Academic degrees awarded in different countries vary significantly in titles, qualification requirements, award and/or approval procedures.

Academic titles

Academic titles are currently divided into the titles of associate professor or professor by specialty and associate professor or professor by department. The first are assigned by the Higher Attestation Commission, the second - by the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia (for more details, see “Regulations on the procedure for assigning academic titles”). The academic title of senior researcher is currently not awarded in the Russian Federation; it is equivalent to the title of associate professor in the specialty. Previously (and also currently in Ukraine and some other post-Soviet states), the title of senior researcher was awarded to employees of research institutes, and qualification requirements Applicants for this title did not include teaching work in universities, unlike the title of associate professor.

The academic titles of corresponding member and academician are officially recognized only if their holders are members of one of 6 state academies:

• Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (RAMS),
• Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences (RAASHN),
• Russian Academy of Architecture and Construction Sciences (RAASN),

Previous academic degrees and titles

Status of bachelor's and master's degrees in Russia

Before the implementation of the Bologna recommendations, bachelor's and master's degrees in Russia are not considered academic degrees, but graduate qualifications educational institutions higher professional education. By their status, holders of bachelor's degrees are classified as persons with higher professional education second level, which, in turn, is considered lower than third level higher education, which includes a master's degree and a certified specialist qualification.

Thus, from both a legal and practical point of view, the status and position of holders of a certified specialist qualification and an academic master's degree is modern Russia completely similar and equivalent, that is, they give equal rights to their owners to carry out professional (including scientific and teaching (including in higher educational institutions)) activities in accordance with education and qualifications, as well as equal rights to admission to postgraduate education (graduate studies) .

However, despite the above, there are still frequent cases of graduates enrolling in master's programs (usually on a paid basis, since obtaining a higher education of a certain level on a free basis is possible only once), which, however, should not be considered as a continuation education at a higher level, but rather as a hidden form of obtaining a second higher education (obtaining a master's degree in a specialty/direction somewhat different from a specialist diploma), professional retraining or advanced training (similarly), as well as improving the status of education (for example, in in the case of admission to the master's program of a leading university by a certified specialist - a graduate of a lesser-known university).

Nomenclature of academic degrees

Depending on the specialty in which the dissertation is defended, the applicant is awarded one of the following academic degrees. Below is the nomenclature for Doctors of Science; the nomenclature of candidates of science completely repeats it.

Honorary degree

An honorary degree of Doctor of Science (Honor Doctor or Honor degree or Doctor honoris causa) is issued by universities, academies or the Ministry of Education without completing a course of study and without taking into account mandatory requirements (for publications, defense, etc.), but who have achieved great success in business and who have gained fame in any field of knowledge (artists, jurisprudence, religious figures, businessmen, writers and poets, artists, etc.). Such people are involved in teaching activities and give lectures in best universities many countries of the world. An honorary Doctor of Science degree is not awarded in medicine.

An honorary degree may be awarded or withdrawn.

Non-governmental organizations

Religious organizations can award candidate (doctor) degrees in theological sciences (or theology), award the titles of professor and associate professor, etc. Other non-governmental organizations can also award various academic degrees and titles, up to academician (see Non-state academies). However, all these degrees and titles are not legally recognized as such in Russia and do not give their holders the rights provided for by law Russian Federation. Currently, there is a discussion regarding the possibility of transferring the scientific and qualification powers of the Higher Attestation Commission to the scientific councils of universities and research institutes (including non-state ones), as has been done in many Western countries. Opponents of such a transfer express the opinion of the inevitable devaluation of the system of academic degrees and titles as a result of the loss of state control over the certification of scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel.

Notes

Related links

• Website of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

In the scientific field and higher educational institutions, there is a qualification system that makes it possible to establish a scientific hierarchy of scientific and pedagogical personnel - academic degrees and titles. In our country, the awarding of academic degrees and the titles of associate professor and professor is somewhat different from other countries. As a rule, the academic title “Assistant Professor” is awarded and “Professor” to Doctors of Science, although there are exceptions. In other countries, academic degrees vary significantly in qualification requirements, title, award and approval procedures.

In order to obtain academic degrees, you must first write and defend a dissertation, and this is a rather voluminous scientific work that can contain from 150 to 500 pages of scientific text. Is it possible not to write a dissertation on many pages, but successfully defend it on completely legal grounds? It is possible, although it will not be entirely easy. A dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Science can be completed in the form of a scientific report, which must present summary research results. Such a report should be supported by a large number of previously published scientific works that are of serious importance for science. In addition, the applicant must be well known to the scientific community for his research and discoveries in his field of activity.

Academic degrees in Russia are important concepts in scientific activity, since they establish the necessary qualification sequence in scientific circles. The first scientific degrees in Russia began to be awarded at the end of the distant 18th century by Catherine II. Currently, a two-level hierarchy of scientific professional levels is used, modeled on the gradation of scientific levels in force in the USSR.

What is an academic degree

An academic degree in Russia is a certain level of qualification of a scientist, a form of certification of scientific workers, which makes it possible to establish the ranks of “ministers of science” and the sequence of stages of an academic career. To obtain it in the Russian Federation, it is necessary to defend a dissertation for a candidate or doctor of science. In modern times, any researcher knows what academic degrees there are and in what gradation they are.

University academic bachelor's and master's degrees, borrowed from the European educational system, are not types of academic degrees. These include only candidate and doctoral degrees.

Academic degrees in ascending order

Academic degrees in our country differ from others in types, names, hierarchy, as well as in how academic degrees are awarded in different countries. For any branches of science and specialties in European countries A three-stage academic career hierarchy is applied. In ascending order, the elements of its classification are as follows:

1. Bachelor;
2. Master;
3. Ph.D.

The level of “Doctor of Philosophy” does not mean an example of a separate branch of knowledge, but generalizes them as a whole. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy abroad is the highest level in the academic career of a scientist and is an analogue of the academic degree of a Russian doctor.

Academic degrees in Russia are understood as a two-stage gradation of stages of an academic career. List of species in ascending order of Russian scientific levels:

1. PhD;
2. Ph.D.

Conditions for awarding a degree

Currently, competition for the degree of Candidate of Sciences, as well as competition for the degree of Doctor of Sciences, is carried out by defending an independently conducted dissertation research by speaking before the dissertation council. It is created under the leadership of the Higher Attestation Commission at a university or other institution. Each dissertation council usually works with no more than three specialties. It consists of at least 19 people, more than half of whom are employees of the institution at which it was created. Only doctors of science can be members of the dissertation council.

The defense of a dissertation for a candidate or doctorate does not have to be from the same field in which the applicant has an education, since this is not regulated by the special Regulations governing this activity.

There is no specific list of industries prohibited or permitted for protection, for example, for a candidate of economic sciences. It is possible for him to obtain degrees in every industry he chooses. As an example, a graduate of an institute of legal or social sciences in technical specialties can also find success and defend a dissertation. In practice, it often happens that a graduate of the Faculty of History becomes a candidate of physical and mathematical sciences and subsequently builds a career as a mathematician or engineer.

Required condition is that the author of a dissertation for a degree at any level must provide a diploma of higher professional education.

What is not an advanced degree?

The meanings of the concepts of academic degrees and titles differ significantly from each other, although they are often confused. Titles mean the position of a specialist or teacher at a university and other scientific organizations, a qualification level in the career of a scientist. These are an associate professor and a professor. They are awarded for life for scientific and pedagogical merits to specialists from universities and other organizations specializing in science, based on documents provided by these organizations.

Participate in the awarding of academic titles Higher certifying commission And Ministry of Education. Only the title of Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences is awarded Russian Academy of Sciences To.

After a certain title is awarded, a certificate is issued.

Associate professor and professor are not only academic titles, positions in universities are named similarly, but they are not the same thing. Often, the position of a teacher depends on the type of academic level. As a rule, a specialist who holds the position of teacher and has a candidate of science degree is appointed associate professor, and specialists with a doctorate degree most often occupy fairly large positions and are professors. At the same time, teachers who have not yet received such a title can receive the position of associate professor or professor. After working in a certain position for some time, they can be promoted to the corresponding rank. It also happens the other way around: an employee with a high rank occupies a lower position.

Academic degrees in universities

In 2015, the Government of the Russian Federation launched a project according to which a list of universities was approved that can independently award their own academic degrees. IN this moment it includes about 60 higher educational institutions, which relate to:

• National Research Universities;
• Federal universities;
• Universities from the “5-100” program.

These universities must necessarily meet the high quality of pedagogical and scientific work and have at least one dissertation council. This means that not all educational establishments have this opportunity. The first universities included in this list are St. Petersburg State University and Moscow State University (examples of names: Candidate of Sciences from Moscow State University, Doctor of Sciences from St. Petersburg State University). The first candidate of science at St. Petersburg State University was Bakhtiyor Alimdzhanov with a dissertation in history in January 2017. The rest of the educational institutions included in the list can conduct their first defenses only from September of this year.

The successful implementation of this project is necessary to increase the prestige of Russian science among developed world powers.

Many people are confused about the positions, degrees and titles of teachers and researchers working at universities. And this is not surprising...

Let's figure this out.

The fact is that university employees are characterized immediately by four directions :

1. Academic position.

2. Administrative position.

3. Academic degree.

4. Academic title.

Table 1

List of academic positions

Positions are listed in alphabetical order. They give different rights and responsibilities to participate in the educational (academic) process. For example, a student can study, but cannot teach. The assistant can teach, but cannot independently develop his own training course, etc.

table 2

List of administrative positions

Positions are listed in alphabetical order. It is in accordance with administrative positions that university employees receive salaries, or rather, official salaries. The higher the position, the higher the salary. These positions are of particular importance to the HR and Accounting departments. They arrange all employees into a hierarchy of superiors and subordinates.

List of academic degrees

Russia has introduced two academic degrees:

1. PhD - primary. For example, a candidate of medical sciences - candidate of medical sciences - candidate of medical sciences.

2. Ph.D- higher . For example, Doctor of Biological Sciences - Doctor of Biological Sciences - Doctor of Biological Sciences.

In order to obtain such a degree, it is necessary to create a special scientific work called “a dissertation for the academic degree of a candidate of such and such sciences” or “a dissertation for the academic degree of a doctor of such and such sciences.” In addition, this dissertation still needs to be “defended” in a specially designated place - the Dissertation Council. Specialists in a related scientific field there will decide whether the submitted dissertation corresponds to the desired degree. So an academic degree may or may not be awarded. Writing and defending a dissertation is not a simple and easy job, therefore the scientific and organizational value of candidates and doctors of science is clearly higher than that of them, but before defending their academic degree.

True, we are threatened by the emergence of several more degrees, modeled on Western ones, but, naturally, in the Russian way.

Bachelor- in fact, this is our same graduate of a technical school or a dropout student from a university with an “incomplete higher education”, but who defended his thesis, for which he receives a bachelor’s “degree”. This is the lowest possible academic degree.

master- in the recent past, this was simply a university graduate who defended his thesis, and not just passed state exams. But now the student's thesis began to be called the VKR ("graduate qualifying work") and ceased to give a master's level. Now you will have to spend an additional 2 years (for additional money) at the university and do, essentially, a second thesis, now a master’s thesis. Only then will it be possible to be called a “master”. And this work will be called a “master’s thesis”, like a candidate’s or doctoral dissertation. A master's degree is an academic degree that reflects the appropriate educational level of the graduate, readiness for research and scientific-pedagogical activities. The master's degree is awarded based on the results of the defense of the master's thesis.

"Doctor of Philosophy" or "PhD"- a degree popular abroad, in terms of scientific weight it is something intermediate between a graduate thesis and a classic Soviet candidate's dissertation. True, pessimists fear that over time they will begin to demand a hybrid of more high level- something between a candidate's and doctoral dissertation. Life will show what will actually hatch from this gilded egg: a chicken or a crocodile...

An approximate analogue of the academic degree of Doctor of Science in countries with a “single-stage” system of academic degrees is the Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree, in countries with a “two-stage” system (for example, in Germany) - a habilitated (habilitated) doctor. After completing the habilitation procedure, i.e. defense of the second doctoral dissertation (more significant than the first), the applicant is awarded the title of habilitated doctor (doctor habilitatus, Dr. habil.)

There is also a system of academic degrees for “professional” rather than scientific research work. Thus, for example, Doctor of Laws (DL), Medicine (DM), Business Administration (DBA), etc. degrees are considered in many countries to constitute a professional rather than an academic/research doctorate, i.e. the holder of such a degree is expected to deals with relevant practical activities, not science. Because these degrees do not require independent scientific research, a professional doctorate is not generally considered an advanced degree. Whether a degree is classified as a professional or research doctorate varies by country and even by university. For example, in the USA and Canada the degree of Doctor of Medicine is professional, and in Great Britain, Ireland and many countries of the British Commonwealth it is research.

Honorary degree
There is also a workaround for obtaining an advanced degree without scientific work. This is the so-called “honorary degree” of Doctor of Science (Honor Doctor or Honor degree or Doctor honoris causa). It is issued by universities, academies or the Ministry of Education without completing a course of study and without taking into account mandatory requirements (for publications, defense, etc.), but who have achieved great success in business and have gained fame in any field of knowledge (artists, jurisprudence, religious figures, businessmen, writers and poets, artists, etc.). Such people are attracted to teaching and give lectures at the best universities in many countries around the world. An honorary Doctor of Science degree is not awarded in medicine. An honorary degree may be awarded or withdrawn.

So, an academic degree confirms the scientific qualifications of its holder and his ability for fruitful scientific activity.

List of academic titles

In Russia, according to unified register academic degrees and titles, approved in 2002, provide for the followingacademic titles:

1. Assistant professor by specialty according to the nomenclature of specialties of scientific workers or by department of an educational institution.Academic title of associate professor assigned to employees scientific organizations for research activities, and to employees of higher educational institutions - for scientific and pedagogical activities.

2. Professor by specialty or department.Academic title of professor awarded to employees of higher educational institutions and scientific organizations for scientific and pedagogical activities and training of graduate students.

3. Corresponding Member(corresponding member) of the Academy of Sciences.

4. Full member (academician) of the Academy of Sciences.

System academic titles more confusing than the system academic degrees . So, there are different titles by specialty And by department. In addition, there are only scientific degrees (scientists), and titles - both scientific and pedagogical (teaching). Academic degrees are officially registered only by the Higher Attestation Commission (Higher Attestation Commission), and all academic titles are officially registered by the Higher Attestation Commission, the Ministry of Education, and Russian Academy Sci.

How can we distinguish between the concepts of “academic degree” and “academic title” in order to reduce the often observed confusion in this regard?

Speaking about academic titles, one should distinguish title or simply the position held from academic title, which you can have without holding a similar position. Yes, you can borrow job title professor or associate professor, but not have the same ranks, confirmed by the presence of a certificate. On the contrary, you can have rank professor or associate professor, have the appropriate official certificate, but work not as a professor, but, for example, as a house manager, or even not work at all. So professors with the title of professor can work, alas, not as professors at all.

The matter is further complicated by the fact that people who work as professors, but do not have the same academic title, tend to call themselves professors, although in reality they only occupy professorship. It is curious that the military is more modest in this regard: for example, a colonel holding a general's position job title, does not call himself a general until he receives a general's title rank.

So, ranks "Associate Professor" or "Professor"supported by official certificates. Purely job titles "Associate Professor" or "Professor", are not associated with the official assignment of the same academic title.

At the same time, in order to occupy a decent position in a university or research institution, it is desirable (and sometimes mandatory) to have academic degree. The presence of an academic degree, position and required activities in this position give the right to receive academic title.

Academic degrees are awarded as a result of defending dissertations, and academic titles assigned based on the results of scientific and pedagogical activities.

About availability academic degree testifies diploma candidate or doctor of sciences, but about the availability academic title - certificate associate professor, professor. So official supporting documents for degrees And ranks are called differently.

Non-state degrees and titles

And you should definitely know about one more interesting detail. In Russia there are many non-state educational institutions: academies, universities, institutes, which sometimes have their own non-state dissertation councils. Some of them dare to completely separate from the state in the person of the Higher Attestation Commission and begin to award academic degrees, not just candidates, but even doctors of sciences without the participation of the Higher Attestation Commission , in the same way as is customary abroad, but in completely different conditions. After protection like this "non-state" Scientists are immediately issued diplomas sealed with seals, popularly called “crusts,” the forms of which are not difficult to produce or buy. The question of their legal force raises reasonable doubts...

According to Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of January 30, 2002 No. 74, only diplomas issued by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation or other authorized state bodies are valid as documents for the award of academic degrees provided for by the state certification system.

Academicians and Corresponding Members

Now in Russia scientific academies with their academicians and corresponding members form a whole pyramid.

On first level, at the top of this academic pyramid is created by Peter the Great in 1724. Russian Academy of Sciences (RAN) , which includes about a thousand corresponding members and full members (academics). This is the holy of holies of Russian science.

On second level academic pyramid are state branch academies , such as the Academy of Medical Sciences (RAMS), the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, the Academy of Architecture and Construction, the Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the Academy of Arts and, to some extent, the Academy of Natural Sciences (RAEN). They also include full members (academicians) and corresponding members, but their state academic “scholarships” are one and a half, or even two times lower than in the Russian Academy of Sciences, and in the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, in general, only the Academy itself has the right to pay money, without state support.

On third level so many have already arisen non-state , public academies , and in them"public" academicians and corresponding members that it is not easy to count them. But in these"academies" state academic scholarships are not paid at all, and even, on the contrary, in order to become a participant, one must pay an entrance fee - as a kind of payment for the right to bear the title of corresponding member or full member of such a non-state public Academy.

Related « public academies» the abroad our former compatriots. They quickly trade in titles, diplomas and certificates, making money on this, and not on science. And in Russia the number is growing"foreign academicians ", having beautiful"candy wrappers ", with entries on foreign language, as if confirming their mythical international scientific status...

ACADEMIC TITLES, DEGREES- officially accepted indicators of the level of scientific or pedagogical qualifications of specialists, their achievements in the development of science, technology, culture and training of personnel with higher education. In the Soviet Union U. z., p. are awarded to specialists with higher education who have deep professional knowledge and scientific work in a particular branch of science.

Different countries have their own historically established terminology and nomenclature of U.S., p. In pre-revolutionary Russia there were bachelor's degrees (lat. baccalaureus), master's degrees (lat. magister teacher), and doctor of sciences. The master's degree was awarded by university departments in specialties other than medicine, which awarded the doctor of medicine degree at once, bypassing the master's degree. The following academic titles were awarded: assistant (lat. assistens helping), associate professor (lat. docens teaching), professor (lat. professor teacher), ordinary professor (lat. ordinarius ordinary) - occupying a department, extraordinary professor (lat. extraordinarius peculiar) - not occupying a department.

In the Soviet Union U. z., p. introduced by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated January 13, 1934 in order to encourage scientific work and improve the qualifications of research and scientific-pedagogical personnel. The academic degrees of candidate and doctor of sciences, academic titles - professor, associate professor, senior researcher, assistant, junior researcher have been established.

In accordance with the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated December 29, 1975, a strict procedure for awarding U.S., s. According to this provision, the academic degree of Doctor of Science “is awarded by a decision of the Presidium of the USSR Higher Attestation Commission on the basis of a petition from a specialized council at a higher educational institution or research institution (research and production association), accepted after the public defense of a doctoral dissertation and the conclusion of the corresponding expert council of the USSR Higher Attestation Commission on the submitted dissertation " The scientific degree of Candidate of Sciences is awarded by decision of the specialized academic council of a higher educational institution or research institution (research and production association) to persons who, as a rule, have the appropriate higher education who have successfully passed the candidate exams and publicly defended a dissertation for the academic degree of candidate (medical, economic, pedagogical, etc.) sciences (see Medical dissertations). Applicants for the academic degrees of candidate and doctor of science must demonstrate the ability to independently scientific research, the ability to develop current scientific problems that have important theoretical and practical significance. An applicant for a doctorate degree must also prove himself to be a creative researcher. capable of posing and solving theoretical problems and major national economic problems at a high scientific level, representing a significant contribution to science and practice.

The Higher Attestation Commission (HAC of the USSR), as a control procedure, reviews all candidate and doctoral dissertations defended in specialized academic councils, after which the board of the Higher Attestation Commission of the USSR makes a decision on issuing a diploma of a candidate of sciences, and the presidium of the Higher Attestation Commission - on issuing a diploma of a doctor of sciences. The Higher Attestation Commission of the USSR, on the basis of the conclusion of the relevant expert council, has the right to cancel the decision of the specialized council to award academic degrees.

The scientific degree of Doctor of Science is awarded, as a rule, to persons who have a Candidate of Science degree in the relevant branch of science. Persons who have received the academic degrees of Doctor of Science or Candidate of Science are issued a uniform diploma on behalf of the USSR Higher Attestation Commission.

The academic titles of professor, associate professor, and senior researcher are assigned by the USSR Higher Attestation Commission on the recommendation of academic councils of universities or research institutions (scientific and production associations), which have the right to file a petition for the assignment of the corresponding academic titles to persons who have an academic doctorate degree (for awarding the title of professor) or candidate of sciences, the required scientific and pedagogical work in the relevant position and have proven themselves to be highly qualified teachers, scientists and creators of scientific schools and directions. The academic title of professor is assigned by decision of the presidium, the title of associate professor and senior researcher - by the decision of the board of the Higher Attestation Commission of the USSR. At the institutions of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the academies of sciences of the union republics, the academic ranks of senior research fellows are awarded to persons holding the academic degrees of Doctor or Candidate of Sciences by the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences upon the recommendation of the academic councils of research institutions. Professors, associate professors, and senior researchers are issued uniform certificates.

In the USSR, as in many other countries, there are honorary academic degrees and titles. So, for example, an honorary doctor (of a certain branch of science), an honorary professor of an educational institution, an honored worker of science, etc. These academic degrees and titles are awarded to scientists for outstanding achievements in science, technology, including foreign scientists.

In the USSR there are also the highest academic scientific titles: corresponding member and full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences or union republics and certain branch academies, including the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR. Corresponding members are elected by the relevant branches of the Academy of Sciences and approved general meeting academy. Full members of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, union republics and branch academies are elected by the general meeting of the academy.

In some socialist countries, the certification system for scientific workers and the list of academic degrees differs from those adopted in the USSR. So, for example, in Hungary the first academic degree is a doctor of the university (awarded to university graduates who have passed 2-3 special exams and defended their work on the university commission), the second degree is a candidate of sciences and the third degree is a doctor of sciences. They are awarded by the Academy of Sciences. The scientific degree of Doctor of the University gives the right to occupy the position of assistant teacher, and the scientific degree of Candidate of Sciences gives the right to occupy the position of assistant professor and head of the department. Confirmation of the position of professor is carried out by resolution of the Council of Ministers.

In the GDR, the scientific degree of a doctor in the relevant field is equivalent to the degree of candidate of science in the corresponding field in the USSR, doctor-ha-bil (lat. habilitas suitability, ability) - the position of associate professor or professor.

The scientific degree of doctor accepted in Poland is equivalent to the degree of candidate of sciences in the USSR. Universities accept such scientific and pedagogical titles as assistant, professor (extraordinary, ordinary). Approves scientific workers in the position of professor State Council, and from that moment on they are considered to have the title of professor.

In capitalist countries, as a rule, each higher education institution has its own system for awarding academic degrees; All these systems are not unified. However, the main systems for certification of scientific personnel are Anglo-American and French. The Anglo-American system provides bachelor's, master's, Ph.D., or PhD degrees. The academic degree of Bachelor of Science (or Arts) is awarded to those who have graduated from English or American higher education institutions and passed special exams, and sometimes defended a short abstract thesis. The scientific degree of Master of Science (Arts) is received by persons who have a bachelor's degree and have completed an additional course of study for 1-2 years, and in some universities, in addition, who have defended a dissertation like thesis. The scientific degree of Doctor of Philosophy or, in some high fur boots, Doctor of Science is awarded to persons who have defended relevant dissertations. In Burma, India, Iran and many other countries, persons who graduate from higher educational institutions with a 4-6 year period of study without defending work are awarded a bachelor's degree. The French certification system provides for bachelor's, licentiate, agrégé, and doctorate degrees. A bachelor's degree indicates completion of high school. The licentiate degree is awarded to persons in the 2nd-4th years of study at a higher school who have passed exams and completed coursework. This degree gives the right to work as a teacher in high school. The Agrege degree is awarded to university graduates who have passed additional exams and defended a dissertation. The agrege degree gives the right to be a teacher in lyceums. The scientific degree of doctor is awarded to persons who have defended relevant dissertations. Academic titles in capitalist countries, as a rule, are awarded to persons holding the position of professor or head of department.

The equivalence of educational diplomas, academic degrees, and scientific qualifications is determined by special intergovernmental conventions.

G.N. Sobolevsky.