Relations between Moscow and Ankara over the past year and a half have gone from brinksmanship to an almost open military alliance. Everything changed after the failed military coup in the summer of 2016, and today military cooperation with Moscow is considered one of the priorities of Turkish policy. On the eve of the visit to Russia, the Turkish President interviewed one of the leading military experts, editor-in-chief of the Moscow Defense Brief magazine, co-editor of the book “Turkish war machine: Strength and Weakness”, prepared for publication by Moscow (TsAST).
"Lenta.ru": In the 1980s, the Turkish Armed Forces were one of the largest in Europe, and now they still remain very numerous. What is the reason for Ankara's attention to the military field? What threats does the Turkish government see for the country?
Mikhail Barabanov: Turkey itself is a large state, it is enough to recall that its population has reached 80 million people. Therefore, the number of Turkish Armed Forces relative to the population is about 443 thousand people at the beginning of 2016, now, after purges and reductions, after an attempted military coup, it is already about 400 thousand (all figures excluding civilian personnel, excluding gendarmerie and coast guard) - even less than the relative strength of the Russian Armed Forces.
The reasons for Turkey's traditional maintenance of a large army throughout the twentieth century are obvious. These are historically conflictual relations with most of the neighbors: Greece, Bulgaria, and most importantly, with Russia/USSR. Moreover, Russia was not only the most powerful adversary, but also represented a kind of “existential” threat to Turkey in connection with the traditional desire to establish control over the Black Sea straits, which for Turkey would be tantamount to the dismemberment of the country and the loss of its most developed areas.
Naturally, after 1991, when the Russian threat and the threat from the Warsaw Pact were practically removed, the reduction of the Turkish Armed Forces began. But it could not be radical, since hostile relations with Greece, the Cyprus issue, the fight against Kurdish separatism remain, and tension has also been added on the southern and south-eastern borders in connection with the conflicts in Iraq and now in Syria.
And finally, one should not discount the fact that the army in Republican Turkey was largely an autonomous force in relation to the government, and in itself was not interested in deep cuts.
What major changes occurred in the Turkish Armed Forces in the 1990s?
After 1991, the Turkish Armed Forces were reduced by approximately 200 thousand troops, and the number of formations was reduced. The army was gradually transferred to brigade structure. Divisions, which back in the 1980s were at the level of World War II in their organization and consisted of regiments, were transferred to a brigade organization, and their number itself was significantly reduced.
Forces on the borders with former USSR(3rd Field Army), which were reoriented to fight Kurdish rebels.
But in general, it can be said that the Turkish Armed Forces have undergone less reductions and transformations since 1991 than the armed forces of other countries.
An important factor was the massive transfers to Turkey of military equipment released during the reduction of armed forces of developed NATO countries in Europe - primarily the armies of the United States and Germany. This made it possible to significantly increase the level of technical equipment of the Turkish army, which was previously very low, especially in relation to the fleet of armored vehicles, artillery, and partly aviation.
Finally, the 1990s - 2000s became a period active development Turkish defense industry, intensively supported by the state and relying mainly on foreign licenses. Here it is worth highlighting the organization by the aircraft manufacturing association TAI of the assembly of Lockheed Martin F-16C/D fighters, which made it possible to rearm most of the Turkish Air Force with these aircraft, the establishment by FNSS of the licensed production of AIFV (ACV-15) infantry fighting vehicles, which made it possible to increase the mechanization of the army, production since 2000 's, under foreign licenses, long-range 155-mm/52 howitzers in towed (Panter) and self-propelled (Firtina) versions, mastered by Roketsan with Chinese assistance in the production of rocket systems volley fire caliber 107, 122 and 302 millimeters (and missiles for them) and even the J-600T Yildirim operational-tactical missile system, organizing the construction of submarines, frigates and missile boats according to German projects.
IN organizational plan major changes have occurred. First of all, it should be noted the sharp decline in the role of complete guide Sun. Now all commanders of the armed forces are reassigned directly to the president.
The President and Prime Minister of Turkey received the right to directly give orders to commanders and receive information from them, without the prior consent of the Chief of the General Staff. The role of the Ministry of National Defense in the management of the Armed Forces (as opposed to the General Staff) has been increased. The gendarmerie and coast guard were withdrawn from the Armed Forces and transferred to them.
In general, what is happening in Turkey after July 15, 2016 indicates a sharp reduction in the autonomy and role of the military elite in the political process and the actual complete transfer of control over the armed forces to the political authorities led by President Erdogan.
What is the Turkish Armed Forces like at the moment?
Overall they present a contradictory picture. The main problem of military development is that Turkey remains a rather poor country, which is forced to maintain large armed forces. Previously, this forced us to maintain an increased level of military spending (back in 2002 - 3.5 percent of GDP).
Over the past 15 years, the level of military spending to GDP has been steadily declining, falling to 1.6 percent in 2016 (all data are official, but there are also unofficial estimates at a higher level). By modern standards, this is not much, and this level significantly hinders the high-quality modernization of the aircraft, making it difficult for them to achieve advanced Western standards.
Therefore, Turkey's ground forces still remain relatively backward. In terms of technical and organizational level, they roughly correspond to the developed NATO countries of the 1970s - 1980s. The bulk of the tanks are vehicles of the second (M60, Leopard 1) and even the first (M48A5) generations. There are few third generation Leopard 2A4 tanks received from Germany in an unmodernized form (less than 350). The main armored vehicles are the old American M113 armored personnel carriers and the licensed “light” AIFV infantry fighting vehicles created on their basis. The artillery is for the most part also of old American types (with the exception of Panter and Firtina howitzers).
The equipment of the Turkish infantry is very low; to date it has not even been fully equipped with modern by individual means protection (body armor and Kevlar helmets) and uses outdated small arms (licensed German G3 rifles and Kalashnikov assault rifles). The saturation of anti-tank weapons, primarily anti-tank missile systems, is low. The main grenade launcher is RPG-7 obtained from the army reserves of the former GDR with old rounds (with expiring shelf life). The basis of military air defense is small-caliber anti-aircraft guns.
The basis of recruitment remains conscription. As of November 2016, there were about 193 thousand privates in the Turkish Armed Forces conscript service and a total of 15.7 thousand privates recruited under contract. This is somewhat offset by a large professional non-commissioned officer corps numbering more than 66 thousand people. However, it is obvious that we have before us a massive conscript army with all the shortcomings of such a system in modern conditions.
The experience of the participation of the Turkish army in the intervention in Syria since August 2016 (Operation Euphrates Shield) indicates a low level of training of personnel, especially at lower levels, and insufficient technical equipment of the troops. There are, apparently, problems with personnel motivation.
At the same time, the Turkish Air Force looks very modern and combat-ready. Combat-wise, they represent a homogeneous force of 235 F-16C/D fighters, constantly being developed and equipped with new weapons. In addition, the Air Force retains about 47 F-4E-2020 fighter-bombers, modernized with Israeli assistance, also with fairly modern equipment. It is purchased and mastered quite significant amount modern guided and high-precision weapons, both American and now Turkish, which are used in combat operations in Syria. A group of four recently purchased modern 737AEW&C early warning and control aircraft has been created. And finally, already in 2018, the Turkish Air Force should receive the first fifth-generation Lockheed Martin F-35A fighters.
The weak side of the Turkish Armed Forces remains the insufficient number of helicopter aircraft, however, this situation should be corrected with the start of deliveries of new T129 ATAK combat helicopters (a modified licensed version of the Italian AgustaWestland A129, 19 units have already been delivered) and with the planned start of licensed production of T70 multi-purpose helicopters (Sikorsky S- 70i Black Hawk).
Active efforts are being made to develop unmanned aircraft. The Anka long-range unmanned aerial vehicle of its own design is being tested, and since 2016, Turkish Bayraktar TB2 attack drones have already begun to be used in Syria.
The weakness of ground-based air defense systems remains a serious flaw. In Turkey, obsolete Hawk, Rapier air defense systems and even such archaic museum objects as Nike Hercules continue to be used in relatively small quantities. At the same time, the purchase of modern anti-aircraft missile systems is being delayed, as is the development of its own systems.
The Turkish Navy looks quite modern and numerous, the core of which consists of submarines, frigates and large missile boats of German designs.
What are the main problems facing Turkish military construction?
The main problem remains the already mentioned lack of resources to maintain such large armed forces at a truly high level. Although the level of military spending is expected to be raised to two percent of GDP by 2020 (as required by NATO commitments), this will not change the situation. Nevertheless, the increase in military spending will speed up the technical modernization of the Turkish Armed Forces, ensuring sufficient funding for key programs - F-35A fighter jets, T129 and T70 helicopters, Altay tank, drones, modern air defense systems, reconnaissance, communications and control systems, long-range missile weapons, a universal landing ship, new frigates, corvettes and non-nuclear submarines. It is possible that the reduction in the number of armed forces will continue.
Politically, the main threat remains the underlying mutual tension between the Armed Forces and the Erdogan regime, which already erupted in the events of July 15, 2016. Despite large-scale purges, repressions and organizational reforms carried out by the authorities, the main causes have not been eliminated (and are unlikely to be eliminated). Therefore, one cannot be sure that new collisions will be excluded in the future.
In addition, the continuous purges of the generals and officer corps for political reasons, which have been going on in Turkey for several years (let me remind you that before July 15 there was the famous Ergenekon case) inevitably destabilize the Armed Forces and undermine the professionalism and continuity of the personnel command staff. This may negatively affect the combat readiness of the armed forces and the competence of the command.
How does Türkiye see its place in NATO and the country's future in the Alliance? Is there a discussion among the military on this issue, what positions are presented?
This is a very interesting and complex topic. On the one hand, previously the Turkish military elite, which considered itself a stronghold of Kemalist traditions and a generally secular republican system, clearly advocated orientation toward the United States and NATO, viewing this as a logical continuation of domestic pro-Western policy and as part of a course toward modernization. Officers and generals (“Atlantists”) configured in this way constituted the majority of the military leadership.
Along with this, among the generals and senior officers there were representatives of other ideological trends, among which Turkish observers distinguish “traditionalists” (people inclined to religious and conservative views and taking the position of traditional pre-Kemalist “Ottomanism”), “nationalists” or “populists” (adhering to far-right nationalist and pan-Turkist views and appealing to the original early Kemalism) and “internationalists” or “Eurasianists” (adhering to modern, even partly leftist views, but opposing a unilateral orientation towards the USA and NATO and wanting a multi-vector policy, a “shift to the East /Asia” in a broad sense, etc.)
In 2010-2014, as a result of the Ergenekon case and similar cases, he was forced to resign from the Turkish army a large number of officers who belonged to the “populists” and “internationalists”. We can talk about the purge of the conventionally left (according to political views) wing in the Armed Forces that took place during this period. This purge was the reason for the ideological slide of the Turkish military towards right-wing ideas - primarily “Atlanticism”, but also religious conservatism. According to Turkish observers, it was precisely this process that members of the notorious Gulen organization tried to ride and lead, who took an active part in the coup attempt on July 15, 2016.
During the purges that followed the failure of the coup, the main the blow fell, on the contrary, for officers who were supporters of “Atlanticism” and “traditionalists.” As a result, “populist nationalists” and “Eurasian internationalists” have now gained a foothold in the Turkish Armed Forces again. This, along with the obvious sympathy of the NATO leadership and leading Western countries bloc to the “Atlantic” wing of the Turkish officers (which actively participated in the conspiracy), led to a sharp increase in skepticism towards NATO in the Turkish military-political leadership. Public opinion after July 15 also takes an unfavorable position towards NATO.
Nevertheless, one should not overestimate the importance of these factors, much less expect Turkey to break with NATO. Participation in the Alliance as a whole is very beneficial for Turkey, as a relatively underdeveloped country. It gives the Turks access to modern Western military training, advanced command and control procedures, technology, new military equipment, and multiple forms of interaction and assistance. The Turkish military and political elite understands this. In turn, the geostrategic importance of Turkey for the United States and NATO, especially in the context of the conflicts in Syria and Iraq, makes it possible for Ankara to actively set conditions and put forward conditions for its assistance to the West. Therefore, Turkey will apparently increase the price of its participation in NATO for the United States and other Alliance partners.
How can you assess the dynamics and priorities for the development of Turkey's own defense industry? What methods are used, are there traces of a well-thought-out strategy?
Over the past 25 years, the Turkish defense industry has made significant development leaps. Türkiye has not only become capable of producing many modern views weapons and equipment (mainly so far under foreign licenses), but also implemented or began to implement a number of ambitious promising military-industrial programs (Altay tank, TF-X fighter - also so far with foreign assistance), and also entered the circle of active exporters weapons.
This is a well-thought-out and fairly consistently implemented state strategy, based on formulated long-term plans. The basis for the development of the Turkish defense industry is the active attraction of foreign experience and assistance. This is primarily a creation with government support joint ventures with foreign companies for the licensed production of foreign equipment with a significant level of localization and subsequent modernization, or the acquisition of foreign licenses with the development of the full production cycle at home.
When implementing ambitious, promising national programs for the creation of weapons systems, a foreign partner is selected to participate in the development and transfer of technology and experience. Thus, the Altay tank was created with the participation of, and the ongoing creation of the promising Turkish light fighter TF-X is supported by partnership agreements with BAE Systems and Saab AB. At the same time, in long-term plans, a large place is given to localization and “import substitution” of products and systems in the process of mass production.
Another direction is to encourage Turkish defense enterprises to participate in international military-industrial cooperation and foreign production programs. As a result, for example, companies from such a not very highly developed country as Turkey managed to obtain a very significant place as subcontractors in the production program of the American fifth-generation fighter F-35. Suffice it to point out that in 2016 alone, the volume of new contracts concluded by the Turkish defense and aviation industry for supplies to the United States alone amounted to an impressive $587 million.
The private sector plays a large role in the development of the military-industrial complex in Turkey. Private companies are encouraged in every possible way to participate in military production, and in some cases procurement tenders are specifically held only among private owners, without the admission of state-owned manufacturers. This was the case, for example, with the program to build a universal landing ship. As a result, many Turkish private defense firms have achieved major successes, becoming prominent players not only in the Turkish but also in the international market. Thus, the Otokar company (part of the private Koç holding) became not only the largest Turkish manufacturer of armored vehicles, but also the main contractor in the creation of the Turkish national Altay tank, investing about a billion dollars of its own funds in this program. Or you can recall the Turkish private shipyard Yonca-Onuk, which in a relatively short time has become one of the world's leading suppliers of high-speed military boats.
What successful or, conversely, unsuccessful examples can you give of your own and joint programs designed to develop national defense production and development?
Until now, only a relatively small number of directly national weapons programs have been implemented in Turkey. Until recently, the emphasis was on licensed or joint production (F-16C/D fighters, CN-235 light military transport aircraft, combat vehicles AIFV infantry, Panter and Firtina howitzers, warships and submarines of German projects).
Independent creation programs have only begun to be implemented in the last decade, and they face significant difficulties and delays, understandable given disabilities Turkish developers and manufacturers. Significant problems are created by the inability to receive planned foreign assistance. Thus, the project of the Turkish long-range drone Anka was seriously slowed down after Israeli companies refused to participate in it due to Erdogan’s quarrel with Israel. Or, for example, due to the refusal of the Austrian government for political reasons after the events of July 15, 2016 to issue a license to the Austrian company AVL List for technology transfer, the Turkish company Tümosan was unable to create, together with the Austrians, a diesel engine for the Altay tank, which will eventually be equipped with imported German diesel engines MTU engines.
Like any under-industrialized country, Turkey faces serious problems and delays in the transition from the creation of one-piece prototypes to their mass production. This can be seen in the example of the T129 ATAK helicopter or the same Altay tank.
The feasibility of a number of the most ambitious Turkish defense programs of recent times, such as the creation of its own promising fighter TF-X, raises doubts. At the same time, they are already declaring readiness to independently create a wide range of various complexes (anti-aircraft missile systems, cruise and ballistic missiles, satellites, passenger aircraft). In a number of cases, Turkish defense workers (and, to a greater extent, the political leadership) experience “dizziness with success.” Moreover, as was said, so far Turkey’s achievements in creating and bringing to serial delivery of its own complex weapons systems look rather pale. Therefore, the coming years will show how justified Turkish ambitions in this area look.
The Middle East today is a veritable boiling cauldron that could explode at any minute. The long-term civil war in Syria not only does not subside, but continues to gain momentum, threatening to escalate into a full-scale regional, or even global, conflict. It seems that the main players behind this conflict have no intention of backing down and continue to walk a fine line between the so-called hybrid war and the chaos of a full-scale conflict.
One of the key players in the Middle East region is Türkiye. This country has taken an active part in it from the very beginning of the Syrian conflict. Currently, voices are increasingly heard from Ankara about the possibility of a full-scale invasion of the Turkish army into Syrian territory. Such a step could have unpredictable consequences and theoretically result in a war between Russia and Turkey. Never before in modern history Relations between the two countries were not so tense.
Many Russians perceive Turkey as a resort country, but this is only partly true. Over the past few decades, the Turkish economy has grown continuously, and the government has spared no expense on military spending. Today, the Turkish Armed Forces (AF) are in second place among NATO member countries in terms of their power, second only to the United States.
Just as in Russia they talk about building a “Russian world,” many Turkish politicians want to create a “Turkic world”, the center of which would be Ankara. And not only do they want to. In recent decades, Turkey has been actively increasing its influence in Central Asia, the Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Tatarstan and Crimea.
Turkey is undoubtedly one of the leaders in the Black Sea region and the country's leadership is doing everything possible to strengthen this leadership.
General description of the army
The state and directions of development of the Turkish armed forces are determined by the foreign policy situation that has developed today in the Middle East region. It would be hard to call it simple. The situation currently observed in the Middle East poses many serious challenges and security threats to the Turkish state.
First of all, this is a large-scale bloody conflict that is blazing in Syria, a high probability of the creation of an independent Kurdish state in the territories of Syria and Iraq, active terrorist activities of the PKK (Kurdistan Workers' Party), a frozen conflict with Greece around Cyprus and islands in the Aegean Sea.
In such a situation, any country would invest heavily in its own security system, the basis of which is the armed forces.
A few words should be said about the political role played by the Turkish army. The foundation of the modern armed forces of Turkey (as well as many other things) was laid in the 20s of the last century by Kemal Ataturk, a prominent politician, statesman and reformer, who, in fact, is the founder of the modern Turkish state. Army elites have always had serious influence in political life countries, they are perceived by many as a counterweight to Islamist forces, a guarantee of Turkey’s secular development.
Turkey's population is almost 81 million people, the country's GDP is $1,508 billion, and $22.4 billion has been allocated for military needs. Over the past few years, Turkey's military spending has amounted to 2-2.3% of GDP per year. However, as foreign military experts say, Turkish defense spending is only partially transparent.
Since Turkey has a very large armed forces, only a small part of public funds is spent on the production (purchase) or modernization of weapons and military equipment. The lion's share of the army budget (more than 55%) goes to military salaries, various social guarantees and pensions. Another 22% is spent on current expenses (food, ammunition, fuel), and only the remaining part is spent on updating the material base.
Turkish military-industrial complex: main capabilities
The policy of the Turkish authorities in recent years has been to provide maximum support to the national defense industry. Preference is given to creating your own prototypes or licensed production of foreign technology. Turkey is striving to create its own models of tanks, armored personnel carriers, combat aircraft, military electronics and missile systems.
Currently, the Turkish aviation industry is able to provide maintenance, repair and modernization of all types of aircraft that are used by the country's military departments. The assembly production of American F-16 aircraft and their modernization have been established in Turkey. Several Turkish companies are engaged in the development and production of unmanned aerial vehicles of various modifications.
The Turkish aviation industry is developing by attracting foreign technologies (mainly NATO partners) and creating joint projects.
Turkey's armored industry is developing mainly due to attracting foreign investment. The country has launched the production of several types of modern wheeled and tracked armored vehicles (Akrep, Cobra, Kaya, Abra), a large number of types of automotive equipment are produced for the needs of the army, full swing Work is underway to create the Altai main tank.
The country's shipbuilding industry allows for the construction and repair of ships with a displacement of up to 50 thousand tons per year. In this case, up to 50% of materials and components of our own production are used. The Turks still purchase the most complex components and mechanisms (ship turbines, electronics, navigation equipment) from the USA, Germany, and France, but they strive to make maximum use of their own capacities. In the shipbuilding industry, the closest cooperation is with Germany.
Türkiye is almost completely self-sufficient in small arms and artillery weapons and ammunition. Turkish factories produce a wide range of products small arms, including: pistols, submachine guns (MP5/A2, A3, A4, A5 and MP5-K), automatic rifles (NK33E/A2 and A3, G3A3 and G3A4), sniper rifles, underbarrel and anti-tank grenade launchers. The production of mortars, automatic cannons for armored vehicles, and multiple launch rocket systems has been established.
Turkish industry is successfully mastering rocket technology. We have our own production of various types of missiles, including guided anti-tank missiles, missile and artillery systems, and air-to-surface aircraft missiles. The country has established production of rocket engines, fuel, on our own repair and modernization of missile systems is carried out. Currently, Turkish companies are working on creating a long-range cruise missile and several new types of anti-tank missiles.
The Turkish radio-electronic industry has mastered the production of the latest communication systems, electronic warfare, radar stations, and fire control systems. Laser rangefinders, mine detectors, and navigation equipment are produced.
Number and structure of the armed forces of the Turkish Armed Forces
The Turkish army has a strength of 500 thousand people; in the event of a military conflict, it can be increased to 900 thousand.
Turkish troops are recruited on a conscription basis, the conscription age is 20-21 years. The period of compulsory military service ranges from six months to 15 months. After demobilization, a citizen is considered liable for military service and is registered with the military until the age of 45. In the event of wartime being declared, men from 16 to 60 years old and women from 20 to 46 years old can be drafted into the army. Interestingly, a citizen can be exempted from mandatory military service, paying 16-17 thousand Turkish liras (about 8 thousand dollars) to the budget.
After completing military service, privates and sergeants remain in a special reserve (1st stage reserve) for another year, then they are transferred to the second stage reserve, in which they remain until they are 41 years old. Conscripts aged 41 to 60 years constitute the third-line reserve.
The Turkish armed forces are part of two ministries - defense and interior. They consist of the ground forces, navy, air force, gendarmerie and coastal defense. During the war period, the gendarmerie becomes subordinate to the Ministry of Defense, and the coastal defense units are part of the Turkish Navy.
The highest governing body that exercises operational command is the country's General Staff, the head of this department is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Cabinet of Ministers. To the boss General Staff The commanders of the ground forces, navy and air force of Turkey are subordinate to them. The Chief of the General Staff is the fourth person in the country, after the President, Speaker of Parliament and Prime Minister.
The Cabinet of Ministers develops and is responsible for the country's national security policy. According to the Turkish Constitution, the parliament has the power to declare war, impose martial law or send Turkish military personnel outside the country.
Turkish Ground Forces
The basis of the Turkish army is the ground forces (ground forces). Their number is approximately 390 thousand people - this is about 80% of the total strength of the Turkish army.
The main task facing the Turkish ground forces today is the ability to conduct combat operations in several directions at once, participate in maintaining public order within the state, and take part in peacekeeping missions under the auspices of the UN and NATO campaigns.
Structurally, the ground forces are consolidated into four armies and a separate group of troops located in the northern part of Cyprus. The Turkish ground forces also include nine corps, three mechanized and two infantry divisions, 39 separate brigades, two special forces regiments and five border regiments, and a number of training units. The main tactical unit of the Turkish army is the brigade.
In addition, the Turkish ground forces include three helicopter regiments, one separate helicopter group and an attack helicopter regiment.
Young people called up for military service and selected to fill the positions of sergeants and non-commissioned officers are sent to special training centers. In the Turkish army, junior officers consist partly of contract soldiers, and partly of conscripts.
The Higher Military School "Kara Kharp Okulu" trains officers of various specialties, its graduates receive military rank"lieutenant". There is also a military academy of the ground forces, which trains senior officers.
IN last years significant resources were allocated to modernize the Turkish army, most of them went to the development of the ground forces. Thanks to this, today the Turkish Army has more than 3,500 tanks, 6,000 artillery pieces, mortars and MLRS, almost 4,000 various anti-tank weapons (2,400 anti-tank vehicles and 1,400 anti-tank missiles). The number of armored combat vehicles reaches 5,000 units, airplanes and helicopters of army aviation - 400 units.
If we talk about the armored forces of the Turkish army, it should be noted: most of the tanks are obsolete. More than a third of Turkey's entire tank fleet consists of M48 vehicles, an American medium tank developed back in the mid-50s. Various modifications of another American tank, the M60, which was put into service in the mid-60s, are not too different from it. More modern is the German tank “Leopard-1” (400 units), the only modern vehicle can be called “Leopard-2” (more than 300 units).
Army aviation is armed with AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters, as well as a range of utility helicopters.
The plans of the Turkish military leadership include updating the tank fleet (replacing outdated Leopard-2 tanks), adopting its own Altai tank, replacing outdated infantry fighting vehicles and armored personnel carriers with new models, equipping the army with new types of artillery and MLRS. The T-129 ATAK attack and reconnaissance helicopter should also be put into service.
The Turkish Air Force was created back in 1911 and today is one of the strongest in the Middle East.
The Turkish Air Force was used during the Cyprus conflict and NATO's Balkan campaigns. Türkiye periodically uses its aircraft in the fight against Kurdish separatists. The backbone of the Turkish air force is combat aviation, which includes 21 squadrons. Among them:
- eight fighter-bombers;
- seven air defense fighters;
- two reconnaissance;
- four combat training.
The Turkish Air Force also has auxiliary aviation, which includes 11 squadrons, of which:
- five transport;
- five educational;
- one transport and refueling aircraft.
The Turkish Air Force is armed with a large number of modern fourth-generation fighters F-16C and F-16D (more than 200 units) and more than two hundred units of obsolete F-4 and F-5 aircraft, which they plan to replace with American fifth-generation F-35 aircraft. Turkish companies are involved in the development and production of this fighter.
F-4E aircraft have been modified in Israel, which will extend their service life until 2020.
The Turkish Air Force also has a small number of obsolete Canadair NF-5A and NF-5B light fighters.
Currently, work is underway to modernize the C-130 Hercules transport aircraft; navigation equipment will be replaced.
The Turkish Air Force includes about 200 training aircraft, only a small part of which are combat training.
The country's air force also includes American-made multi-purpose helicopters Bell Helicopter Textron UH-1H and transport Eurocopter helicopters AS.532UL, made in Europe.
Turkey's air defense system is quite numerous, but most of the types of weapons it has are outdated. Its reorganization is currently underway.
As part of the reform, which was developed in the Turkish General Staff, they plan to combine the air defense systems of the Air Force, air defense of the Ground Forces and the Turkish Navy. One of the main components new system will become early warning aircraft (Awax), four of which were transferred to Turkey in 2010.
It is also planned to adopt new generation reconnaissance unmanned aerial vehicles.
Much attention is paid to improving the level of combat training of air defense units; they regularly participate in national and international exercises.
The Turkish Navy is rightfully considered the strongest in the Black Sea. The modern Turkish Navy includes warships, submarines, naval aviation and marine units.
The Turkish Navy includes four commands: the Navy, the Southern and Northern zone and educational. They all report to the Commander-in-Chief, whose chief is the Chief of the General Staff.
Turkey does not have large warships, but despite this, the Turkish fleet is a powerful and balanced force.
Türkiye has an impressive submarine fleet, which includes fourteen diesel submarines. Most of them were built in the 90s of the last century or at the beginning of this century in Germany. They have excellent technical characteristics and low noise levels. In addition to torpedo weapons, Gur-class submarines can also carry anti-ship missiles.
The Turkish Navy includes 19 frigates different types and 7 corvettes. The seven frigates were built in Germany and are of the MEKO 200 class, the newest of which was launched in 2000. Several more frigates were transferred by the Americans, some of which are ships built back in the 60s of the last century.
France transferred several corvettes to the Turkish fleet; two more ships (MILGEM type) were produced in Turkey itself and entered the fleet in 2011 and 2013.
The Turkish Navy also includes a flotilla of missile boats designed to combat enemy ships on the near approaches to the coast, and a large mine flotilla of about 30 ships. The main function of these ships is to sweep minefields in the Black Sea straits.
There is a division of auxiliary ships, numbering more than seventy pennants, its task is to supply warships on the voyage.
The Turkish Navy also operates patrol and anti-submarine aircraft and helicopters, including Turkish-made Tusas CN-235M aircraft, various modifications of the Italian Agusta helicopter and American Sikorsky S-70B2 anti-submarine helicopters.
The Turkish fleet has a well-prepared and extensive network of naval bases in the Black, Aegean and Mediterranean seas.
The Turkish fleet also includes nine divisions and a separate battery of coastal artillery and three batteries of anti-ship missiles armed with the Penguin and Harpoon complexes.
Despite the lack of large ships, the Turkish fleet is a very formidable force. In 2011, it consisted of 133 pennants and its firepower exceeded the Russian Black Sea Fleet by 1.5 times.
Conclusion
The Turkish army is rightly considered one of the strongest in the region. The Turkish armed forces are distinguished by their significant numbers, good level of training and high morale. The Turkish Armed Forces have a large number of the most modern weapons, although many types of military equipment need to be replaced or modernized.
If the Turkish army invades Syria, the situation will develop in a completely unpredictable way. There is a very high probability of the outbreak of a regional conflict and its further expansion to the global level.
Video about the Turkish army
If you have any questions, leave them in the comments below the article. We or our visitors will be happy to answer them
The Turkish Armed Forces number 510,700 people (of which approximately 148,700 are civilian employees). For mobilization in wartime, a military-trained reserve of up to 900,000 people can be used, including 380,000 first-line reserves.
The Turkish army is recruited by conscription, the conscription age is 20 years, the period of compulsory military service is 15 months. Upon discharge from the army, a citizen is considered liable for military service and is in the reserve until the age of 45. In wartime, in accordance with the law, men aged 16 to 60 years and women from 20 to 46 years old who are able to wear can be drafted into the army.
The highest body of operational management of the armed forces is the General Staff, headed by the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. He is appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers. Subordinate to him are the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces: ground forces (ground forces), air forces (air forces), naval forces (navy), gendarmerie (numbering up to 150 thousand people) and coast guard. According to the Turkish table of ranks, the Chief of the General Staff ranks fourth after the President, Chairman of Parliament and Prime Minister.
STRUCTURE
Ground troops(Türk Kara Kuvvetleri) are subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief of the Army and number 391,000 people. Organizationally, most of the formations and units of the Army are consolidated into 5 operational formations: field armies and an operational group in the Turkish part of Cyprus.
* 1st Field Army, headquarters in Istanbul, grouping of troops near the borders with Greece and Bulgaria.
- 2nd AK (Galipoli): 4th, 18th mechanized brigade; 54th, 55th and 65th brigade.
- 3rd AK (Istanbul): 52nd brttd (1st, 2nd tank brigade; 66th mechanized brigade), operationally subordinate to the NATO command.
- 5th AK (Chorlu): 3rd, 95th Tank Brigade; 8th mechanized brigade
* 2nd Field Army, headquarters in Malata, grouping of troops near the borders with Syria, Iraq, Iran.
- 6th AK (Adana): 5th Tank Brigade, 39th Mechanized Brigade.
- 7th AK (Diyarbakir): 3rd infantry regiment (6th infantry brigade; 6th, 16th mechanized brigade); 23rd brigade; 70th mechanized brigade
- 8th AK (Elazig): 20th, 172nd brigade.
- regiment SN.
* 3rd Field Army, headquarters in Erzincan, grouping of troops near the borders of Armenia and Georgia.
- 9th AK (Erzurum): 4th Tank Brigade; 1st, 2nd, 9th, 12th, 14th, 25th mechanized brigade; 34th, 48th, 49th, 51st brigade.
- 4 AK (Ankara): 1st infantry brigade, 28th mechanized brigade; 58 arbr.
* Aegean (4th) field army, headquarters in Izmir, grouping of troops along the western coast of Turkey.
- 19th brigade; 11th mechanized brigade; 57th Arb.
- regiment SN.
* Cyprus Group of Forces (Girna).
- 28th, 39th MD; 14th Tank Brigade, SN group.
The operational subordination of the army commanders includes six separate artillery regiments and four army aviation regiments.
Directly subordinate to the Ground Command are two infantry regiments (23rd and 47th), special operations forces consisting of 5 commando brigades and separate army regiments of the SN (available in the 2nd and 4th field armies) through the special operations command. Four Army Aviation regiments report to him through the Army Aviation Command. Recently, a “humanitarian aid” brigade appeared under the direct subordination of the Army Commander-in-Chief.
Ground forces specialists are trained in training formations and training centers:
1st, 3rd, 5th and 15th Infantry Training Brigades;
59th Training Artillery Brigade (Erzincan);
Armored Forces Training Center (Etimesgut).
Persons called up for active service and intended to fill positions of junior commanders are sent to training units, formations and training centers for sergeants and non-commissioned officers. officers. In the ground forces, such training is entrusted to the training command of the Aegean (4th) Field Army. Sergeants and non-commissioned officers are represented in two categories - conscript and long-term service. Non-commissioned officers are trained in special departments at military schools of the military branches for 2–3 years. These departments are staffed on a voluntary basis by conscript soldiers and sailors with secondary education, as well as graduates of preparatory non-commissioned officer schools, which accept persons aged 14–16 years who have completed primary school and have completed secondary education. The minimum service life of non-commissioned officers is 15 years.
The highest level of selection is provided for when recruiting officer personnel. This is achieved through the voluntary enrollment of young men in military schools and a set of tests of political reliability, which makes it possible to form an officer corps primarily from highly educated segments of the population. Officers are trained in military educational institutions, which include lyceums (military gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums - an approximate analogue of the Russian Suvorov schools), higher schools of the armed forces, secondary schools of the military branches and military academies. Officers are also trained at military faculties of civilian higher educational institutions.
Secondary military educational institutions of the military branches and services (infantry, armored, missile, artillery, reconnaissance, foreign languages, technical, quartermaster, communications, commandos) train lower-level officers - commanders of platoons, groups, companies and batteries.
The main link in the training of army officers is the Kara Harp Okulu Higher School. In this military educational institution, future officers receive higher general and secondary military education. Duration of training – 4 years. After graduating from college, graduates are awarded the rank of “lieutenant”. Next, graduates, as a rule, are sent for one to two years to schools of the military branches and services.
Only officers who are graduates of military schools with the ranks of senior lieutenant - major and who have served in the military for at least three years are accepted into the Army Military Academy. Duration of training – 2 years.
Only graduates of academies of branches of the armed forces can become students of the Armed Forces Academy. They are trained to work in the apparatus of the Ministry of Defense, in the General Staff, in the joint NATO headquarters, in the headquarters of the division-army link. The duration of training is five months. Along with military schools, there is a network of courses for retraining officers in the branches of the military. Some officers undergo retraining abroad, mainly in the USA and Germany.
The main tactical unit in the Turkish Army is the brigade. In 2009, the Army included 9 tank, 16 mechanized and 11 infantry brigades. As a rule, brigades are directly subordinate to the army corps or are part of divisions.
A tank battalion consists of a control and headquarters (2 tanks), three tank companies, a control platoon, a support platoon, and a maintenance platoon. A tank company has 13 tanks (the company commander's tank, four platoons of three tanks each). There are 41 tanks in the battalion.
According to the “Armed Forces 2014” program adopted in 2007, by the end of 2014 it is planned to reduce the number of ground forces to 280-300 thousand, simultaneously with equipping the troops with modern weapons and military equipment and control equipment. It is planned to eliminate two field armies (3rd field and 4th Aegean), create a single command of three types of armed forces (ground forces, air force and navy) and transform the existing General Staff into a corresponding “joint” headquarters, to which the commands of the armed forces will be subordinated . On the basis of the headquarters of the 1st Field Army and the 2nd Field Army, the commands of the Western and Eastern Groups of Forces will be created, and the entire territory of Turkey will be divided into two parts in military, administrative and operational terms.
In recent years, the size of the Turkish army has been reduced by 10-20 thousand people per year, many formations and units are being disbanded. For example, over the past three years, 5 tank brigades out of 14 have been disbanded, the remaining 9 tank brigades are equipped with modern and modernized equipment. Some infantry brigades have been disbanded, and some have been transferred to mechanized brigades. The task of combating the military formations of the Kurdish separatists is transferred entirely to the gendarmerie, for which it is reinforced by armored personnel carriers transferred from the Army.
Leopard 2A4 of the Turkish army on the street in Ankara
WEAPONS AND MILITARY EQUIPMENT
Armored vehicles in the Turkish army are represented by foreign models and samples of their own production. Tanks are considered the main striking force in the army. According to data submitted by Turkey to the UN Register, there were 3,363 tanks in the Armed Forces as of December 31, 2007. Tanks are part of mechanized (1 battalion) and tank (3 battalions) brigades, units of the 28th and 39th mechanized divisions.
In recent years, Turkey has been actively disposing of outdated tank models and at the same time modernizing combat-ready equipment. The ambitious project to create our own Altay tank, widely advertised in recent years, has reached the contract stage (signed on July 29, 2008 with the general contractor, the Turkish company OTOKAR, and the subcontractor, the Korean company, Hyundai-Rotem); the pilot batch of tanks was planned to be released in 2012. In the current situation, Turkey has taken very practical measures: it has purchased Leopard 2 tanks from Germany and is modernizing Leopard 1 and M60 tanks. Data on the number of specific types of armored vehicles in the Turkish army are contradictory. Based on study and comparison various sources the most reliable figures were obtained.
339 Leopard 2A4 tanks supplied from Germany. It is planned to modernize it by the Turkish company ASELSAN to level A6.
77 Leopard 1A3/TU tanks, delivered from Germany, Turkish modernization with the installation of the Volkan fire control system.
150 Leopard 1A4/T1 tanks, delivered from Germany, German modernization with the installation of an EMES12 A3 fire control system.
165 Leopard 1A1A1/T tanks, delivered from Germany, Turkish modernization with the installation of the Volkan fire control system.
658 M60A3 TTS tanks (American modernization, with a combined thermal imaging gunner sight AN/VSG-2).
274 M60A1 tanks.
104 M60A1 RISE (Passive) tanks, American modernization, with passive night instruments for the commander and driver.
170 M60-T Sabra tanks, Israeli modernization of the M60A1, with the installation of a 120 mm gun and a modern fire control system.
over 1200 M48 tanks of various modifications.
Leopard 1 of the Turkish army in exercises
M60A3 TTS of the Turkish army during exercises
M60-T Sabra of the Turkish army on parade in Ankara
M48 tanks are currently withdrawn from line formations (with the exception of 287 M48A5T1/T2 units as part of Turkish troops in Cyprus). They are used in training centers (for example, to mark the enemy, to break in infantry), put into storage, partially converted into ARVs and bridge laying vehicles, disassembled for spare parts, and disposed of.
Armored combat vehicles are represented by tracked infantry fighting vehicles, tracked and wheeled armored personnel carriers, and vehicles based on them. According to the UN Register, at the end of 2007 there were 4625 armored fighting vehicles in the army and gendarmerie.
ACV-300 infantry fighting vehicle from the Turkish contingent of NATO forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR)
563 ACV-300 infantry fighting vehicle, an analogue of the American YP-765 model based on the M113. Available in two versions: with a DAF turret equipped with a 25 mm Oerlikon Contraves AP; with a Giat turret equipped with a 25 mm AP M811.
102 BMP FNSS Akinci. A variant of the AVC-300 infantry fighting vehicle with a six-leg chassis and a turret from the American M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicle.
1031 ACV-300APC armored personnel carrier based on the M113. Equipped with a turret with a 12.7-mm Browning CCP, it has a troop compartment for 13 people.
about 1800 armored personnel carriers M113 A/A1/A2/T2/T3.
52 armored personnel carriers FNSS Pars 6x6. 650 6x6 and 8x8 vehicles have been ordered.
100 Cobra 4x4 armored personnel carriers.
260 Akrep 4x4 armored personnel carrier.
102 Yavuz 8x8 armored personnel carrier.
340 BTR-60PB, supplied from Germany, used by the gendarmerie.
240 BTR-80s, supplied from Russia, are used by the gendarmerie.
Turkish infantry fighting vehicle FNSS Akinci
Turkish ACV-300APC armored personnel carrier in the fleet of the 14th mechanized brigade
Turkish armored personnel carrier FNSS Pars 8x8 in the version with 25-mm AP
Turkish Cobra armored personnel carriers during exercises
Turkish armored personnel carrier Akrep
Turkish armored personnel carrier Yavuz
Field artillery is represented by self-propelled mortars on the M113 and FNSS chassis, self-propelled howitzers and guns, towed systems, multiple launch rocket systems (MLRS) of various types. There are 6110 tables in total.
108 self-propelled guns T-155 Storm, a total of 350 units ordered.
287 M110 self-propelled guns.
36 M107 self-propelled guns.
9 self-propelled guns M55.
222 self-propelled guns M44T.
365 self-propelled gun M52T.
26 M108T self-propelled guns.
about 5,000 towed guns and mortars, including about 1,000 guns of 105 and 155 mm caliber, 2,000 mortars of 107 and 120 mm caliber, 3,000 81 mm mortars.
about 550 self-propelled and towed MLRS of 107-300 mm caliber.
Turkish self-propelled gun T-155 Storm at the parade in Ankara
Turkish self-propelled gun M52T
Turkish MLRS T-122 at an arms exhibition
Turkish Atilgan air defense system with Stinger missile defense system
Anti-tank weapons are represented by self-propelled anti-tank systems (156 M113 TOW ATGMs and 48 FNSS ACV-300 TOW ATGMs), portable and transportable ATGMs, and RPGs. The number of launchers for transportable and portable ATGMs exceeds 2400 units (Cobra, Eryx, TOW, Milan, Kornet, Konkurs). The Turkish army has over 5,000 RPG-7s and over 40,000 M72A2s.
Air defense systems include over 2,800 small-caliber anti-aircraft guns and self-propelled guns; the army has over 1,900 portable anti-aircraft guns missile systems(MANPADS Red Eye, Stinger, Igla), as well as 105 self-propelled systems (Atilgan and Zipkin) with Stinger missiles.
Turkish infantry during exercises
Army aviation is armed with 44 AH-1 Cobra combat helicopters, multi-role S-70 Black Hawk (98), AS-532 (89), UH-1 (106), AB-204/206 (49) and Mi-17 helicopters (18 units, used by the gendarmerie).
Small arms are represented by a wide range of samples:
HK MP5 submachine guns;
automatic rifles and machine guns G3, HK33, M16, M4A1, AK-47;
sniper rifles SVD, T-12, JNG-90, Phonix Robar 12.7;
light and single machine guns MG-3, HK21, FN Minimi, PK, PKS;
heavy machine guns Browning, KPVT.
CONCLUSIONS
The strengths of the Turkish army are:
High authority and support for the armed forces in wide sections of Turkish society;
the exceptional position of officers in the military environment and in society;
a stable vertical of military command, corporate and clan (by branch of service, unit) solidarity;
strict military discipline in units and units;
army saturation military equipment and heavy weapons;
the presence of modern management tools at the operational and tactical levels;
integration into NATO communications, combat control and air defense systems;
systematic combat and operational training of troops;
the presence of its own industrial base for the production, repair and modernization of ammunition, control and communications equipment, many types of weapons and military equipment.
OPERATIONAL CAPABILITIES
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd field armies are capable of independently creating operational groups of about 50,000 people and 300-350 tanks each with peacetime forces. Although the Russian Federation does not have a border with Turkey, the potential for a military clash with the Turkish army exists due to two factors.
Deployment of formations of the 9th Army Corps
The first factor is the existence of a defense treaty between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Armenia. Two separate motorized rifle brigades (formerly the 102nd military base) of the Russian army are stationed on the territory of Armenia in Yerevan and Gyumri. Near the borders of Armenia, formations of the 9th Army Corps of the 3rd Field Army of the Turkish Army were deployed, consisting of one tank, six mechanized and four infantry brigades. With these forces, the Turkish army is capable of comparatively short time(5-7 days) create an offensive group of 40-50 thousand people, 350-370 tanks, up to 700 guns, mortars and MLRS field artillery, an army aviation regiment in the Gyumri-Yerevan operational direction, providing support for the group by several squadrons of front-line aviation. Within 15-20 days it is possible to increase this grouping to 80-100 thousand people, 600-700 tanks and 1200-1300 guns and mortars.
The second factor is Georgia's likely entry into NATO. In this case, it is possible to deploy a Turkish army group on Georgian territory in one operational direction: either Abkhazia (a Russian motorized rifle brigade is stationed here, according to the defensive treaty with Abkhazia), or Tskhinvali (according to the defensive treaty with South Ossetia, a Russian motorized rifle brigade is also stationed here). The special physical and geographical conditions of the theater of war and the limited road network increase the time of redeployment and deployment of the Turkish group (40-50 thousand people, 350-370 tanks, 700 guns, mortars and MLRS of field artillery) to 12-15 days (with transportable supplies) or up to 20-25 days (if reserves are accumulated for the entire duration of the operation). On the coastal flank of the Abkhaz ON, the Turkish fleet is capable of supporting the army’s actions by landing an operational-tactical amphibious assault force up to a brigade.
At the same time, a group attacking in one operational direction faces the threat of a flank attack from another operational direction. It seems difficult to create a grouping sufficient to operate on two divergent military forces simultaneously. The capacity of the theater is limited, the time for operational deployment increases in this case to 25-30 days, which largely depreciates such a solution.
Generality:
General's shoulder strap and:
-Field Marshal General* - crossed wands.
-general of infantry, cavalry, etc.(the so-called “full general”) - without asterisks,
- Lieutenant General- 3 stars
- Major General- 2 stars,
Staff officers:
Two gaps and: 
-colonel- without stars.
- lieutenant colonel(since 1884 the Cossacks had a military foreman) - 3 stars
-major**(until 1884 the Cossacks had a military foreman) - 2 stars
Chief officers:
One gap and: 
- captain(captain, esaul) - without asterisks.
-staff captain(headquarters captain, podesaul) - 4 stars
- lieutenant(centurion) - 3 stars
- second lieutenant(cornet, cornet) - 2 stars
- ensign*** - 1 star
Lower ranks
- mediocre - ensign- 1 galloon stripe along the shoulder strap with 1 star on the stripe
- second ensign- 1 braided stripe the length of the shoulder strap
- sergeant major(sergeant) - 1 wide transverse stripe
-st. non-commissioned officer(Art. fireworker, Art. sergeant) - 3 narrow transverse stripes
-ml. non-commissioned officer(junior fireworker, junior constable) - 2 narrow transverse stripes
-corporal(bombardier, clerk) - 1 narrow transverse stripe
-private(gunner, Cossack) - without stripes
*In 1912, the last Field Marshal General, Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin, who served as Minister of War from 1861 to 1881, dies. This rank was not assigned to anyone else, but nominally this rank was retained.
** The rank of major was abolished in 1884 and was never restored.
*** Since 1884, the rank of warrant officer was reserved only for wartime (assigned only during the war, and with its end, all warrant officers are subject to either retirement or the rank of second lieutenant).
P.S. Encryptions and monograms are not placed on shoulder straps.
Very often one hears the question “why does the junior rank in the category of staff officers and generals begin with two stars, and not with one like for chief officers?” When in 1827 stars on epaulettes appeared in the Russian army as insignia, the major general received two stars on his epaulette at once.
There is a version that one star was awarded to the brigadier - this rank had not been awarded since the time of Paul I, but by 1827 there were still
retired foremen who had the right to wear a uniform. True, retired military men were not entitled to epaulets. And it’s unlikely that many of them survived until 1827 (passed
It’s been about 30 years since the abolition of the brigadier rank). Most likely, the two general's stars were simply copied from the epaulette of the French brigadier general. There is nothing strange in this, because the epaulettes themselves came to Russia from France. Most likely, there never was one general’s star in the Russian Imperial Army. This version seems more plausible.
As for the major, he received two stars by analogy with the two stars of the Russian major general of that time.
The only exception was the insignia in hussar regiments in ceremonial and ordinary (everyday) uniforms, in which shoulder cords were worn instead of shoulder straps.
Shoulder cords.
Instead of epaulettes of the cavalry type, the hussars have on their dolmans and mentiks
Hussar shoulder cords. For all officers, the same gold or silver double soutache cord of the same color as the cords on the dolman for the lower ranks are shoulder cords made of double soutache cord in color -
orange for regiments with a metal color - gold or white for regiments with a metal color - silver.
These shoulder cords form a ring at the sleeve, and a loop at the collar, fastened with a uniform button sewn to the floor an inch from the seam of the collar.
To distinguish ranks, gombochki are put on the cords (a ring made of the same cold cord encircling the shoulder cord):
-y corporal- one, the same color as the cord;
-y non-commissioned officers three-color gombochki (white with St. George's thread), in number, like stripes on shoulder straps;
-y sergeant- gold or silver (like officers) on an orange or white cord (like lower ranks);
-y sub-ensign- a smooth officer's shoulder cord with a sergeant's gong;
Officers have gombochkas with stars on their officer cords (metal, like on shoulder straps) - in accordance with their rank.
Volunteers wear twisted cords of Romanov colors (white, black and yellow) around their cords.
The shoulder cords of chief officers and staff officers are in no way different.
Staff officers and generals have the following differences in their uniforms: on the collar, generals have a wide or gold braid up to 1 1/8 inches wide, while staff officers have a gold or silver braid of 5/8 inches, running the entire length.
hussar zigzags", and for chief officers the collar is trimmed with only cord or filigree.
In the 2nd and 5th regiments, the chief officers also have galloon along the upper edge of the collar, but 5/16 inches wide.
In addition, on the cuffs of the generals there is a galloon identical to that on the collar. The braid stripe extends from the sleeve slit at two ends and converges at the front above the toe.
Staff officers also have the same braid as the one on the collar. The length of the entire patch is up to 5 inches.
But chief officers are not entitled to braid.
Below are pictures of the shoulder cords
1. Officers and generals
2. Lower ranks
The shoulder cords of chief officers, staff officers and generals did not differ in any way from each other. For example, it was possible to distinguish a cornet from a major general only by the type and width of the braid on the cuffs and, in some regiments, on the collar.
Twisted cords were only reserved for adjutants and outhouse adjutants!
Shoulder cords of the aide-de-camp (left) and adjutant (right)
Officer's shoulder straps: lieutenant colonel of the aviation detachment of the 19th army corps and staff captain of the 3rd field aviation detachment. In the center - shoulder straps of Nikolaevsky cadets engineering school. On the right is the shoulder strap of a captain (most likely a dragoon or uhlan regiment)
The Russian army in its modern understanding began to be created by Emperor Peter I at the end of the 18th century. The system of military ranks of the Russian army was formed partly under the influence of European systems, partly under the influence of the historically established purely Russian system of ranks. However, at that time there were no military ranks in the sense in which we are accustomed to understand. There were specific military units, there were also very specific positions and, accordingly, their names. There was no, for example, the rank of “captain”, there was the position of “captain”, i.e. company commander. By the way, in the civilian fleet even now, the person in charge of the crew of the ship is called “captain”, the person in charge of the seaport is called “port captain”. In the 18th century, many words existed in a slightly different meaning than they have now.
So "General" meant "chief", and not just "highest military leader";
"Major"- “senior” (senior among regimental officers);
"Lieutenant"- "assistant"
"Outbuilding"- "Jr".
“The table of ranks of all military, civil and court ranks, in which class the ranks are acquired” was put into effect by Decree of Emperor Peter I on January 24, 1722 and existed until December 16, 1917. The word "officer" came into Russian from German. But in German, as in English, the word has a much broader meaning. When applied to the army, this term refers to all military leaders in general. In a narrower translation, it means “employee”, “clerk”, “employee”. Therefore, it is quite natural that “non-commissioned officers” are junior commanders, “chief officers” are senior commanders, “staff officers” are staff employees, “generals” are the main ones. Non-commissioned officer ranks also in those days were not ranks, but positions. Ordinary soldiers were then named according to their military specialties - musketeer, pikeman, dragoon, etc. There was no name “private”, and “soldier”, as Peter I wrote, means all military personnel “... from the highest general to the last musketeer, horseman or foot...” Therefore, soldier and non-commissioned officer ranks were not included in the Table. The well-known names “second lieutenant” and “lieutenant” existed in the list of ranks of the Russian army long before the formation of the regular army by Peter I to designate military personnel who were assistant captains, that is, company commanders; and continued to be used within the framework of the Table, as Russian-language synonyms for the positions of “non-commissioned lieutenant” and “lieutenant”, that is, “assistant” and “assistant”. Well, or if you want, “assistant officer for assignments” and “officer for assignments.” The name “ensign”, as more understandable (carrying a banner, ensign), quickly replaced the obscure “fendrik”, which meant “candidate for an officer position.” Over time, the process of separating the concepts of “position” and “rank” took place. early XIX century, these concepts have already been separated quite clearly. With the development of means of warfare, the advent of technology, when the army became large enough and when it was necessary to compare the service status of a fairly large set of job titles. It was here that the concept of “rank” often began to obscure, to relegate to the background the concept of “position”.
However, even in the modern army, position, so to speak, is more important than rank. According to the charter, seniority is determined by position and only in case of equal positions is the one with the higher rank considered senior.
According to the “Table of Ranks” the following ranks were introduced: civilian, military infantry and cavalry, military artillery and engineering troops, military guards, military navy.
In the period from 1722-1731, in relation to the army, the system of military ranks looked like this (the corresponding position is in brackets)
Lower ranks (private)
Specialty (grenadier. Fuseler...)
Non-commissioned officers
Corporal(part-commander)
Fourier(deputy platoon commander)
Captainarmus
Sub-ensign(sergeant major of company, battalion)
Sergeant
Sergeant Major
Ensign(Fendrik), bayonet-junker (art) (platoon commander)
Second Lieutenant
Lieutenant(deputy company commander)
Captain-lieutenant(company commander)
Captain
Major(deputy battalion commander)
Lieutenant colonel(battalion commander)
Colonel(regiment commander)
Brigadier(brigade commander)
Generals
Major General(division commander)
Lieutenant General(corps commander)
General-in-chief (General-feldtsehmeister)– (army commander)
Field Marshal General(Commander-in-Chief, honorary title)
In the Life Guards the ranks were two classes higher than in the army. In the army artillery and engineering troops, the ranks are one class higher than in the infantry and cavalry. During the period 1731-1765 the concepts of “rank” and “position” begin to separate. Thus, in the staff of a field infantry regiment of 1732, when indicating staff ranks, it is no longer just the rank of “quartermaster” that is written, but a position indicating the rank: “quartermaster (lieutenant rank).” In relation to company-level officers, the separation of the concepts of “position” and “rank” is not yet observed. In the army "fendrick" is replaced by " ensign", in the cavalry - "cornet". Ranks are being introduced "sec-major" And "prime major" During the reign of Empress Catherine II (1765-1798) ranks are introduced in the army infantry and cavalry junior and senior sergeant, sergeant major disappears. Since 1796 in Cossack units, the names of ranks are established the same as the ranks of army cavalry and are equated to them, although Cossack units continue to be listed as irregular cavalry (not part of the army). There is no rank of second lieutenant in the cavalry, but captain corresponds to the captain. During the reign of Emperor Paul I (1796-1801) The concepts of “rank” and “position” during this period were already separated quite clearly. The ranks in the infantry and artillery are compared. Paul I did a lot of useful things to strengthen the army and discipline in it. He forbade the enrollment of young noble children into the regiments. All those enrolled in the regiments were required to actually serve. He introduced disciplinary and criminal liability of officers for soldiers (preservation of life and health, training, clothing, living conditions) and prohibited the use of soldiers as labor on the estates of officers and generals; introduced the awarding of soldiers with insignia of the Order of St. Anne and the Order of Malta; introduced an advantage in the promotion of officers who graduated from military educational institutions; ordered promotion in ranks only based on business qualities and ability to command; introduced leaves for soldiers; limited the duration of officers' vacations to one month per year; dismissed from the army a large number of generals who did not meet the requirements of military service (old age, illiteracy, disability, absence from service long time etc.).In the lower ranks, ranks are introduced junior and senior privates. In the cavalry - sergeant(company sergeant) For Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825) since 1802, all non-commissioned officers of the noble class are called "cadet". Since 1811, the rank of “major” was abolished in the artillery and engineering troops and the rank of “ensign” was returned. During the reign of Emperor Nicholas I (1825-1855) , who did a lot to streamline the army, Alexander II (1855-1881) and the beginning of the emperor's reign Alexandra III (1881-1894) Since 1828, army Cossacks have been given ranks different from the army cavalry (In the Life Guards Cossack and Life Guards Ataman regiments, ranks are the same as those of the entire Guards cavalry). The Cossack units themselves are transferred from the category of irregular cavalry to the army. The concepts of “rank” and “position” during this period are already completely separated. Under Nicholas I, the discrepancy in the names of non-commissioned officer ranks disappeared. Since 1884, the rank of warrant officer was reserved only for wartime (assigned only during the war, and with its end, all warrant officers are subject to either retirement or the rank of second lieutenant). The rank of cornet in the cavalry is retained as the first officer rank. He is a grade lower than an infantry second lieutenant, but in the cavalry there is no rank of second lieutenant. This equalizes the ranks of infantry and cavalry. In Cossack units, officer classes are equal to cavalry classes, but have their own names. In this regard, the rank of military sergeant major, previously equal to a major, now becomes equal to a lieutenant colonel
“In 1912, the last Field Marshal General, Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin, who served as Minister of War from 1861 to 1881, dies. This rank was not awarded to anyone else, but nominally this rank was retained.”
In 1910, the rank of Russian field marshal was awarded to King Nicholas I of Montenegro, and in 1912 to King Carol I of Romania.
P.S. After the October Revolution of 1917, by the Decree of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars (the Bolshevik government) of December 16, 1917, all military ranks were abolished...
Officer's shoulder straps of the tsarist army were designed completely differently than modern ones. First of all, the gaps were not part of the braid, as it has been done here since 1943. In the engineering troops, two belt braids or one belt braid and two headquarters braids were simply sewn onto the shoulder straps. For each branch of the military, the type of braid was determined specifically. For example, in the hussar regiments on officer's shoulder straps galloon of the “hussar zig-zag” type was used. On the shoulder straps of military officials, "civilian" braid was used. Thus, the gaps of the officer's shoulder straps were always the same color as the field of the soldiers' shoulder straps. If the shoulder straps in this part did not have a colored edging (piping), as, say, it was in the engineering troops, then the piping had the same color as the gaps. But if in part the shoulder straps had colored piping, then around officer's shoulder straps it was visible. A shoulder strap of a silver color without sides with an extruded double-headed eagle sitting on crossed axes. The stars were embroidered with gold thread on the shoulder strap, and the encryption was metal gilded applied numbers and letters, or silver monograms (as appropriate). At the same time, it was widespread to wear gilded forged metal stars, which were supposed to be worn only on epaulettes.
The placement of asterisks was not strictly established and was determined by the size of the encryption. Two stars were supposed to be placed around the encryption, and if it filled the entire width of the shoulder strap, then above it. The third asterisk had to be placed so as to form an equilateral triangle with the two lower ones, and the fourth asterisk was slightly higher. If there is one sprocket on the shoulder strap (for an ensign), then it was placed where the third sprocket is usually attached. Special signs also had gilded metal overlays, although they could often be found embroidered with gold thread. The exception was special aviation insignia, which were oxidized and had a silver color with a patina.
1. Epaulet staff captain 20th engineer battalion
2. Epaulet for lower ranks Ulan 2nd Life Ulan Kurland Regiment 1910
3. Epaulet full general from the retinue cavalry His Imperial Majesty Nicholas II. The silver device of the epaulette indicates the high military rank of the owner (only the marshal was higher)
About stars on uniform
For the first time, forged five-pointed stars appeared on the epaulettes of Russian officers and generals in January 1827 (back in the time of Pushkin). One golden star began to be worn by warrant officers and cornets, two by second lieutenants and major generals, and three by lieutenants and lieutenant generals. four are staff captains and staff captains.
And with April 1854 Russian officers began to wear sewn stars on newly established shoulder straps. For the same purpose, the German army used diamonds, the British used knots, and the Austrian used six-pointed stars.
Although the designation of military rank on shoulder straps is a characteristic feature of the Russian and German armies.
Among the Austrians and the British, shoulder straps had a purely functional role: they were sewn from the same material as the jacket so that the shoulder straps did not slip. And the rank was indicated on the sleeve. The five-pointed star, pentagram is a universal symbol of protection and security, one of the most ancient. In Ancient Greece it could be found on coins, on house doors, stables and even on cradles. Among the Druids of Gaul, Britain, and Ireland, the five-pointed star (Druid cross) was a symbol of protection from external evil forces. And it can still be seen on the window panes of medieval Gothic buildings. The Great French Revolution revived five-pointed stars as a symbol of the ancient god of war, Mars. They denoted the rank of commanders of the French army - on hats, epaulettes, scarves, and on uniform coattails.
The military reforms of Nicholas I copied the appearance of the French army - this is how the stars “rolled” from the French horizon to the Russian one.
As for the British army, even during the Boer War, stars began to migrate to shoulder straps. This is about officers. For lower ranks and warrant officers, the insignia remained on the sleeves.
In the Russian, German, Danish, Greek, Romanian, Bulgarian, American, Swedish and Turkish armies, shoulder straps served as insignia. In the Russian army, there were shoulder insignia for both lower ranks and officers. Also in the Bulgarian and Romanian armies, as well as in the Swedish. In the French, Spanish and Italian armies, rank insignia was placed on the sleeves. In the Greek army, it was on officers' shoulder straps and on the sleeves of lower ranks. In the Austro-Hungarian army, the insignia of officers and lower ranks were on the collar, those on the lapels. In the German army, only officers had shoulder straps, while the lower ranks were distinguished by the braid on the cuffs and collar, as well as the uniform button on the collar. The exception was the Kolonial truppe, where as additional (and in a number of colonies the main) insignia of the lower ranks there were chevrons made of silver galloon sewn on the left sleeve of a-la gefreiter 30-45 years.
It is interesting to note that in peacetime service and field uniforms, that is, with a tunic of the 1907 model, officers of the hussar regiments wore shoulder straps that were also somewhat different from the shoulder straps of the rest of the Russian army. For hussar shoulder straps, galloon with the so-called “hussar zigzag” was used
The only part where shoulder straps with the same zigzag were worn, besides the hussar regiments, was the 4th battalion (since 1910 regiment) of the Imperial Family riflemen. Here is a sample: shoulder straps of the captain of the 9th Kyiv Hussar Regiment.
Unlike the German hussars, who wore uniforms of the same design, differing only in the color of the fabric. With the introduction of khaki-colored shoulder straps, the zigzags also disappeared; membership in the hussars was indicated by encryption on the shoulder straps. For example, "6 G", that is, the 6th Hussar.
In general, the field uniform of the hussars was of the dragoon type, they were combined arms. The only difference indicating belonging to the hussars was the boots with a rosette in front. However, the hussar regiments were allowed to wear chakchirs with their field uniform, but not all regiments, but only the 5th and 11th. The wearing of chakchirs by the rest of the regiments was a kind of “hazing”. But during the war, this happened, as well as the wearing by some officers of a saber, instead of the standard dragon saber, which was required for field equipment.
The photograph shows the captain of the 11th Izyum Hussar Regiment K.K. von Rosenschild-Paulin (sitting) and cadet of the Nikolaev Cavalry School K.N. von Rosenchild-Paulin (also later an officer in the Izyum Regiment). Captain in summer dress or dress uniform, i.e. in a tunic of the 1907 model, with galloon shoulder straps and the number 11 (note, on the officer's shoulder straps of peacetime valery regiments there are only numbers, without the letters "G", "D" or "U"), and blue chakchirs worn by officers of this regiment for all forms of clothing.
Regarding “hazing,” during the World War it was apparently also common for hussar officers to wear galloon shoulder straps in peacetime.
on galloon officer's shoulder straps of cavalry regiments, only numbers were affixed, and there were no letters. which is confirmed by photographs.
Ordinary ensign- from 1907 to 1917 in the Russian army the highest military rank for non-commissioned officers. The insignia for ordinary ensigns was the shoulder straps of a lieutenant officer with a large (larger than an officer's) asterisk in the upper third of the shoulder strap on the line of symmetry. The rank was awarded to the most experienced long-term non-commissioned officers; with the beginning of the First World War, it began to be assigned to ensigns as an incentive, often immediately before the assignment of the first chief officer rank (ensign or cornet).
From Brockhaus and Efron:
Ordinary ensign, military During mobilization, if there were a shortage of persons meeting the conditions for promotion to the officer rank, there was no one. non-commissioned officers are awarded the rank of warrant officer; correcting the duties of junior officers, Z. great. restricted in the rights to move in the service.
Interesting history of the rank sub-ensign. During the period 1880-1903. this rank was awarded to graduates of cadet schools (not to be confused with military schools). In the cavalry he corresponded to the rank of estandart cadet, in the Cossack troops - sergeant. Those. it turned out that this was some kind of intermediate rank between the lower ranks and officers. Sub-ensigns who graduated from the Junkers College in the 1st category were promoted to officers no earlier than September of their graduation year, but outside of vacancies. Those who graduated in the 2nd category were promoted to officers no earlier than the beginning of the next year, but only for vacancies, and it turned out that some waited several years for promotion. According to order No. 197 of 1901, with the production of the last ensigns, estandard cadets and sub-warrants in 1903, these ranks were abolished. This was due to the beginning of the transformation of cadet schools into military ones.
Since 1906, the rank of ensign in the infantry and cavalry and sub-ensign in the Cossack troops began to be awarded to long-term non-commissioned officers who graduated from a special school. Thus, this rank became the maximum for lower ranks.
Sub-ensign, estandard cadet and sub-ensign, 1886:
Shoulder straps of the staff captain of the Cavalry Regiment and shoulder straps of the staff captain of the Life Guards of the Moscow Regiment.
The first shoulder strap is declared as the shoulder strap of an officer (captain) of the 17th Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment. But Nizhny Novgorod residents should have dark green piping along the edge of the shoulder strap, and the monogram should be a applied color. And the second shoulder strap is presented as the shoulder strap of a second lieutenant of the Guards artillery (with such a monogram in the Guards artillery there were shoulder straps for officers of only two batteries: the 1st battery of the Life Guards of the 2nd Artillery Brigade and the 2nd battery of the Guards Horse Artillery), but the shoulder strap button should not Is it possible to have an eagle with guns in this case?
Major(Spanish mayor - bigger, stronger, more significant) - the first rank of senior officers.
The title originated in the 16th century. The major was responsible for the guard and food of the regiment. When regiments were divided into battalions, the battalion commander usually became a major.
In the Russian army, the rank of major was introduced by Peter I in 1698 and abolished in 1884.
Prime major is a staff officer rank in the Russian imperial army of the 18th century. Belonged to class VIII of the Table of Ranks.
According to the charter of 1716, majors were divided into prime majors and second majors.
The prime major was in charge of the regiment's combat and inspection units. He commanded the 1st battalion, and in the absence of the regiment commander, the regiment.
The division into prime and second majors was abolished in 1797."
"Appeared in Russia as a rank and position (deputy regiment commander) in the Streltsy army at the end of the 15th - early 16th centuries. In Streltsy regiments, as a rule, lieutenant colonels (often of “vile” origin) performed all administrative functions for the Streltsy head, appointed from among the nobles or boyars In the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, the rank (rank) and position were referred to as half-colonel due to the fact that the lieutenant colonel usually, in addition to his other duties, commanded the second “half” of the regiment - the back ranks in the formation and the reserve (before the introduction of battalion formation of regular soldier regiments) From the moment the Table of Ranks was introduced until its abolition in 1917, the rank (rank) of lieutenant colonel belonged to the VII class of the Table and gave the right to hereditary nobility until 1856. In 1884, after the abolition of the rank of major in the Russian army, all majors (with the exception of dismissed or those who have stained themselves with unseemly misconduct) are promoted to lieutenant colonel."
INSIGNIA OF CIVIL OFFICERS OF THE WAR MINISTRY (here are military topographers)
Officers of the Imperial Military Medical Academy
Chevrons of combatant lower ranks of long-term service according to “Regulations on the lower ranks of non-commissioned officers who remain voluntarily on long-term active service” from 1890.
From left to right: Up to 2 years, Over 2 to 4 years, Over 4 to 6 years, Over 6 years
To be precise, the article from which these drawings were borrowed says the following: “... the awarding of chevrons to long-term servicemen of the lower ranks holding the positions of sergeant majors (sergeant majors) and platoon non-commissioned officers (fireworks officers) of combat companies, squadrons, and batteries was carried out:
– Upon admission to long-term service - a narrow silver chevron
– At the end of the second year of extended service - a silver wide chevron
– At the end of the fourth year of extended service - a narrow gold chevron
- At the end of the sixth year of extended service - a wide gold chevron"
In the army infantry regiments to designate the ranks of corporal, ml. and senior non-commissioned officers used army white braid.
1. The rank of WARRANT OFFICER has existed in the army since 1991 only in wartime.
With the beginning of the Great War, ensigns are graduated from military schools and ensign schools.
2. Rank WARRANT OFFICER, reserve, in Peaceful time on the ensign's shoulder straps he wears a braided stripe against the device at the lower rib.
3. The rank of WARRANT OFFICER, to this rank in wartime, when military units are mobilized and there is a shortage of junior officers, lower ranks are renamed from non-commissioned officers with an educational qualification, or from sergeant majors without
educational qualification. From 1891 to 1907, ordinary warrant officers on ensign's shoulder straps also wore stripes of the ranks from which they were renamed.
4. The title of ENTERPRISE-WRITTEN OFFICER (since 1907). Shoulder straps of a lieutenant officer with an officer's star and a transverse badge for the position. On the sleeve there is a 5/8 inch chevron, angled upward. Officer's shoulder straps were retained only by those who were renamed Z-Pr. during the Russo-Japanese War and remained in the army, for example, as a sergeant major.
5.The title of WARRANT OFFICER-ZAURYAD of the State Militia. This rank was renamed to non-commissioned officers of the reserve, or, if they had an educational qualification, who served for at least 2 months as a non-commissioned officer of the State Militia and appointed to the position of junior officer of the squad. Ordinary warrant officers wore shoulder straps of an active-duty warrant officer with an instrument-colored galloon patch sewn into the lower part of the shoulder strap.
Cossack ranks and titles
At the lowest rung of the service ladder stood an ordinary Cossack, corresponding to an infantry private. Next came the clerk, who had one stripe and corresponded to a corporal in the infantry. The next step in the career ladder is junior sergeant and senior sergeant, corresponding to junior non-commissioned officer, non-commissioned officer and senior non-commissioned officer and with the number of badges characteristic of modern non-commissioned officers. This was followed by the rank of sergeant, who was not only in the Cossacks, but also in the non-commissioned officers of the cavalry and horse artillery.
In the Russian army and gendarmerie, the sergeant was the closest assistant to the commander of a hundred, squadron, battery for drill training, internal order and economic affairs. The rank of sergeant corresponded to the rank of sergeant major in the infantry. According to the regulations of 1884, introduced by Alexander III, the next rank in the Cossack troops, but only for wartime, was sub-short, an intermediate rank between ensign and warrant officer in the infantry, also introduced in wartime. In peacetime, except for the Cossack troops, these ranks existed only for reserve officers. The next grade in the chief officer ranks is cornet, corresponding to second lieutenant in the infantry and cornet in the regular cavalry.
According to his official position, he corresponded to a junior lieutenant in the modern army, but wore shoulder straps with a blue clearance on a silver field (the applied color of the Don Army) with two stars. In the old army, compared to the Soviet army, the number of stars was one more. Next came the centurion - a chief officer rank in the Cossack troops, corresponding to a lieutenant in the regular army. The centurion wore shoulder straps of the same design, but with three stars, corresponding in his position to a modern lieutenant. A higher step is podesaul.
This rank was introduced in 1884. In the regular troops it corresponded to the rank of staff captain and staff captain.
Podesaul was the assistant or deputy of the captain and in his absence commanded the Cossack hundred.
Shoulder straps of the same design, but with four stars.
In terms of service position he corresponds to a modern senior lieutenant. And the highest rank of chief officer is esaul. It is worth talking about this rank in particular, since from a purely historical perspective, the people who wore it held positions in both the civil and military departments. In various Cossack troops, this position included various service prerogatives.
The word comes from the Turkic “yasaul” - chief.
It was first mentioned in the Cossack troops in 1576 and was used in the Ukrainian Cossack army.
Yesauls were general, military, regimental, hundred, village, marching and artillery. General Captain (two per Army) - highest rank after the hetman. In peacetime, general esauls performed inspector functions; in war they commanded several regiments, and in the absence of the hetman, the entire Army. But this is typical only for Ukrainian Cossacks. Military esauls were elected on the Military Circle (in Donskoy and most others - two per Army, in Volzhsky and Orenburg - one each). We were engaged in administrative matters. Since 1835, they were appointed as adjutants to the military ataman. Regimental esauls (initially two per regiment) performed the duties of staff officers and were the closest assistants to the regiment commander.
Hundred esauls (one per hundred) commanded hundreds. This link did not take root in the Don Army after the first centuries of the existence of the Cossacks.
The village esauls were characteristic only of the Don Army. They were elected at village gatherings and were assistants to the village atamans. Marching esauls (usually two per Army) were selected when setting out on a campaign. They served as assistants to the marching ataman; in the 16th-17th centuries, in his absence, they commanded the army; later they were executors of the marching ataman’s orders. The artillery esaul (one per Army) was subordinate to the chief of artillery and carried out his orders. General, regimental, village and other esauls were gradually abolished
Only the military esaul was preserved under the military ataman of the Don Cossack army. In 1798 - 1800. The rank of esaul was equal to the rank of captain in the cavalry. Esaul, as a rule, commanded a Cossack hundred. His official position corresponded to that of a modern captain. He wore shoulder straps with a blue gap on a silver field without stars. Next come the headquarters officer ranks. In fact, after the reform of Alexander III in 1884, the rank of esaul entered this rank, due to which the rank of major was removed from the staff officer ranks, as a result of which a serviceman from captains immediately became a lieutenant colonel. Next on the Cossack career ladder is a military foreman. The name of this rank comes from the ancient name of the executive body of power among the Cossacks. In the second half of the 18th century, this name, in a modified form, extended to individuals who commanded individual branches of the Cossack army. Since 1754, a military foreman was equivalent to a major, and with the abolition of this rank in 1884, to a lieutenant colonel. He wore shoulder straps with two blue gaps on a silver field and three large stars.
Well, then comes the colonel, the shoulder straps are the same as those of a military sergeant major, but without stars. Starting from this rank, the service ladder is unified with the general army one, since the purely Cossack names of ranks disappear. The official position of a Cossack general fully corresponds to the general ranks of the Russian Army.