the philosophy of the New Time was the theory of knowledge, nevertheless, thinkers, based on their principles, put forward political, ethical and pedagogical ideas. Locke's sensationalism, which we will consider here, fits perfectly into this picture. The philosopher belonged to the empiricist camp.

Biography

The future genius was born in 1632 in the English town of Wrington, Somerset County. When revolutionary events broke out in England, John Locke's father, a provincial lawyer, took an active part in them - he fought in Cromwell's army. At first, the young man graduated from one of the best educational institutions of that time, Westminster School. And then he entered Oxford, which since the Middle Ages has been known for its university academic environment. Locke received a master's degree and worked as a Greek teacher. Together with his patron, Lord Ashley, he traveled a lot. At the same time, he became interested in social problems. But due to the radicalization of the political situation in England, Lord Ashley emigrated to France. The philosopher returned to his homeland only after the so-called “glorious revolution” of 1688, when William of Orange was proclaimed king. The thinker spent almost his entire life in solitude, almost as a hermit, but held various government positions. His friend was Lady Damerys Masham, in whose mansion he died of asthma in 1705.

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Basic aspects of philosophy

Locke's views were formed quite early. One of the first thinkers to notice the contradictions in the philosophy of Descartes. He worked hard to identify and explain them. Locke created his own system partly to contrast it with Descartes. The rationalism of the famous Frenchman disgusted him. He was a supporter of all kinds of compromises, including in the field of philosophy. No wonder he returned to his homeland during the “glorious revolution.” After all, this was the year when a compromise was concluded between the main contending forces in England. Similar views were characteristic of the thinker in his approach to religion.

Criticism of Descartes

In our work “An Essay Concerning Human Reason” we see Locke’s concept already practically formed. There he spoke out against the theory of “innate ideas”, which was propagated and made very popular by Rene Descartes. The French thinker greatly influenced Locke's ideas. He agreed with his theories about certain truth. The latter should be an intuitive moment of our existence. But Locke did not agree with the theory that to be means to think. All ideas that are considered innate, according to the philosopher, in fact, are not. The principles that are given to us by nature include only two abilities. This is will and reason.

From a philosopher's point of view, the only source of any human ideas is experience. It, as the thinker believed, consists of individual perceptions. And they, in turn, are divided into external, cognizable by us in sensations, and internal, that is, reflections. The mind itself is something that uniquely reflects and processes information coming from the senses. For Locke, sensations were primary. They generate knowledge. In this process the mind plays a secondary role.

The Teaching of Qualities

It is in this theory that the materialism and sensationalism of J. Locke are most manifested. Experience, the philosopher argued, gives rise to images that we call qualities. The latter are primary and secondary. How to distinguish them? Primary qualities are constant. They are inseparable from things or objects. Such qualities can be called figure, density, extension, movement, number, and so on. What is taste, smell, color, sound? These are secondary qualities. They are impermanent and can be separated from the things that give rise to them. They also vary depending on the subject who perceives them. The combination of qualities creates ideas. These are a kind of images in the human brain. But they are simple ideas. How do theories arise? The fact is that, according to Locke, our brain still has some innate abilities (this is his compromise with Descartes). This is comparison, combination and distraction (or abstraction). With their help, simple ideas emerge into complex ones. This is how the process of cognition occurs.

Ideas and method

John Locke's theory of sensationalism not only explains the origin of theories from experience. She also categorizes different ideas according to criteria. The first of these is value. According to this criterion, ideas are divided into dark and clear. They are also grouped into three categories: real (or fantastic), adequate (or inconsistent with the models), and true and false. The last class can be attributed to judgments. The philosopher also spoke about what is the most suitable method for achieving real and adequate as well as true ideas. He called it metaphysical. This method consists of three steps:

• analysis;
• dismemberment;
• classifications.

We can say that Locke actually transferred the scientific approach to philosophy. His ideas in this regard turned out to be unusually successful. Locke's method prevailed until the 19th century, until he was criticized by Goethe in his poems that if someone wants to study something living, he first kills it, then dismembers it into parts. But there is still no secret of life - there is only ashes in our hands...

About the language

Locke's sensationalism became the rationale for the emergence human speech. The philosopher believed that language arose as a result of people having abstract thinking. Words are, in essence, signs. Most of them are general terms. They arise when a person tries to identify similar features of various objects or phenomena. For example, people have noticed that a black and a red cow are actually the same species of animal. Therefore, a general term has emerged to refer to it. Locke justified the existence of language and communication with the so-called theory of common sense. Interestingly, when literally translated from English, this phrase sounds a little different. It is pronounced "common sense". This led the philosopher to the idea that people tried to abstract from the individual in order to create an abstract term with the meaning of which everyone agreed.

Political ideas

Despite the philosopher’s secluded life, he was not alien to interest in the aspirations of the surrounding society. He is the author of Two Treatises on the State. Locke's ideas about politics boil down to the theory of "natural law". He can be called a classic representative of this concept, which was very fashionable in modern times. The thinker believed that all people have three basic rights - to life, freedom and property. To be able to protect these principles, man emerged from the state of nature and created the state. Therefore, the latter has corresponding functions, which are to protect these fundamental rights. The state must guarantee compliance with laws that protect the freedoms of citizens and punish violators. John Locke believed that in this regard, power should be divided into three parts. These are legislative, executive and federal functions (by the latter the philosopher understood the right to wage war and establish peace). They must be managed by separate bodies independent of each other. Locke also defended the right of the people to rebel against tyranny and is known for developing the principles of democratic revolution. However, he is one of the defenders of the slave trade, as well as the author of the political rationale for the policy of North American colonists who took land from the Indians.

Constitutional state

The principles of D. Locke's sensationalism are also expressed in his doctrine of the social contract. The state, from his point of view, is a mechanism that should be based on experience and common sense. Citizens waive their right to defend their own lives, freedom and property, leaving this to a special service. She must monitor order and implementation of laws. For this purpose, a government is elected by universal consent. The state must do everything to protect human freedom and well-being. Then he too will obey the laws. This is why a social contract is concluded. There is no reason to submit to the arbitrariness of a despot. If power is unlimited, then it is a greater evil than the absence of a state. Because in the latter case, a person can at least rely on himself. And under despotism he is generally defenseless. And if the state violates the agreement, the people can demand back their rights and withdraw from the agreement. The thinker's ideal was a constitutional monarchy.

About a human

Sensualism - the philosophy of J. Locke - also influenced his pedagogical principles. Since the thinker believed that all ideas come from experience, he concluded that people are born with absolutely equal abilities. They are similar clean slate. It was Locke who made popular Latin phrase tabula rasa, that is, a board on which nothing has yet been written. This is how he imagined the brain of a newborn person, a child, in contrast to Descartes, who believed that we have certain knowledge from nature. Therefore, from Locke’s point of view, the teacher, by “putting into the head” the right ideas, can form the mind in a certain order. Education should be physical, mental, religious, moral and labor. The state must strive in every possible way to ensure that education is at a sufficient level. If it interferes with enlightenment, then, as Locke believed, it ceases to fulfill its functions and loses legitimacy. Such a state should be changed. These ideas were subsequently taken up by figures of the French Enlightenment.

Hobbes and Locke: what are the similarities and differences in the theories of philosophers?

It was not only Descartes who influenced the theory of sensationalism. Thomas Hobbes, a famous English philosopher who lived several decades earlier, was also a very important figure for Locke. Even the main work of his life - “An Essay on Human Reason” - he compiled according to the same algorithm by which Hobbes’ “Leviathan” was written. He develops the thoughts of his predecessor in the doctrine of language. He borrows his theory of relativistic ethics, agreeing with Hobbes that the concepts of good and evil for many people do not coincide, and only the desire to receive pleasure is the strongest internal drive of the psyche. However, Locke is a pragmatist. He does not set out to create a general political theory, as Hobbes does. Moreover, Locke does not consider the natural (stateless) state of man to be a war of all against all. After all, it was precisely with this provision that Hobbes justified the absolute power of the monarch. For Locke, free people can live spontaneously. And they form a state only by agreeing with each other.

Religious ideas

The philosophy of J. Locke - sensationalism - was also reflected in his views on theology. The thinker believed that an eternal and good creator created our world, limited in time and space. But everything that surrounds us has infinite variety, reflecting the properties of God. The entire universe is designed in such a way that every creature in it has its own purpose and a nature corresponding to it. As for the concept of Christianity, Locke's sensationalism manifested itself here in the fact that the philosopher believed that our natural reason discovered the will of God in the Gospel, and therefore it should become law. And the Creator’s requirements are very simple - you need to do good both for yourself and for your neighbors. Vice is to bring harm to one’s own existence and to others. Moreover, crimes against society are more important than crimes against individuals. Locke explains the Gospel demands for self-restraint by the fact that since constant pleasures await us in the other world, then for the sake of them we can refuse those that come. Whoever does not understand this is the enemy of his own happiness.

John Locke is an outstanding English philosopher and teacher.

Locke's philosophical teaching embodied the main features of modern philosophy: opposition to scholasticism, focus on knowledge and practice. The goal of his philosophy is man and his practical life, which is expressed in Locke’s concepts of education and social structure society. He saw the purpose of philosophy in developing means for a person to achieve happiness. Locke developed a method of cognition based on sensory perceptions and systematized the empiricism of the New Age.

Major Philosophical Works of John Locke

• "An Essay on Human Understanding"
• "Two Treatises on Government"
• "Essays on the Law of Nature"
• "Letters on Tolerance"
• "Thoughts on Education"

Philosophy of knowledge

Locke considers reason to be the main instrument of knowledge, which “puts man above other sentient beings.” The English thinker sees the subject of philosophy primarily in the study of the laws of human understanding. To determine the capabilities of the human mind, and, accordingly, to determine those areas that act as the natural limits of human knowledge by virtue of its very structure, means directing human efforts to solve real problems associated with practice.

In his fundamental philosophical work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke explores the question of how far the human cognitive ability can extend and what its real limits are. He poses the problem of the origin of ideas and concepts through which a person comes to understand things.

The task is to establish the basis for the reliability of knowledge. To this end, Locke analyzes the main sources of human ideas, which include sensory perceptions and thinking. It is important for him to establish how the rational principles of knowledge relate to the sensory principles.

The only object of human thinking is the idea. Unlike Descartes, who took the position of “innateness of ideas,” Locke argues that all ideas, concepts and principles (both particular and general) that we find in the human mind, without exception, originate in experience, and as one their most important sources are sensory impressions. This cognitive attitude is called sensationalism, although we immediately note that in relation to Locke’s philosophy this term can only be applied to certain limits. The point is that Locke does not attribute immediate truth to sensory perception as such; He is also not inclined to derive all human knowledge only from sensory perceptions: along with external experience, he also recognizes internal experience as equal in knowledge.

Almost all pre-Lockean philosophy considered it obvious that general ideas and concepts (such as God, man, material body, movement, etc.), as well as general theoretical judgments (for example, the law of causality) and practical principles (for example ., the commandment of love for God) are the original combinations of ideas that are a direct property of the soul, on the basis that the general can never be an object of experience. Locke rejects this point of view, considering general knowledge not primary, but, on the contrary, derivative, logically deduced from particular statements through reflection.

The idea, fundamental to all empirical philosophy, that experience is the inseparable limit of all possible knowledge, is enshrined by Locke in the following provisions:

• there are no ideas, knowledge or principles innate to the mind; human soul(the mind) is “tabula rasa” (“blank slate”); only experience, through single perceptions, writes any content on it
• no human mind is capable of creating simple ideas, nor is it capable of destroying existing ideas; they are delivered to our mind by sensory perceptions and reflection
• experience is the source and inseparable limit of true knowledge. “All our knowledge is based on experience, from it, in the end, it comes”

Giving an answer to the question of why there are no innate ideas in the human mind, Locke criticizes the concept of “universal consent,” which served as the starting point for supporters of the opinion that there is “presence in the mind of knowledge prior to [experience] from the moment of its existence.” The main arguments put forward by Locke here are as follows: 1) in reality, the imaginary “universal consent” does not exist (this can be seen in the example of small children, mentally retarded adults and culturally backward peoples); 2) the “universal agreement” of people on certain ideas and principles (if it is still allowed) does not necessarily stem from the factor of “innateness”; it can be explained by showing that there is another, practical way achieve this.

So, our knowledge can extend as far as experience allows us.

As already mentioned, Locke does not identify experience entirely with sensory perception, but interprets this concept much more broadly. In accordance with his concept, experience includes everything from which the human mind, initially similar to an “unwritten sheet of paper,” draws all its content. Experience consists of external and internal: 1) we feel material objects or 2) we perceive the activity of our mind, the movement of our thoughts.

From a person’s ability to perceive external objects through the senses, sensations arise - the first source of most of our ideas (extension, density, movement, color, taste, sound, etc.). The perception of the activity of our mind gives rise to the second source of our ideas - internal feeling, or reflection. Locke calls reflection the observation to which the mind subjects its activity and the methods of its manifestation, as a result of which ideas of this activity arise in the mind. The internal experience of the mind over itself is possible only if the mind is stimulated from the outside to a series of actions that themselves form the first content of its knowledge. Recognizing the fact of the heterogeneity of physical and mental experience, Locke asserts the primacy of the function of the ability of sensations, which gives impetus to all rational activity.

Thus all ideas come from sensation or reflection. External things provide the mind with ideas of sensory qualities, which are all different perceptions evoked in us by things, and the mind supplies us with ideas of its own activities associated with thinking, reasoning, desires, etc.

Ideas themselves, as the content of human thinking (“what the soul can be occupied with during thinking”) are divided by Locke into two types: simple ideas and complex ideas.

Every simple idea contains only one uniform idea or perception in the mind, which is not divided into various other ideas. Simple ideas are the material of all our knowledge; they are formed through sensations and thoughts. From the connection of sensation with reflection, simple ideas of sensory reflection arise, for example, pleasure, pain, strength, etc.

Feelings first give impetus to the birth of individual ideas, and as the mind becomes accustomed to them, they are placed in memory. Every idea in the mind is either a present perception, or, called up by memory, it can become one again. An idea which has never been perceived by the mind through sensation and reflection cannot be discovered in it.

Accordingly, complex ideas arise when simple ideas become more high level due to the actions of the human mind. Actions in which the mind manifests its abilities are: 1) combining several simple ideas into one complex one; 2) bringing together two ideas (simple or complex) and comparing them with each other so that they can be seen at once, but not combined into one; 3) abstraction, i.e. isolating ideas from all other ideas that accompany them in reality and obtaining general ideas.

Locke's theory of abstraction continues the traditions that had developed before him in medieval nominalism and English empiricism. Our ideas are preserved with the help of memory, but then abstract thinking forms from them concepts that do not have a directly corresponding object and are abstract ideas formed with the help of a verbal sign. General character of these ideas, ideas or concepts is that they can be applied to a variety of individual things. Such a general idea would be, for example, the idea of ​​“man,” which is applicable to many individual people. Thus, abstraction, or general concept- this, according to Locke, is the sum of common properties inherent in different objects and objects.

Locke draws attention to the fact that in language, due to its special essence, lies not only the source of concepts and ideas, but also the source of our delusions. Therefore, Locke considers the main task of the philosophical science of language to be the separation of the logical element of language, speech, from the psychological and historical. He recommends, first of all, freeing the content of each concept from side thoughts attached to it due to general and personal circumstances. This, in his opinion, should ultimately lead to the creation of a new philosophical language.

Locke asks: in what respects do sense perceptions adequately represent the character of things? Answering it, he develops a theory of the primary and secondary qualities of things.

Primary qualities are the properties of the things themselves and their spatio-temporal characteristics: density, extension, shape, movement, rest, etc. These qualities are objective in the sense that the corresponding ideas of the mind, according to Locke, reflect the reality of objects that exist outside of us .

Secondary qualities, which are combinations of primary qualities, for example, taste, color, smell, etc., are subjective in nature. They do not reflect the objective properties of the things themselves, they only arise on their basis.

Locke shows how the subjective is inevitably introduced into knowledge and into the human mind itself through sensory perceptions (sensations).

Our knowledge, says Locke, is real only insofar as our ideas are consistent with the reality of things. When receiving simple ideas, the soul is passive. However, having them, she gets the opportunity to perform various actions on them: combine them with each other, separate some ideas from the rest, form complex ideas, etc., i.e. everything that represents the essence of human knowledge. Accordingly, cognition is understood by Locke as the perception of connection and correspondence, or, on the contrary, inconsistency and incompatibility of any of our ideas. Where there is this perception, there is also cognition.

Locke distinguishes different types of knowledge - intuitive, demonstrative and sensual (sensitive). Intuition reveals to us truth in acts where the mind perceives the relationship of two ideas directly through themselves without the interference of other ideas. In the case of demonstrative cognition, the mind perceives the agreement or inconsistency of ideas through the medium of other ideas which are themselves evident, i.e. intuitive, in reasoning. Demonstrative cognition depends on evidence. Sensory knowledge gives knowledge of the existence of individual things. Since sensory knowledge does not extend beyond the existence of things given to our senses at each moment, it is much more limited than the previous ones. For each stage of knowledge (intuitive, demonstrative and sensory) there are special degrees and criteria for the evidence and reliability of knowledge. Intuitive cognition acts as main view knowledge.

He expresses all his ideas and positions, which the mind comes to in the process of cognition, in words and statements. In Locke we find an idea of ​​truth, which can be defined as immanent: for a person, truth lies in the agreement of ideas not with things, but with each other. Truth is nothing more than the correct combination of ideas. In this sense, it is not directly connected with any single representation, but arises only where a person brings the content of primary representations under certain laws and puts them in connection with each other.

Among Locke's main views is his conviction that our thinking, even in its most indisputable conclusions, does not have any guarantee for their identity with reality. Comprehensive completeness of knowledge - this goal, always desired for a person, is initially unattainable for him due to his own essence. Locke's skepticism is expressed in the following form: we, due to psychological conformity, must imagine the world the way we do, even if it were completely different. Therefore, it is obvious to him that truth is difficult to possess, and that a reasonable person will adhere to his views, maintaining a certain amount of doubt.

Speaking about the limits of human knowledge, Locke identifies objective and subjective factors that limit its capabilities. Subjective factors include the limitations of our senses and, therefore, the incompleteness of our perceptions assumed on this basis, and in accordance with its structure (the role of primary and secondary qualities) and to some extent the inaccuracy of our ideas. He considers the structure of the world to be objective factors, where we find the infinity of macro and micro worlds that are inaccessible to our sensory perceptions. However, despite the imperfection of human cognition due to its very structure, a person has access to that knowledge that, with the right approach to the process of cognition, nevertheless constantly improves and is fully justified in practice, bringing him undoubted benefit in his life. “We will have no reason to complain about the limitations of the powers of our mind if we use them for that which can benefit us, for of this they are very capable... The candle that is lit within us burns bright enough for all our purposes. The discoveries we can make by its light should satisfy us."

Social philosophy of John Locke

Locke sets out his views on the development of society mainly in “Two Treatises on Government.” The basis of his social concept is the theories of “natural law” and “social contract”, which became the ideological basis of the political doctrine of bourgeois liberalism.

Locke speaks of two successive states experienced by societies - natural and political, or, as he also calls it, civil. “The state of nature has a law of nature by which it is governed and which is binding on everyone; and reason, which is this law, teaches all men, that as all men are equal and independent, none of them should injure the life, health, liberty, or property of another.”

In a civil society, in which people unite on the basis of an agreement to create “one political body,” natural freedom, when a person is not subject to any authority above him, but is guided only by the law of nature, is replaced by “the freedom of people under the existence of a system of government.” . "It's the freedom to follow my at will in all cases where the law does not prohibit this, and not to be dependent on the fickle, uncertain, unknown autocratic will of another person.” The life of this society is no longer regulated by the natural rights of each person (self-preservation, freedom, property) and the desire to personally protect them, but by a permanent law, common to everyone in society and established by the legislative power created in it. The goal of the state is to preserve society, ensure the peaceful and safe coexistence of all its members, on the basis of universal legislation.

In the state, Locke identifies three main branches of government: legislative, executive and federal. Legislature, whose function is to develop and approve laws, is the supreme power in society. It is established by the people and implemented through the highest elected body. The executive branch ensures the strictness and continuity of the execution of laws “that are created and remain in force.” Federal power “involves the direction of the external security and interests of society.” Power is legitimate to the extent that it is supported by the people, its actions are limited by the common good.

Locke opposes all forms of violence in society and civil wars. His social views are characterized by the ideas of moderation and rational life. As in the case of the theory of knowledge, in matters of education and functions of the state, he takes an empirical position, denying any ideas about the innateness of the ideas of social life and the laws governing it. The forms of social life are determined by the real interests and practical needs of people; they “can be carried out for no other purpose, but only in the interests of peace, security and the public good of the people.”

John Locke's Ethical Philosophy

The character and inclinations of a person, Locke believes, depend on upbringing. Upbringing creates great differences between people. Minor or almost imperceptible impressions made on the soul in childhood have very important and lasting consequences. “I think that a child’s soul is as easy to direct along one path or another as river water...” Therefore, everything that a person should receive from upbringing and that should influence his life must be put into his soul in a timely manner.

When educating a person, you should first of all pay attention to inner world of a person, takes care of the development of his intellect. From Locke’s point of view, the basis of an “honest man” and a spiritually developed personality is made up of four qualities that are “implanted” in a person by upbringing and subsequently manifest their effect in him with the power of natural qualities: virtue, wisdom, good manners and knowledge.

Locke sees the basis of virtue and all dignity in a person’s ability to refuse to satisfy his desires, to act contrary to his inclinations and “to follow exclusively what reason indicates as the best, even if immediate desire leads him in the other direction.” This ability must be acquired and improved from an early age.

Locke understands wisdom “as the skillful and prudent conduct of one’s affairs in this world.” She is the product of a combination of good natural character, an active mind and experience.

Good manners imply a person’s strict observance of the rules of love and kindness towards other people and towards himself as a representative of the human race.

Thus, moral qualities and ethics are not innate to man. They are developed by people as a result of communication and living together and are instilled in children in the process of upbringing. To briefly summarize, we can say that one of the main points of Locke's philosophy is his non-acceptance of one-sided rationalism. He seeks the basis of reliable knowledge not in innate ideas, but in the experimental principles of knowledge. In his reasoning, concerning not only issues of cognition, but also issues of human behavior, education and cultural development, Locke takes the position of rather rigid empiricism. With this he enters pedagogy and cultural studies. And although his very sensualist concept was contradictory in many respects, it gave impetus to the further development of philosophical knowledge.

Locke John (1632-1704)

English philosopher. Born into the family of a small landowner. He graduated from Westminster School and Oxford University, where he later taught. In 1668 he was elected to the Royal Society of London, and a year earlier he became a family physician, and then the personal secretary of Lord Ashley (Earl of Shaftesbury), thanks to whom he became involved in active political life.

Locke's interests, in addition to philosophy, manifested themselves in medicine, experimental chemistry and meteorology. In 1683 he was forced to emigrate to Holland, where he became close to the circle of William of Orange and, after his proclamation as King of England in 1689, returned to his homeland.

The theory of knowledge occupies a central place in Locke. He criticizes Cartesianism and university scholastic philosophy. He presented his main views in this area in his work “Essays on the Human Mind.” In it, he denies the existence of “innate ideas”, and recognizes exclusively external experience, consisting of sensations, and internal, formed through reflection, as the source of all knowledge. This is the famous doctrine of the "blank slate", tabula rasa.

The foundation of knowledge consists of simple ideas, excited in the mind by the primary qualities of bodies (extension, density, movement) and secondary ones (color, sound, smell). From the connection, comparison and abstraction of simple ideas, complex ideas (modes, substances, relations) are formed. The criterion for the truth of ideas is their clarity and distinctness. Knowledge itself is divided into intuitive, demonstrative and sensitive.

Locke considers the state as the result of a mutual agreement, but highlights not so much legal as moral criteria for people’s behavior, understanding “the power of morality and morality” as the main condition for a prosperous state. Moral standards are the foundation on which human relationships are built. This is facilitated by the fact that people’s natural inclinations are directed precisely towards good.

Locke's socio-political views are expressed in “Two Treatises on Government”, the first of which is devoted to criticism of the divine basis of absolute royal power, and the second to the development of the theory of constitutional parliamentary monarchy.

Locke does not recognize the absolute monistic power of the state, arguing for the need for its division into legislative, executive and “federal” (dealing with the external relations of the state) and allowing the right of the people to overthrow the government.

In religious matters, Locke takes the position of religious tolerance, which lies at the basis of religious freedom. Although he recognizes the necessity of divine revelation due to the finitude of the human mind, he also has a tendency toward deism, which manifests itself in the treatise “The Reasonability of Christianity.”