“Development of uud at the stage of explaining new material”
The term “Universal educational actions” is nothing more than a concretization of the term “ability to learn,” that is, the subject’s ability to self-development and self-improvement through the conscious and active appropriation of new experience.
Forming the ability to learn, or the ability for independent productive foreign language activity, means the full mastery by schoolchildren of all components of educational activity, including:
1) motives (game, cognitive and educational motives);
2) educational purpose;
3) learning task;
4) educational activities and operations (orientation, transformation of material, control and evaluation
Lesson structure when explaining new material
Lesson stage
Brief description of the stages of a lesson explaining new material
1. Motivation for educational activities.
This stage involves the student’s conscious entry into the space of learning activity. For this purpose, his motivation for learning activities in the lesson is organized.
2. Updating (repetition) of knowledge
At this stage, students are prepared to explain new knowledge, they perform a trial learning activity and record
individual difficulty.
Accordingly, this stage involves:
1) updating the learned methods of action
2) updating of relevant mental operations and cognitive processes;
3) motivation of students for trial training
action and its independent implementation;
4) recording by students of individual
difficulties in completing a trial training
action or its rationale.
3. Explanation of new material
At this stage, students identify the location and cause of the difficulty. Students reflect on learning activities in a communicative manner:
Set a goal
Agree on the topic of the lesson,
Choose a method
Build a plan to achieve the goal;
Determine funds, resources and deadlines.
This process is led byteacher : at first with the helpleading dialogue , then -encouraging dialogue , and then using
research methods
4. Primary consolidation with speaking out loud
At this stage, students, in the form of communicative interaction (frontally, in groups, in pairs), solve standard tasks for a new method of action, pronouncing the solution algorithm out loud.
5. Independent work with self-test according to the standard
When carrying out this stage, an individual form of work is used: students self-
perform tasks of a new type, carry out self-testing, step-by-step comparison
Working with the standard, they identify and correct possible errors, determine methods of action that cause them difficulties and they have to refine them.
6. Inclusion in the knowledge system and repetition
At this stage, the boundaries of applicability of new knowledge are identified and tasks are performed in which a new method of action is provided as an intermediate step. When organizing this stage, the teacher selects tasks in which the use of what has been learned is practiced.
previously material that has methodological value for introducing new methods of action in the future
7. Reflection on learning activities in the lesson
At this stage, new content learned in the lesson is recorded, and reflection and self-evaluation by students of their own learning activities is organized.
Also, the purpose of the educational activity and its results are correlated, the degree of their compliance is recorded, and further goals of the work are outlined.
In my work, when explaining new material, I use the following technologies:
Cooperative activity:
Collaborative activity refers to the exchange of actions and operations, as well as verbal and non-verbal means, between the teacher and students and between the students themselves in the process of developing knowledge and skills.
The teacher’s activities in the lesson involve organizing joint activities of children both within one group and between groups: the teacher directs students to complete a task together.
To organize group work, the class is divided into groups of 3-6 people, most often 4 people. The task is given to the group, not to the individual student. Classes can be held in the form of a competition between two teams. Team competitions allow students to actualize the motive of winning and thereby awaken interest in the activity being performed.
A special case of group joint activity of students is working in pairs. This form of educational activity can be used both at the stage of preliminary orientation, when schoolchildren identify (with the help of a teacher or independently) the content of knowledge that is new to them, and at the stage of practicing the material and monitoring the process of assimilation.Options for working in pairs include the following:
1) students sitting at the same desk receive the same task; first, everyone completes the task independently, then they exchange notebooks, check the correctness of the result obtained and point out errors to each other if they are found;
2) students take turns performing a common task, using the specific knowledge and tools that everyone has;
3) exchange of tasks: each of the neighbors at the desk receives a sheet with tasks compiled by other students. They carry out tasks in consultation with each other. If both cannot cope with the tasks, they can turn to the authors of the tasks for help. After completing the assignments, students return the work to the authors for checking. If the authors find an error, they should show it to students, discuss it and ask them to correct it. Students, in turn, can also evaluate the quality of the proposed tasks (complexity, originality, etc.).
The teacher gets the opportunity to really implement a differentiated and individual approach to students: take into account their abilities, pace of work, mutual inclination when dividing the class into groups, give groups tasks of varying difficulty, and pay more attention to weak students.
- for example, when introducing a new grammatical structure, students record new material on cards in groups or in pairs. then they exchange, analyzing and correcting each other’s work.
-Auxiliary
- subject
V - semantic verb
W.H. - question words
(time name)
+
_
?
- Analyzing their opponents' answers, students give reasons for their opinions and record the results of their work.
Right
wrong
My mistakes
Problem-based learning
Problem-based learning is an organization-ledteachers independent search activities of students to solve problem situations, contributing to the development of communicative learning skills, stimulates interest, maintains high motivation for learning foreign languages. The key concept of problem-based learning is"problem situation" which is created by the teacher for educational purposes. The levels of problem-based learning depend on the content of the educational material (the availability of the opportunity to create problem situations of varying degrees of difficulty) and the type of independent actions of the student. Based on these characteristics, experts identify four levels of problems:
1) the level that determines reproductive activity;
2) a level that ensures the application of previous knowledge in a new situation;
3) reproductive-search level;
4) creative level.
- For example In a 5th grade lesson on the topic “Description of people and animals,” I set the children the task of comparing. Analyzing the material, students construct statements based on the model.
Old – older – theoldest
Small-smaller - the smallest
Cold-colder – the coldest
Sunny –sunnier - the suniest
Happy -happier - the happinessiest
Funny – funnier – the funiest
Hot-hotter – the hottest
Big – bigger-the biggest
Beautiful- more beautiful – themost beautiful
Deliciousmore delicious-the most delicious
wisewiser thewisest
General method of proof
The concept of evidence and its structural elements are considered from two points of view: as a result and as a process. Teaching proof at school involves developing skills in solving the following problems:
analysis and reproduction of finished evidence;
refutation of the proposed evidence;
independent search, construction and implementation of evidence.
The need for students to use evidence arises in situations where:
the teacher himself formulates this or that position and invites students to prove it;
The teacher poses a problem, during the solution of which the students have a need to prove the correctness (truth) of the chosen solution path. .
Any evidence includes:
thesis – a judgment (statement), the truth of which is proven;
arguments (grounds, reasons) – already known certified facts used in the proof, definitions of initial concepts, axioms, statements from which the truth of the thesis being proven necessarily follows;
demonstration - a sequence of inferences - reasoning, during which a new judgment is derived from one or more arguments (grounds), which logically follows from the arguments and is called a conclusion; this is a provable thesis.
For example, in a lesson in 6th grade on the topic “plural nouns”,
The students are asked the following statement:
“All nouns form their plural by adding the ending - s »,
Based on the proposed material, students form their proof, giving their arguments.
Dog s
cat s
book s
pen s
ruler s
son s
box es
dress es
tomato es
brush es
bus es
watch es
leaf-lea ves
wolf –wol ves
life –li ves
fish –fish
deer – deer
sheep-sheep
man-men
mouse-mice
tooth-teeth
foot-feet
woman-women
Project method
The use of information and computer technologies provides fundamentally new opportunities for increasing the efficiency of the educational process. This is an expansion of access to information in familiar verbal and other forms, an increase in the expressive possibilities of providing information, a combination of its rational and emotional aspects, the inclusion of game elements, the possibility of using models, a wide variety in the choice of methodological tools, all this allows students to create projects on given topics .
For example, 9th grade students created a presentation on the topic “London Metro,” which I use in my work.
10th grade students, having become acquainted with an excerpt from A.P. Chekhov’s work “Darling”, compiled a description based on the plot pictures
The development of a system of universal educational activities is a tool for ensuring the independence of a student’s educational activities when mastering a foreign language as a means of intercultural interaction and communication.
The essence and structure of teaching methods. The word “method” translated from Greek means a way of knowing, a way of acting, a path of advancement towards the truth.
The modern definition of a teaching method is as follows: a teaching method is a way to achieve the learning goal, a system of consistent and ordered actions of a teacher who, using certain means, organizes the practical and cognitive activities of students to assimilate social experience embodied in the content of education 1 . Didactic foundations of teaching methods. M., 1981. P. 173.
In all these definitions, the method appears as a multidimensional phenomenon, as the core of the educational process. The set goals are achieved through the correctly chosen method and the forms and means of achieving the goal associated with it. Changing goals always entails changing teaching methods.
The teaching method consists of methodological techniques. A methodological technique is a structural element of the method, its detail. This is an action of the teacher that causes a response from students that corresponds to the goals of this action. So, for example, a lecture is a teaching method, but here are the techniques that activate students’ attention and facilitate the perception of educational material: communicating the lecture plan; recording students' basic concepts of the topic; teacher demonstration; comparative description by the teacher of two or more objects; rhetorical question, etc.
The same techniques can be part of different teaching methods. And the same method can include different techniques. In teaching, transitions of methods into techniques and vice versa are also possible.
There are different approaches to classifying teaching methods. There was not a single major Russian didact who did not express his point of view on this issue. The most well-known classifications of teaching methods are 1) classification according to the source of knowledge, 2) according to didactic tasks and 3) according to the nature of the educational and cognitive activity of students.
Classification of teaching methods by source of knowledge. The most widely known classification of teaching methods was proposed in the 1950s by E.I. Perovsky, E.Ya. Golant, D.O. Lordkipanidze. These scientists believed that when classifying teaching methods, it is necessary to take into account the sources from which students draw knowledge. On this basis, they identified three groups of methods : verbal, visual and practical. Indeed, the word, visual aids and practical work are widely used in the educational process.
Verbal teaching methods are divided, in turn, into monological and dialogical. Monologues include story, explanation, lecture. Dialogue includes conversation, discussion, and work with sources (primarily with a textbook).
The teacher's story and explanation are the most common methods of organizing educational work.
Story- a method of narrative-communicating presentation of the studied material by the teacher and activation of the cognitive activity of students. Most often, the story is used when presenting educational material that is descriptive in nature. For example: a short biography of the writer in literature classes, material about the geographical location and natural conditions of a particular country in geography and history, facts and examples related to the history of scientific discoveries in physics, chemistry, mathematics.
The story activates perception, develops interest, curiosity, imagination and thinking of schoolchildren. This method is used at all stages of school education, but in its most obvious form - at the stage of introducing students to new material to create a holistic idea of the object being studied. At other stages, the story method is usually combined with other methods.
The effectiveness of the method is ensured by the thoughtfulness of the story plan, the consistency of presentation of the material, the validity of the examples and facts used, the use of comparison and contrast techniques, clarity, emotionality, and the presence of conclusions. The duration of the story in class should not exceed 10-15 minutes.
Explanation- this is an evidential presentation of any law, rule, process of solving a problem, device design, as well as an analysis of relevant natural phenomena, historical events and dates, features of a work of art.
The method of explanation, like the method of story, is used mainly when studying new material, namely: when revealing the meaning of words and concepts, the principles of operation of various devices, building a system of scientific reasoning and evidence, revealing cause-and-effect relationships, presenting theoretical positions that reveal the essence of phenomena of nature or social life.
The effectiveness of the explanation method depends on the teacher’s deep knowledge of the scientific component of the content of the educational subject, clear formulation of tasks, definition of the essence of the problem being studied, the sequence of revealing cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation, construction of evidence, accuracy of formulations, depth and accessibility of presentation, correction of knowledge acquired by students, mobilization of attention children.
The explanation method is used to work with all age groups, but it is more effective in middle and high school. This is due to the greater development of abstract thinking among students and the increasing complexity of educational material.
Lecture. Narration and explanation are used when studying a relatively small amount of educational material. Starting from grades VII-VIII, teachers have to verbally present a significant amount of new knowledge on certain topics, spending 20-30 minutes of the lesson, and sometimes the entire lesson, on this. Therefore, the lecture method of teaching is used.
The word “lecture” is of Latin origin and translated into Russian means “reading.” The lecture assumes that the teacher orally presents a significant amount of educational material over a relatively long period of time, using a variety of techniques to enhance the cognitive activity of students.
Unlike story and explanation, a lecture is also characterized by greater scientific rigor of presentation. The lecture presentation of the material ensures the completeness and integrity of its perception. Students are involved in the process of active mental actions and dynamic “getting used to” the reality of what is presented (factors, phenomena, events, historical eras, positions of heroes, the world of thoughts of heroes and ideas of scientists). Students develop sustained voluntary attention, determination, and note-taking skills.
The following main types of lectures are distinguished:
1) traditional lecture, when the material is presented mainly in ready-made form;
2) a problem lecture or a lecture of a problematic nature, when a scientific or practical problem is formulated (directions of development, methods and options, problems, predicted consequences);
3) lecture-conversation (conversational lecture) is used in cases where listeners have certain information on the problem or are ready to engage in its discussion.
Conversation. The essence of the conversation is that the teacher, through skillfully posed questions, encourages students to reason and analyze in a certain logical sequence the facts and phenomena being studied and independently formulate appropriate conclusions and generalizations.
According to their purpose in the educational process, the following types of conversation are distinguished:
1) introductory or introductory (organizing);
2) communication of new knowledge;
3) fixing;
4) control and correction.
An introductory conversation is held at the beginning of the lesson and ensures that students are prepared to perceive and assimilate new educational material. This kind of conversation helps to understand the significance of the work ahead and forms ideas about its content, specifics and features.
When communicating new knowledge, the conversation will take the form of questions and answers, mainly when analyzing texts read. It helps students, through skillfully posed questions, their existing knowledge and life experience, to master new knowledge, define concepts, and find a method for solving a problem. A well-organized conversation creates the subjective impression that the student himself made a “discovery” and traveled a difficult path to scientific truth.
Consolidating conversations are used to deepen, generalize and systematize knowledge. They are usually held at the end of a lesson in learning new material.
Control and correction conversations can be organized as frontal or individual. They are used to determine the level of knowledge acquisition among students, their correction, clarification, addition, and specification.
A conversation when communicating new knowledge can proceed inductively (i.e., from particular known observable phenomena to general conclusions) or deductively (from general provisions to particular cases).
The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the careful preparation of the teacher, the thoughtfulness of the questions, and their logical sequence. Questions should develop all types of thinking and correspond to the level of development of students. On the part of students, answers must be conscious, reasoned and correctly formulated.
Educational discussion. Its main purpose in the learning process is to stimulate cognitive interest, to involve students in an active discussion of different scientific points of view on a particular problem, to encourage them to comprehend existing approaches, to argue someone else’s and their own position. The use of educational discussion requires thorough preliminary preparation of students, as well as the presence of at least two opposing opinions on the problem under discussion.
Academic discussion as a teaching method has proven itself well in high school. It develops in students creative thinking, the ability to clearly and clearly formulate their thoughts, reflection, intuition, and speech culture. Naturally, the teacher himself must demonstrate examples of argumentation in front of his students, teach them to accurately express their thoughts and be tolerant of the opinions of schoolchildren, and respectfully make amendments to their argumentation.
Working with sources. During the learning process, it is very difficult for students to remember all the information they receive. They need to remember the fundamental principles on which knowledge in a particular academic subject is based. Schoolchildren should be able to independently find more specific provisions in a textbook or other educational literature; this should be taught in class.
In primary school, work with books is carried out mainly in lessons under the guidance of a teacher. In the future, schoolchildren increasingly learn to work with the book independently. There are a number of techniques for working independently with printed sources.
Here are the main ones:
a) note-taking - summary, a brief record of the content of what was read. Note-taking is done in the first person, which better develops independent thinking;
b) drawing up a text plan. The plan can be simple or complex. To draw up a plan, after reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each part;
c) thesis - a brief summary of the main ideas of what was read;
d) quotation - verbatim excerpt from the text;
e) annotation - a brief condensed summary of the content of what was read without loss of essential meaning;
f) writing a certificate - presenting information about something obtained after searching. Certificates can be statistical, biographical, terminological, geographical, etc.;
g) compiling a thematic thesaurus - an ordered set of basic concepts for a section or topic.
Working with a textbook is one of the most important ways to prepare students for self-education.
TO visual teaching methods include observation, illustration method and demonstration method. Their main feature is that the main source of information when using them is not the word, but various kinds of objects, phenomena, technical and visual aids. These methods are often combined with verbal teaching methods. Their purpose is to reinforce the information given by the teacher, but they can be used with elements of problem-based learning and be creative.
Observation method represents an active form of sensory cognition. More often this method is used when studying natural science subjects. Observations can be carried out by students under the guidance of a teacher during lessons, excursions, or independently on the instructions of the teacher.
When using this method, careful preparation is required: developing observation charts, teaching students how to record and process observation data and their use, etc.
Illustration method involves the use of visual materials in the pedagogical process: paintings, posters, diagrams, drawings, graphs, diagrams, portraits, maps, models, atlases, as well as displaying information on a teaching board or on the screen of a multimedia installation.
Demonstration method. The purpose of the method is to convey information by showing specific objects, processes or their images.
Demonstrated:
1) natural objects (collections, herbariums, stuffed animals);
2) their images (photos, paintings, drawings, dummies), if showing the objects themselves is impossible, and without demonstration it is difficult for students to form an idea of them;
3) symbols of objects (maps, drawings, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, tables);
4) experiments and experiments.
The demonstration method ensures the perception of both external forms (characteristics) and internal content not only in statistics, but also in the dynamics of their flow, which is very important for students to understand the deep essence, laws, patterns and principles of their action and existence, the conditions that give rise to them.
When conducting demonstrations, it is necessary to focus on what is being studied, on the main thing, to characterize the properties of the object, to show its different sides; explain the purpose of the demonstration, what to keep in sight, highlight objects of observation. It is also possible to supplement the demonstration with handouts, making appropriate comments.
The division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstrative is conditional. It does not exclude the possibility of classifying certain visual aids as both illustrative and demonstrative. The introduction of new technical means into the educational process (television, VCRs, computers, etc.) expands the possibilities of visual teaching methods. In particular, the use of a computer allows students to visually see in dynamics many processes that were previously abstract.
When using visual teaching methods, a number of conditions must be met:
a) the visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;
b) the selection of visual aids must be thought through, and it should be shown at a moderate pace and only at the appropriate moment in the lesson (demonstration material is usually not shown before the demonstration, so as not to distract students);
c) observation should be organized in such a way that all students can clearly see the object being demonstrated;
d) it is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential things when showing illustrations. It is easier for children to perceive and assimilate visual material if its key details are specially highlighted;
e) think through in detail the explanations given during the demonstration of phenomena;
f) the clarity demonstrated must be precisely consistent with the content of the material;
g) involve the students themselves in finding the desired information in a visual aid or demonstration device.
Children's television programs have their own distinctive features, the main one being the rapid change of events, accompanied by changes in visual methods (instant replay, special effects) and audio characteristics (music and sound design), which allows you to attract the attention of children.
Practical methods. Their goal is to develop practical skills in schoolchildren. Practical methods include: exercises, laboratory and practical work.
Exercise method. Exercises are understood as repeated (multiple) performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality. Exercises are used in the study of all subjects and at various stages of the educational process. The nature and methodology of the exercises depends on the characteristics of the subject, the specific material, the issue being studied and the age of the students.
Exercises by their nature are divided into oral, written, graphic, educational and labor and game. When performing each of them, students perform mental and practical activities.
Oral exercises contribute to the development of logical thinking, memory, speech and attention of students. They are dynamic and do not require time-consuming record keeping.
Written exercises are used primarily to consolidate knowledge and develop skills in its application. The written exercise contributes to the development of students’ logical thinking, writing culture, and independence in work. Written exercises must be combined with oral and graphic exercises.
Graphic exercises include the actions of students in drawing up diagrams, drawings, graphs, technological maps, making albums, posters, stands, making sketches during laboratory practical work and excursions.
Graphic exercises are usually performed simultaneously with written ones in the context of solving educational problems. Their use helps students better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material, and contributes to the development of spatial imagination. Graphic work, depending on the degree of independence of students in their implementation, can be of a reproductive, training or creative nature.
Educational and labor exercises include practical work of students that has a production and labor orientation. The purpose of these exercises is to apply students' theoretical knowledge in their work activities. Such exercises contribute to the labor education of students.
Exercises are effective only if a number of requirements are met: students’ conscious approach to their implementation; compliance with the didactic sequence in performing the exercises (first, exercises are presented for memorizing and memorizing educational material, then for reproducing and applying previously learned material, then for independently transferring what has been learned to non-standard situations and for creative application of knowledge). Problem-search exercises that form and develop students’ imagination, guesswork, and intuition are also extremely necessary.
Laboratory method promotes a deeper assimilation of theoretical knowledge, the acquisition of skills and abilities, and ensures the direct inclusion of students in the processes of “obtaining” knowledge previously obtained by science. The laboratory method involves carrying out work of a creative nature with obtaining completely new results in science and practice, which is proven by the practice of laboratory work carried out at school. This method stimulates activity both at the stage of preparation for research and during its implementation. It gives students the opportunity to feel like participants, creators of the experience, experiment, research; to form dialectical ideas about the phenomena being studied, to identify other, possibly non-traditional ways of conducting research.
The method of laboratory work is one of the dominant natural science subjects: physics, chemistry, biology, geography. On certain topics, laboratory work can be successfully carried out in other subjects: history, languages, fine arts, etc.
Method of practical work. Promotes the deepening, consolidation and concretization of acquired knowledge, equips schoolchildren with complex, integrated skills and abilities necessary for educational work, as well as for performing various work tasks in educational workshops, student teams, and production activities.
In educational terms, practical work contributes to the development of attention and observation, and teaches accuracy and rationality of actions.
None of the teaching methods can ensure the achievement of all didactic goals. Therefore, it is advisable to use them in combination.
Classification of teaching methods according to the nature of educational and cognitive activity of students. Soviet didactics I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin criticized the classification of teaching methods according to the source of knowledge and didactic tasks. They created their own classification, in which teaching methods correspond to the structure of educational content proposed by the same authors as ways of mastering it.
There are five teaching methods in total:
1) explanatory and illustrative;
2) reproductive;
3) problematic presentation;
4) partially search;
5) research.
1. Explanatory and illustrative teaching method (it is also called information-receptive). Forms of implementation of this method: story, explanation, traditional lecture, work with a textbook, demonstration of paintings, films and filmstrips, etc.
One should not think that the explanatory-illustrative method has lost its significance in modern conditions. Its importance is greatly increasing in connection with the achievements of modern technology and science - the use of cinema, television, tape recorders in lessons, the use of modern machines, equipment, tools also enriches the method of oral presentation of knowledge by the teacher. The boundaries and possibilities of direct sensory perception of phenomena and objects are expanding.
2. Reproductive method training provides for a system of training sessions in which the knowledge communicated to students and the methods for acquiring it are repeatedly reproduced. At the same time, students work according to a model, scheme, algorithm. The reproductive method is widely used to develop skills in writing, reading, solving problems and examples, conducting repeated experiments, mastering techniques for working on machines, etc. Students reproduce and repeatedly repeat educational material in their activities according to the teacher’s instructions.
Method of problem presentation. The teacher poses an educational problem in the lesson, thereby creating a problematic search situation. At the same time, the teacher shows students the course of mental operations in solving a learning problem, shows possible options, and characterizes the most optimal of them. Students get the opportunity to be convinced of the scientific evidence and validity of a solution to a problem; they master step-by-step solutions to a holistic problem, which they then use in their independent problem-searching assimilation of knowledge.
If the teacher is well and certainly aware of the ways of problematic scientific presentation of material, then for students they should be found as a discovery, as scientific knowledge of the truth.
Partial search (heuristic) method- a teaching method in which students independently carry out only individual research procedures (see problems by asking questions to the material being studied; construct a proof; draw conclusions from the presented facts; make an assumption; draw up a plan for creative solutions to problematic problems). Here there is an element-by-element assimilation of the experience of creative activity, mastery of individual stages of solving problematic problems.
Research method of teaching involves students independently performing a full cycle of research activities. It promotes a deeper assimilation of the experience of theoretical activity with the accompanying acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Its use is associated with the prospect of students mastering the methods of scientific knowledge.
Examples of educational research topics for schoolchildren: “No one is forgotten, nothing is forgotten”, “Our settlement in the past, present and future”, “They created a collective farm”, “Collective farm machine operators from the moment of its creation to the present day”, etc.
Student teams practice training sessions to determine the effectiveness of growing various varieties of legumes, industrial and garden crops in local soil and climatic conditions.
Choice of teaching methods. The choice of teaching methods cannot be arbitrary. Only at first glance it may seem that the teacher chooses the methods he pleases. In fact, he is very constrained in determining how to achieve his goal. When choosing one or another teaching method, the teacher must take into account many dependencies each time. First of all, the main goal and specific tasks that will be solved in the lesson are determined. They “specify” a group of methods that are generally suitable for achieving the intended objectives. This is followed by a targeted selection of optimal ways to best carry out the cognitive process.
In the psychological and pedagogical literature, many reasons have been identified that influence the choice of teaching methods:
1) goals and objectives of training;
2) age of students;
3) the level of students’ preparedness and motivation to learn;
4) quantity and complexity of educational material, training time;
5) material, technical and organizational conditions of training;
6) the relationship between the teacher and students that developed in the process of educational work;
7) level of teacher preparedness.
The comparative capabilities of teaching methods allow them to be used at different levels and stages of learning in accordance with age, mental and physical strength, existing experience in educational work, students’ training, the formation of educational skills and abilities, the development of mental processes and types of thinking. For example, in elementary grades it is preferable to use methods such as story, conversation, demonstration method; in middle grades - conversation, subject visualization, diagrams, diagrams, graphs with a significant degree of generalization.
As students grow older, the characteristics of cognitive activity change. Abstract theoretical thinking begins to dominate over logical thinking. The reproductive nature of cognitive activity begins to evolve into a problem-search activity. This requires introducing into the lesson methods of independently acquiring knowledge, methods of creatively searching for answers and solutions to the questions posed. Knowing the comparative capabilities of teaching methods, the teacher, in order to enhance the creative activity of students, can replace some methods with others during the lesson.
Teaching methods, according to Yu.K. Babansky, have compensatory capabilities, i.e. the same didactic goal can be achieved by different combinations of methods.
The choice of teaching methods entails the choice of appropriate types of educational activities and didactic means.
Pedagogy / ed. V.A. Slastenina. M., 2002. Ch. 14 (§ 3, 4).
Stepanenkov N.K. School pedagogy. Minsk, 2007. Topic 9.
Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy. Minsk, 2000. Ch. 11 (§ 1-5), 15.
Choice of teaching methods in secondary school / ed. Yu. K. Babansky. M, 1981.
Didactics of secondary school / ed. M.N. Skatkina. M., 1982. Ch. 5, 7. Alternative
Introduction
There has recently been a lot of writing and discussion about the problems of explanation; this topic attracts specialists in the theory of knowledge, logic and methodology of various sciences; interest in this problem is growing in wide circles of representatives of the sciences of man, society, culture: psychologists and philosophers, art historians and cultural experts , historians and socialists.
Modern culture increasingly deals with situations where there is a need for explanation.
As a consequence of the increasing complexity of social relations, the number and nature of individual and mass communications have increased and it should be pointed out that in modern conditions barriers to explanation often arise, the overcoming of which requires careful analysis.
According to the modern Russian scientist-philosopher N.S. Avtonomova, “in philosophical terms, the problem of explanation arises (or, more precisely, intensifies) at turning points in the development of culture, when the internal cultural connections between the basic, “ultimate” concepts for each era, which together determine the “background” and “contextual” ones, disintegrate. knowledge in all its many-sided and difficult-to-understand forms forms the basis of worldview schemes, canons of meaning formation, characterizing a particular era.”
There is reason to believe that explanation has three main functions:
· cognitive, or actually cognitive;
· regulatory;
· ideological.
Explanation and misunderstanding, the desire to understand or, conversely, unwillingness to understand are common phenomena in our everyday life and professional activities. As ubiquitous facts of interpersonal communication, explanation and misunderstanding have always existed. Today we see a different picture: explanation is assessed by many scientists as an extremely pressing problem. Currently, it is extremely important for humans to use the accumulated potential of scientific knowledge for the benefit of all living on earth, since today it is especially clear that science and technology are based on the entire volume of human culture embedded in traditions, language, perceptions of reality, moral norms and worldview ideals .
Hypothesis: the use of explanation methods improves the perception of educational material.
The object of study of the course work is the 4th grade of school No. 5.
Subject of research: methods of explaining material using the example of 4th grade at school No. 5.
Purpose of the course work: Consider explanation as a teaching method in the classroom. To achieve this goal, we will carry out the following tasks:
– Consider the concept of “explanation”;
– Study the procedure for explaining a scientific concept;
– Explore the application of explanatory methods in practice.
The course work has the following structure: introduction, two chapters, conclusion, bibliography.
1. Principles for explaining educational material
1.1 Concept and essence of the explanation process
Explanation is one of the most important pedagogical sciences in general. Explanation is also used in everyday language; to explain a phenomenon means to make it clear and understandable to us. In their quest to understand the world around them, people created various systems to explain the events of everyday life and natural phenomena. Over the past centuries, the function of explaining pedagogical material has gradually begun to occupy one of the most important aspects of teaching schoolchildren.
Explanation is reasoning that reveals the basis of a certain fact, hypothesis, law or particular theory. In most cases, the explanation looks like a deductive inference, in which what is being explained turns out to be a logical conclusion from the accepted premises. But although every explanation is based on a logical conclusion, not every conclusion can be considered an explanation (examples include tautological conclusions and vicious, logical twists).
In the explanation, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects can be distinguished. Syntactically, an explanation is an ordering of the symbols of reasoning in abstraction from their meaning. Symbolic relations are not explanations in the proper sense of the word. Semantically, an explanation appears as a set of terms and statements related in meaning and significance, which, when distinguishing the volumes and sequence of use of the latter, looks like a logical conclusion. The pragmatic aspect reveals the goal, the direction of the explanation.
When constructing an explanation, thought goes from the facts being explained and generalizations to the premises; that which serves as the conclusion of an explanation is known before its premises appear.
The model, the theory of explanation in science was created already in the works of positivists (D.S. Mill and W.S. Jevons). Its modern interpretation is found in K. Popper, K. Hempel and other neopositivists. K. Hempel depicts explanation as subsuming it under a general law (hypothesis, theory), therefore his model is usually called the “summary” theory of explanation. He also identified two submodels of explanation by means of a covering law: deductive-nomological and inductive-probabilistic.
1.2 Procedure for explaining a scientific concept
The intellectual ideals characteristic of a pedagogical discipline act as a link between its methods of explanation, concepts, theoretical problems and their empirical applications. Two preliminary remarks need to be made here.
First, in the early stages of its development, science is distinguished not so much by complete ignorance of the relevant phenomena as by the uncertainty of its own intellectual goals or explanatory tasks. We often have an excess of information at our disposal - about human behavior, weather or the movement of planets, however, we do not know “what to do with it.” Accordingly, the eventual creation, or “specialization,” of a new scientific discipline is associated with the adoption of an equally specific research program. Thus, in a well-stabilized field of scientific inquiry, we usually find a coherent division of labor between coexisting sub-disciplines with different explanatory goals, some of which, in extreme cases, have borderline territorial disputes.
Secondly, our approach introduces a new type of history, “natural philosophy.” Basic models of explanation, forms of territories, scientific “topics” - all this was developed before their empirical sphere was realized.
This symbiosis of natural philosophy and empirical science, that is, the abstract analysis of possible forms of explanation and their application to actual classes of natural phenomena, in this case has a direct relationship to our central topic - the key relationships between the intellectual ideals of a particular scientific discipline and its procedures of explanation, concepts and theoretical problems. At the core of modern arguments regarding conceptual change in science is the understanding that no single ideal of “explanation” or rational justification applies universally to all scientists at all times. Each useful discipline has had specific goals and ideals that determined its specific methods and structures, and the most fundamental feature of its historical development has been the progressive refinement and clarification of these goals and ideals. This clarification is the main activity that made possible the emergence of new assumptions, their testing, and the adoption of new intellectual methods, procedures and structures.
The correct starting point is the general category of “explanatory procedures”; the particular procedure of presenting a demonstrative argument involving an appeal to either a law of nature or an axiomatic system is just one specific example of this more general type. This starting point has one particular advantage, for the understanding of "explanation" as a procedure makes it easy to understand the historical process by which scientific concepts are transmitted from one generation of scientists to another. For example, with this understanding, the concepts on which scientists build their theory can serve as the collective goals of the corresponding discipline.
Historically developing natural sciences are, in their essence, collective actions that endure more than one generation of people; therefore they cannot be characterized in terms of individual thinking and procedures alone. On the contrary, scientific concepts by their very nature are capable of being inherited, transmitted, studied in those processes through which the discipline continues to exist after the death of its creators. Let's introduce a new term: a set of concepts representing a historically developing discipline forms a transfer. Whatever personal associations these concepts may generate in the minds of individual scientists, they are not what serve the purposes of a scientific discipline in itself and bind the ideas of successive generations into a single conceptual genealogy. The specificity of transmissions in science lies in the collective, or “public” aspect of its concepts. Mental images and neurophysiological processes occurring in the minds of individual scientists may play a role in some cases, but they do not thereby become “concepts.” The fact that such images or processes can play this role does not in the least clarify what exactly the “concept” role is; this only allows us to separate those specific images or neural processes that fulfill this role from those that do not. The content of science is transmitted from one generation of scientists to another through the process of cultivation. This process involves learning through which certain explanatory skills are passed on, with or without modification, from older to younger generations. The essence of what is transmitted in this learning process is that which is primarily subject to study, verification, use, criticism and change, is the entire set of intellectual techniques, procedures, skills and methods of representation that are used when an “explanation is given” of events and phenomena , related to the field of science that interests us. To publicly demonstrate and prove his understanding of the explanatory potential of his science, the newcomer must also learn how and when to apply these techniques and procedures in such a way that they explain phenomena that fall within the scope of modern science.
It is the procedures and methods of a scientific discipline that constitute its collective and educational aspects; in this case, they define the representative set of concepts that constitute the collective “transmission” of science. If we only learn the words and controls of a science, we may become entangled in its linguistic superstructure; We will begin to understand the scientific meaning of these words and equations only if we learn to apply them. To do justice to the complexity of scientific concepts, we must highlight three aspects (or elements) of the application of these concepts, namely: language (1), methods of representation (2) and procedure of scientific application (3). The first two aspects or elements cover the "symbolic" aspects of scientific explanation, that is, the scientific activity that we call "explanation", while the third covers the awareness of the situations for which this activity is intended. The "linguistic" element covers both nouns and technical terms (names), and sentences, whether natural laws or simply generalizations. “Methods of representation” include all those various procedures by which scientists demonstrate, that is, show rather than prove deductively, those general relationships that can be discovered in natural objects, events and phenomena; they cover not only the application of mathematical formalism, but also the drawing of graphs and diagrams, the creation of taxonomic “trees” and classifications, the compilation of computer programs, etc.
However, such "symbolic" elements are truly useful for explanation in science where application procedures are available that are suitable for identifying empirical events and how to apply them. Leaving aside all problems of logical systematicity, we will think about the procedures of conceptual change in natural science and other rational initiatives in terms of the modes of behavior they involve. As for irrational fears and other irrational behaviors. Let us remember that a certain scientific concept becomes “irrational” in cases where it continues to exist after it has lost its explanatory usefulness. Thus, a scientist who does not know how to criticize and change his concepts where the collective goals of his discipline require it violates the “duties” of his scientific “station”, like a night watchman who has fallen asleep or an undisciplined soldier. Thus, the procedures of conceptual change in science, like its explanatory procedures, are “institutionalized.” Indeed, we could condense our entire analysis of the collective application of scientific concepts into one aphorism: “Every concept is an intellectual micro-institution.” This aphorism can be used to highlight two points. First, he again emphasizes the fact that no single concept or set of concepts ever exhausts the entire scientific discipline; at best, they represent a historical snapshot of a long-developing initiative. Individual concepts or families of concepts have the same relationship to the entire discipline that individual roles or institutions have to society as a whole. To fully understand a “historical entity,” be it a discipline or a society, we must consider not only the contemporary structure of connections between its constituent theories, institutions, and other elements, but also its common procedures for modifying those elements. The collective transmission through which a set of scientific concepts receives its professional expression, a set of rules defining modes of explanatory behavior, is itself “institutionalized” in such a way that conceptual learning in science becomes comparable to initiative in social institutions.
Suppose further that we give a procedural interpretation of scientific explanation, concepts, and methods of representation. We can then do so immediately and identify the following two philosophical questions. First, the propositions that appear in scientific theories never (except indirectly) tell us anything “true” or “false” about the aspects of the empirical world to which they apply.
Secondly, such sentences cannot be directly accommodated by the standards of logical classification as “universal” or particular sentences. All of these different ways of posing the philosophical problems of science addressed questions of the empirical truth, falsity, or degree of probability of theoretical principles.
On the contrary, our own explanation implies that this basic assumption is completely false, since questions regarding the empirical “truth” or “falsehood” of theoretical principles do not arise in science as such. Rather, theoretical terms and statements indirectly acquire empirical content and meaning only in those cases when, with the help of auxiliary identifying statements, the scope of their application is revealed; when this is done, then as a result it is necessary to introduce the theoretical terms and principles under study into the empirical “metastatements” themselves. For theoretical propositions of science, the following is true: the more strictly theoretical a given proposition is, the more its empirical relevance is a matter of its applicability rather than a matter of truth. In these cases, the strictly empirical question is: "How does this principle apply at all, and under what conditions does it have force?" rather than the question: "Is this sentence true?" Indeed, in strictly theoretical discussions, scientists generally very rarely use the words “true” and “false”; the operational question is to establish in what empirical situation and under what conditions any particular theory, together with all its associated concepts and methods of representation, will contribute to the achievement of the explanatory goals for which it was introduced. As for the second question, in their working disputes about scientific theories, scientists hardly make use of the distinction that logicians make between “particular” and “universal” statements. The closest thing to this distinction is the operationally controversial issue of whether a particular theory applies “universally” or only to a “limited class of situations.”
Developing scientific understanding has two aspects. On the one hand, the novice scientist learns to apply the general procedures of his science. On the other hand, he learns to recognize the specific situations to which each of these procedures corresponds. And when he gives a complete scientific explanation of any actual event or phenomenon, he necessarily applies both types of knowledge. He can adequately solve the problem facing him only if he applies the “correct” procedure of explanation, and also if he applies this procedure “correctly.” The same person does not always possess these two aspects of scientific understanding. A theoretically minded person may have the ability to perform complex calculations or to follow the other implications of his models with complete precision; however, at the same time, he may lack the ability to understand which of these calculations or interpretations are appropriate in a particular empirical situation. On the contrary, a person of great empirical inclination may have the ability to grasp the subtle differences of individual empirical situations and to understand the general significance of these differences for the theory of the subject he is studying; however, at the same time, he may lack the theoretical understanding to scrutinize the implications of the relevant calculations or models. Even the most developed axiomatic system in itself will never constitute a “science,” since no formal scheme can tell us anything about its own empirical domain and the scope of its application, much less guarantee them. Likewise, no abstract general theory by itself can “explain” or “represent” natural phenomena; rather, it is scientists who apply the theory? exactly the way they do it, and exactly in those cases where they use it, and with the success with which they use it? in order to present and explain the behavioral features of classes of systems and objects identified independently of it.
Thus, the collective concepts of any natural science derive their meaning from the way they are used by scientists in the process of explanation. In fact, this conclusion was already implied in Kant’s logical aphorism when he stated that “all of our knowledge begins with experience.” Empirical knowledge that scientific theory gives us? it is always the knowledge that some general procedure of explanation, description or representation can be successfully applied under any particular conditions.
1.3 Application of explanatory methods
All educational material that has ever been taught anywhere is copyrighted - by famous or, alas, unknown authors. Be it the scholastic truths of the Middle Ages, reactions in the cores of heavy stars or MBA courses - everything is someone’s work, someone created the scientific material presented. We do not directly comprehend nature or society.
The reason is simple: essentially, any attempt to explain something comes down to the agreement of some conditional information with the receiving party (in the case of education, with the audience). Those. explanation is the coordination of information with the receiving party.
At the same time, historically it is clear that initially there was one factor of coordination: the personality of the subject, a direct participant in the educational process. In one of the most archaic forms of the lesson (common, for example, in Medieval Europe), the process of explanation was simple: the teacher explained to the older students, and those to the younger ones.
explanation material school method
As the educational material became more complex and as its volume required for assimilation grew, the number of coordination factors increased.
So, now we are coordinating the material with the audience - i.e. its explanation occurs in a number of ways:
1. Developed courses. In order to massively, from year to year, explain new material (new to these people), it is necessary for someone to think and arrange models of the chosen subject area in the sequence that is best deposited in the minds of the audience. A kind of “big block explanation”.
2. Trained teachers. In order to teach ninth-graders the periodic law, it is not possible to invite D.I. to each class. Mendeleev. Again, there is a massive need for specially trained people who will take pre-prepared material from third-party sources, put it through themselves and make it finally accessible to their audience.
3. Special textbooks– “hard copy” of the explanation. Authors write textbooks, teachers use them in their work. Let us note that the presence of a textbook (let’s say, educational literature more broadly) in the course being studied has now become the norm. The material of most disciplines is so complex that it is possible to comprehend it in the mind, to “tame knowledge” only by comparing a number of independent sources: oral explanations of the leading teacher, the text of the textbook and some others.
4. Tutorials– visual, handout, museum, interactive and numerous others. The giant education industry works only to adapt and make available information available “out there” for specific audiences, to coordinate this information with audiences on an ever-increasing number of parameters.
It is easy to see that the coordination factors form a pronounced hierarchy. Didactic systems are clearly hierarchical: educational models are combined into topics, topics into courses, courses into subject areas, etc.
· At the level of such didactic supersystems – courses.
· At the system level – teacher-leaders (a certain driving component of the lesson).
· At the level of subsystem components - textbooks, study guides, handouts...
It is also clear that the degree of coordination increases at each level, primarily due to the deployment of coordination factors.
Example: in the Middle Ages, the basis of education as a whole (super-supersystem) was knowledge that was fundamentally not applicable in itself in the outside world: scholastic theology, philosophy, dead languages (Latin, ancient Greek, etc.). Over time - and to this day - each educational reform has led to an increasing applicability of knowledge: theological languages are replaced by civil ones, the ratio of theory and practice shifts in favor of practice. At the same time, at a lower level, the structure of the lesson became more and more consistent with the personality of the person receiving it. It is known that the human psyche is inert. In order to qualitatively invest new knowledge, it is necessary to go through three stages (to use Kurt Lewin’s terminology) – preparation of consciousness (a kind of “unfreezing”), the actual “insertion” (explanation as such), and “freezing”. So, the four-step lesson - in the modern sense - arose only in the 19th century.
It was developed by the German teacher Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg, summarizing the experience of a large number of German innovative teachers. In his vision, the classic lesson became like this: repetition (updating knowledge) - explanation of new things - consolidation - homework. Before this, the lessons were one or two stage. For example, explanation + homework. It is easy to see that a four-step lesson is more effective.
Why? It was in the 19th century that humanity experienced its first bright scientific revolution, and the world began to acquire modern features. It is with the growth of complexity and volume of knowledge that the need arose to more effectively transfer this knowledge.
For the purposes of this Report, we will consider only one level of explanation: the occupational level.
What can be done to ensure that the material is explained?
You can coordinate the material with the audience at different levels. It is not difficult to guess that the greater the degree of consistency, the better the material is explained. Let us consider in detail two levels: the structure of the lesson as a whole and the material itself.
At the lesson level: the material is structured. The most convenient form is to divide the material into fragments, chapters. The effect can be enhanced by combining chapters with a cross-cutting thought, hero, form, etc. Another possible strengthening is that the chapters are not simply united by a common idea, but form a natural sequence.
Example: It is difficult to memorize many chemical elements. Memorizing them in the form of a periodic table with ever-increasing atomic mass of elements is a school task.
Example: the classification of animals and plants is based on evolution, i.e. who appeared after whom on the planet. If there is no natural sequence (temporal, evolutionary, etc.), it can be introduced in the form of an allegory.
Example: fifteen years for a printing company – fifteen stages of printing production.
Example: seven steps to financial success – seven notes – seven colors of the rainbow...
Example: when training new McDonald's employees, for example, the following abbreviations are used: KKCHD - quality, service culture, cleanliness, accessibility. KKK – contact, cooperation, coordination. KLN – observation checklist.
The next gain is to get consistency from the audience. Let's say the educational material is “collapsed” into an abbreviation, and the audience comes up with a mnemonic phrase for this abbreviation.
Example: OBAFGKMRNS – spectral types of stars. It’s almost impossible to remember them, but students – ours and those from America – once came up with: “One Shaved American Chewed Dates Like a Carrot,” and “Oh, Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me Right Now.”
At the level of the material presented.
It is easy to see that the minimal act of explanation consists of two layers:
The theoretical model presented is usually abstract - it represents a collapsed external experience, otherwise it cannot be conveyed.
In order to move from abstraction to specifics, they resort to examples.
Let's consider an example as a tool for coordinating external information. A model without examples is learned only if it is already familiar, if the student already has examples in his head. Why then waste time explaining?
The number of examples per model should be - apparently - from 2 to 9. Why? There are two known rules: Miller and Elshtain, which describe human operative memory. Our RAM is ready to retain 7±2 of simple counting objects (i.e., maximum 9), complex abstract ones – 4±1 (i.e., minimum of 3). If there are less than two or three examples, then the model will be poorly understood; if there are more than nine, it will be redundant.
Now let's look at 12 ways to give an example:
1. " Zero example": incomplete disclosure of the topic. Can't be fully revealed
o some specifics - leaving the audience to complete the specifics on their own,
o group of methods
What is not revealed is left for the audience to discover on its own. This technique has found wide application in problem-based learning.
2. Number axis(or “RVS Operator” in the terminology of the first TRIZ developer G.S. Altshuller) is a sharp increase in a certain didactically valuable parameter. For example, when checking the roots of linear equations, in order to understand whether the solution was found correctly or not, when substituting, you need to take the number 1,000,000: everything is immediately clear.
3. Example - an analogy from life. An example is given from everyday “kitchen” life. Conveniently used in explaining complex “multi-story” theoretical models. This technique was very often used by the famous popularizer of science Ya.I. Perelman, as well as the famous writer Stanislav Lem.
4. Give many examples, then generalize locally. Used for intermediate rest, change of mental activity, emphasizing important points of the lesson... Generalizations can be at the level of a model, method, method, group of methods.
5. Humanitarian example - from fiction, history.
6. Example from scientific literature.
7. An example from the leading teacher’s own experience, problems he personally solved...
8. The students themselves give an example.
9. Continue giving examples after the teacher
For methods 7–9, a common reinforcement will be the use of inertia of thinking: when examples deliberately lead the audience “in the wrong direction.” As examples, here are two anecdotes: What will a Chinese get by adding the head of a tiger, the stomach of a mollusk, the scales of a carp, the claws of a mountain eagle and the roar of a bull? A woman! Well, you have ideals! Dragon!
10. Scientists have found that the Moon is constantly moving away from the Earth. If the speed of removal was constant, calculations show that more than 100 million years ago the moon's orbit was ten meters from the Earth. This explains the extinction of dinosaurs.
11. At least the big ones.
12. “Example with displacement”: at a lecture on consulting - an example from medicine, military art; during a lesson on main pipelines - from gynecology, from angiology (about blood vessels), etc. The technique is similar to an analogy: you need to select two objects that are similar in function, but differ in the resource on which it is implemented. And in medicine, and in the art of war, and in consulting, there is an analysis of the situation (in medicine there is also the same “interrogation of the patient”), liquid flows through pipes, as well as through blood vessels, etc.
13. Anti-example: when “it didn’t work out” and subsequent analysis of errors and typical errors in particular.
14. Presentation of the same material from different points of view, positions of different authors, in different models, etc.
2. Methods of explaining material in elementary school
2.1 Conducting an experiment in the 4th grade of school No. 5
We chose school No. 5, 4 “A” class as the object of our research. There are 27 children in the class. The class teacher is Sofya Aleksandrovna Maksimova.
To conduct the experiment, we selected 20 children from the class and divided them into two groups: experimental and control.
Experimental group:
1 Abiltaev Somat
2 Baizhanova Alma
3 Werner Masha
4 Gorin Sergey
5 Demin Sasha
6 Yesenalin Aubakir
7 Zhakupova Dinara
8 Zinchenko Olesya
9 Ibraev Almat
10 Krun Andrey
Control group:
1 Lesovaya Vika
2 Makusheva Ira
3 Nurgaliev Ruslan
4 Nigmatulina Rose
5 Okhman Sasha
6 Pavlyuk Angela
7 Repich Andrey
8 Saparova Zhanna
9 Taimanov Irik
10 Ustemirova Asem
Target: identify the influence of explanation on the assimilation of educational material.
To achieve this goal, I carried out all the work with two groups of children: control and experimental. First, I had a conversation with the class teacher in order to identify what methods of explanation are used in the lessons in this class. During the conversation, I discovered that explanation is the main part of the educational process in this class. During the observation, I found out that not all children have developed perception and listening skills.
To identify the effectiveness of the explanation, I used the following methods: story and illustrative and demonstration method.
A story is a method of a narrative-communicating presentation of the material being studied by the teacher, and of activating the cognitive activity of students. Most often it is used when presenting educational material that is descriptive in nature. In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. Most often, it includes the teacher’s reasoning, analysis of facts, examples, comparison of various phenomena, i.e. combined with an explanation of the material being studied. Often the presentation of new knowledge is even entirely based on the teacher’s explanation. All this shows that if a story is a narrative-reporting, or narrative-informational method of presenting knowledge, then the method of explanation is associated with explanation, analysis, interpretation and proof of various provisions of the material presented.
Illustrative methods of oral presentation of new material by the teacher, as a rule, are combined with the use of visual aids. That is why in didactics the method of illustration and demonstration of teaching aids, which is sometimes called illustrative and demonstration method(from Latin illustratio – image, visual explanation and demonstratio – showing). The essence of this method is that in the process of educational work the teacher uses illustrations, i.e. a visual explanation, or demonstrates one or another teaching aid, which can, on the one hand, facilitate the perception and understanding of the material being studied, and on the other, act as a source of new knowledge.
For the experiment, I chose a natural history lesson. When teaching a lesson in the experimental group, I used the above explanation methods. In doing so, I took into account the following principles:
– the effectiveness of the use of illustrations and demonstrations largely depends on the skillful combination of words and clarity;
– the teacher’s presentation of the material itself should be scientifically meaningful, lively and interesting in form;
– a clear definition of the topic of the new material and highlighting the main issues that students need to understand.
In the control group, only the topic was indicated; the students had to study the lesson material themselves
2.2 Analysis of the experiment
After conducting an experiment in the experimental and control groups in a natural history lesson, I received the following results:
Experimental group
P – did not understand the material well
The table shows that the majority of children learned the lesson material well, two students learned the material with average quality, and only one child learned the material poorly.
Quality of material learning in the experimental group
Control group
X – learned the educational material well
C – average quality of understanding of the material
P – did not understand the material well
The table shows that the majority of students, when studying the material independently, without explanation, did not understand the lesson material well. Three students mastered the material with average quality.
Quality of material learning in the control group
So, having completed our research, we can draw the following conclusions:
– Explanation as a teaching method in the classroom is necessary when learning new material.
– Every teacher should use the following principles when explaining new material in class:
· the effectiveness of using illustrations and demonstrations largely depends on the skillful combination of words and clarity;
· the teacher’s presentation of the material itself should be scientifically meaningful, lively and interesting in form;
· a clear definition of the topic of the new material and highlighting the main issues that students need to understand.
Conclusion
Thus, we have experimentally proven that explanation is an integral part of the educational process.
The main goal of explanation is to identify the essence of the subject being studied, to bring it under the law with the identification of causes and conditions, mechanisms of action.
Explanation and understanding are closely related - these are two research procedures.
Dialogue is considered in pedagogy not only as an act of communication between two persons; it is interesting because of the relationship between the interpreter and the text. The interpreter’s task is to ask questions of interest not to the author, but to the literary and historical components of the text.
The interpreter, based on objective knowledge of words, their historical variations and the intentions of the author, must understand the text and try to introduce new interpretations into it.
Pedagogy has recognized the world of human communication as the only accessible and valuable one. The world of cultural values within it constitutes a language with the help of which all components of culture must be understood and interpreted.
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Using a problem-based learning method when explaining new material.
Learning problems play an active role in learning. The problem-based learning method is an organic part of the problem-based learning system. The basis of the problem-based learning method is creating situations, formulating problems, and leading students to the problem. The problem situation includes the emotional, search and volitional side. Its task is to direct students’ activities towards maximum mastery of the material being studied, to provide the motivational side of the activity, and to arouse interest in it.
Problem-based learning is learning in which the teacher conducts targeted work to develop the thinking abilities and cognitive needs of his students.
Problem-based learning is not limited to training students in mental actions. The goal of activation through problem-based learning is to raise the level of their understanding of concepts and teach not individual mental operations in a random order, but a system of mental actions for solving non-stereotypical problems.
This is an expansion, deepening of knowledge with the help of previously acquired and new application of previous knowledge. Neither a book nor a teacher can teach a new application of previous knowledge - this is sought and found by the student, placed in the appropriate situation.
The essence of activating a student’s learning through problem-based learning is not in the usual mental activity and mental operations to solve stereotypical school problems - it is in activating his thinking by creating problem situations, in the formation of cognitive interest, in the modeling of mental processes.
The goal of problem-based learning is to assimilate not only the results of scientific knowledge, a system of knowledge, but also the path itself, the process of obtaining these results, the formation of the student’s cognitive independence and the development of his creative abilities.
The method of problem-based learning is considered to be a set of teacher actions to create problem situations and formulate tasks that cause optimal cognitive activity for all students in the class.
The system of tasks (problems) discussed in the lesson is built taking into account the individual characteristics of the students in the class, including their abilities, general development, inclinations, interests, emotional state, experience, knowledge.
In problem-based learning, the teacher’s activity consists in the fact that he, giving explanations of the content of the most complex concepts when necessary, systematically creates problem situations, communicates facts to students and organizes their educational and cognitive activity so that, based on the analysis of facts, students independently draw conclusions and messages , form (with the help of a teacher) definitions of concepts, rules, theorems, laws, or independently apply known knowledge in a new situation.
As a result, students develop skills of mental operations and actions, skills of transferring knowledge, develop attention, will, creative imagination, guesswork, and develop the ability to discover new knowledge and find new ways of acting by putting forward hypotheses and justifying them.
What are the features of a student’s mental activity during problematic learning?
Psychology distinguishes two main types of mental
human activity:
reproductive and productive (creative).
Reproductive activity is considered to be based on an image, based on an algorithm. The teacher explained the essence of the new concept - the student must be able to explain it himself in the same way. I read it in the textbook, saw it on the screen - I need to retell the content, highlighting the main and secondary (otherwise the activity will be simply executive).
The teacher showed how to act - the student needs to do the same, i.e. copy his actions. I received the tasks and completed them according to the algorithm.
Productive activity differs from reproductive activity in that the student independently applies known knowledge in a new situation or in a known situation finds new knowledge for himself, new rules of action. At the same time, his actions according to the image, according to a ready-made algorithm, are not excluded. The student’s activity is characterized by reasoning, reflection, and an independent search for a method of mental action.
The cognitive activity of students can be considered independent only if, in an emerging situation, they independently go through all or the main stages of the thinking process, which require active mental search.
In enhancing the cognitive activity of students, questions are almost of paramount importance. When explaining new material, the teacher, by skillfully posing questions, creates contradictory situations that heighten students’ awareness of the need to find an answer that resolves the contradiction.
The problem can be posed to students with the help of an appropriate question, in the process of solving some assignment, exercise, task, practical or laboratory work.
For example, when introducing the concept of a coordinate system, I give students the task: indicate examples from life when the location of many objects or the state of matter is described by many numbers. Students name the scale of a thermometer, the scales of other measuring objects, the designation of squares on a chessboard, the recording of seats on theater tickets, the geographic coordinate system, etc. Then I pose the question: how can the position of a point be determined on a plane? Many points? Students can only summarize the examples discussed and highlight analogies.
Students can be surprised by an original solution to a problem or exercise, an incredible result, or a very quick solution to a “complicated” problem.
For example, when learning number sequences, you can surprise students with the following task:
We have a sequence of numbers 5,9,13....What will be the 2000th term of this sequence?
Working in the 5th grade with poor mathematical preparation, I carried out practical work. Practical work plays a prominent role in the weaker class. Such children remember only what their hands have worked on. If a student drew, drew, painted, or cut out something, then this in itself will become a support for his memory.
Practical work on the topic “Fractions”.
1.Draw a square occupying 4 cells of the notebook. Divide it in half two different ways. Paint 1/2 of the square, 1/4 of the square.
2.Draw 2 rectangles measuring 10x6 cells. Divide the first into 10 parts and paint over 4/10 parts of the rectangle, the second into 5 parts and paint over 2/5 parts. Can we say that the shaded parts are equal?
3.Draw a segment 3 cm long. Trace 2/3 of the segment with a pencil.
A problematic question contains a problem that has not yet been disclosed to students, an area of the unknown, new knowledge, the acquisition of which requires some kind of intellectual action.
But the question should not be very difficult, it should be appropriate for the age and material being studied.
At a geometry lesson in the 8th grade on the topic “Trapezoid”, she offered students the problem: “In the trapezoid ABCD (BC//AD) the middle line MN is drawn. Base BC = 8 cm, AD = 14 cm, AB = 5 cm, CD = 9 cm. Calculate the perimeter of the trapezoid MVСN.”
When solving the problem, students easily find the sides of the new trapezoid; however, they know the base, but they cannot find the length of the other, which is the midline of the trapezoid (not enough knowledge and patience).
A contradiction arises between the need to solve the problem and the insufficiency of previous knowledge.
It is important to teach a child to work with a book independently, developing the skills and knowledge of meaningful reading and conscious assimilation of the ideas presented. Throughout the entire training period, the student must be able to work with a book.
In grades 5-6, I systematically develop in children the ability to read and understand text, not to skip unclear words, to highlight new things in the text, to find the main and supporting words, to memorize basic theoretical principles, to reproduce elements of reasoning and evidence. This work serves as the necessary basis for successfully studying algebra and geometry courses.
In grades 7-9, students can already draw up a plan for what they read, a summary of an educational article (expanded or supporting summary), a diagram, a table, and can independently formulate conclusions.
For example, when studying the topic “Properties of a Function” in 9th grade, students draw up the following table:
| domain | range of values | function zeros | increasing\ decreasing | intervals of constancy |
|
| k0 increases cups | yx€(-∞;-b/k) y0, x€(-b/k; +∞) y0, x€(-∞;-b/k) yx€(-b/k;+∞) |
||||
| does not exist | k0 decreases increases | ||||
| increases | y≥0, x€(-∞;+∞) |
||||
| x€(-∞; +∞) increases |
In the future, this table can be supplemented with a quadratic function; add an additional column “Even, odd functions”.
Studying the topic “Graph of the function y= ax + n and y= a(x-m), I suggest students construct 3 graphs of functions in one coordinate system:
a) y = 2x, b) y = 2x+2, c) y = 2x-2.
a)y =2x, b)y =2(x-2), c)y =2(x+2).
Then I ask you to draw conclusions about how to graph the function
y = ax + n, (y = a (x-m)).
Tasks of this kind develop students’ ability to independently formulate conclusions.
When studying new material, I use a number of techniques and methods that make it possible to intensify the cognitive activity of students: I often use problem situations, for example, when studying the topic “Sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression.”
After students have learned to work well with the formula of the nth term, with the definition of an arithmetic progression, I propose for the arithmetic progression (an): 1; 6; eleven; 16 …
find the sum of the first 3, 5, 10 terms? Together we draw a conclusion; we need to derive the formula. We display the formula frontally, but I try to involve all students in the class in the work: I use various forms of working with the book.
For example, having explained new material, I ask you to study a paragraph in the textbook and find in the paragraph something that we did not talk about, or read such and such a paragraph, highlight the main idea, use the group method when solving problems, work in pairs (I make up pairs myself, taking into account the levels of cognitive activity).
Explanation of new material
in the lessons of Russian language and literature in the conditions of the Federal State Educational Standard.
Volkova Yana Sergeevna,
teacher Russian language and literature
MBOU Secondary School No. 18 named after N.P. Simonyak
Krasnodar region, municipal formation Kavkazsky district, Temizhbekskaya station.
Speech at the school's pedagogical council.
The wise words of our ancestors noted: “We always bow to the past and strive for the future.” Today's children are the future world. Every teacher faces problems: “How to teach a person of the future in the age of computerization?”, “What to teach so that the knowledge gained in the lessons helps the student become a competitive person?”, “How to improve the quality of education for schoolchildren?” We, teachers of the Russian language and literature at subject school education, ask ourselves the same questions.
For two years the school has been working on a new textbook in the subject line of textbooks by L.M. Rybchenkova, O.M. Aleksandrova, O.V. Zagorovskaya and others (authors L.M. Rybchenkova, O.M. Aleksandrova, O.V. Zagorovskaya, A. .V. Glazkov, A.G. Lisitsyn), - Moscow: Publishing House "Prosveshchenie", 2012. The textbook is developed in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard and provides an opportunity for teaching the Russian language in a different way from traditional teaching. The difficulty, however, is that according to this textbook we are working alone in the area. There is no opportunity to exchange experiences.
I would like to analyze the stages of explaining new material in Russian language and literature lessons in the Federal State Educational Standards format.
The main tasks of education today are not just to equip the student with a fixed set of knowledge, but to develop in him the ability and desire to learn throughout his life, work in a team, and the ability to self-change and self-development.
The main feature of presenting new material is that new knowledge is not given in ready-made form. Children “discover” them themselves in the process of independent research activities. They become little scientists making their own discoveries.
The educational process in a traditional school, the so-called educational activity, comes down to providing knowledge. The Federal State Educational Standard requires that it is necessary to teach not knowledge, but work, and many perceived this with obvious disappointment. Does this mean that knowledge ceases to be in demand by society? No, a person who has deep, versatile knowledge has always been respected. It is necessary and important to understand that The path to knowledge lies through educational activities.
What is the role of the teacher within the framework of the Federal State Educational Standard? It is changing significantly. The teacher’s position is to approach the class not with an answer, but with a question.
The Federal State Educational Standard is based on a system-activity approach. When analyzing a lesson on the basis of a system-activity approach, it is necessary to evaluate the time of independent work of students (at least 50% of the lesson time), the time during which the teacher spoke (no more than 10 minutes).
Based on these requirements, teachers organize the explanation of new material in Russian language and literature lessons. In this case, various forms and methods of organizing this stage of the lesson are used:
For example, in Russian language lessons, having seen the pattern of spelling, students can formulate a new rule themselves, and only then test themselves using the textbook. So, if previously, the topic not written before the start of the lesson and the textbook not covered at the beginning of the lesson were considered a violation of the methodology, now this is not done purposefully. So, when starting to explain a new topic, leading students to their own conclusions, we deliberately do not allow them to open the textbook.
Learning something new can be done through working with text (tables, diagrams, drawings)), from which one can logically deduce the characteristics of a concept, a natural connection between phenomena, find arguments for one’s assessment, etc. So in the new textbooks of L.M. Rybchenkova’s educational teaching and learning complex, several exercises are given before the rules, allowing students to come to independent conclusions.
Creating a problematic situation. You can design a dialogue to find a solution to the problem. Leading dialogue involves a chain of questions arising from one another, the correct answer to each of which is programmed in the question itself. Such dialogue contributes to the development of logic. Encouraging The dialogue consists of a series of questions to which different correct answers are possible. Encouraging dialogue is aimed at developing creativity.
Finally, when explaining a new draw up an approximate reference signal (diagram, set of abstracts, table and so on.). Ideally, each element of the reference signal should be developed in dialogue with students as they solve the problem.
Insert - This is a technique for marking the text when students mark in the margins with icons what is known, what contradicts their ideas, what is interesting and unexpected, as well as what they want to learn about in more detail.
Strategy "Clusters". “Clusters” (“bunches”) is a graphic method of systematizing material.
Our thoughts are no longer piled up, but “piled up”, i.e. are arranged in a certain order. The rules are very simple. We draw a model of the solar system: the star in the center is our theme, the planets around it are large semantic units, then each planet has satellites, etc. (there are similarities with the web theme).
Large block supply of material is required. Remove details and trifles from the explanation. It is estimated that a year after leaving school, a student has only 7% of his school knowledge remaining (if he does not continue studying in this subject).
Russian language lessons children themselves can come up with diagrams, models, and any other options for memorizing the material they have studied. So, when studying the spelling of the suffixes –ik-, -ek-, the student suggested depicting the letter E in the form of a snake (draw eyes on it). The letter in the suffix is associated with a nimble snake slithering away, since the letter E disappears when checking the spelling. The student depicted the letter I in the form of a gate, drawing nails. This picture should remind students that when a word with the suffix -ik- is changed, the letter I remains in its place. Here we are dealing with information recoding: the ability to transform information given in one form into other possible forms of representation.
Thick and thin questions strategy teaches you to correctly formulate questions to the text and skillfully pose them. (Requiring a monosyllabic and detailed answer)
Students can be given the following tasks: grouping questions (divided into 2 columns: thick/thin), asking questions to the text (first 3 thin ones, then 3 thick ones), replacing thin questions with thick ones and vice versa, etc.
To distinguish between “thick and thin questions”, just look at the following table:
| ? Thick questions | Subtle issues |
| Why? For what? How do you think? What is the connection ? | When? How many? |
“Knowledge Inventory” I know.. I want to know.. I found out....
Strategy "Critic's Pyramid". Several statements are offered on a topic that has not yet been studied; students choose the correct ones in their opinion. They justify the choice, and then after getting acquainted with the basic information, we return to them and analyze them taking into account new knowledge. Such questions are contained in the textbook or displayed on the board. Reliance on what has already been studied is required; the teacher looks for points of contact with real life and other subjects.
Each lesson should involve student teamwork. Many goals are achieved during this work, but the main one is to make children speak, pronounce, teach communication and cooperation. Our children do not speak and cannot communicate. In addition, if the academic lesson taught us to do frontal work, which does not produce results, then when organizing work in groups and pairs, the student will work individually.
Thus, having compared the activities of a teacher, in particular a teacher of Russian language and literature, before the introduction of the Federal State Educational Standard and at the present stage, we understand that, if it does not change radically, it is being significantly updated. All innovations are aimed at the student’s assimilation of a certain amount of knowledge and the development of his personality, his cognitive and creative abilities. Let's remember John Dewey's famous phrase : “If we teach today the way we taught yesterday, we will rob children of tomorrow.”
Therefore, the appropriate technologies are selected... Presentation.