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Functional styles - stylistics of the English language. All about styles in English

Functional styles are a system of expressive means characteristic of a special sphere of communication.
Functional style is not identical to the concept of the sphere of communication, because the same functional style can be used in both oral and written communication.
Example: scientific style (both orally and in writing) – diploma, coursework, lecture.
Classification of functional styles: 1) formal language (literature, press, oratory, formal conversation - this type of communication is a monologue, thought out and prepared in advance), 2) informal language.
Formal style is divided into 4 groups: 1) scientific literature style, 2) official style, 3) newspaper style, 4) journalistic style.
Scientific style is a type of national literary language, the main goal of which is to prove certain scientific research, which predetermines the choice of lexical and grammatical means. Features of the scientific style = the use of words in a direct denotative meaning, the use of scientific terms and Latin abbreviations (cf = conferre, e.g. = exempli gratia). The grammatical features of the scientific style are the use of a certain system of connecting elements (however, as a result, in connection with).
Official style is a type of national language used in diplomatic agreements, official documents, military regulations, and commercial correspondence. Main function = achieving understanding or agreement between the parties who take part in the communication process. In the Official Style there is a certain set of clichés: We beg to inform you, on behalf of, provided that. All varieties of official style have their own special vocabulary and phraseology, which includes Latin and French words and expressions (mutatis mutandis). Words are used in their literal meaning. Many emotionally charged words in the formal style represent polite forms of address, refusal, approval, conclusion. They lose their emotional function (to have the honor, to be pleased). Long, complex sentences.
Newspaper style is divided into 2 groups: 1) the style of short news articles, headlines, announcements, 2) the style of communiqués and articles on various topics. Newspaper headlines: purpose - expression of the main idea info. Headlines often omit articles and linking verbs: Professor kills city, 40,000 homeless. News columns – lack of emotional vocabulary, because it expresses the author's subjective assessment.
Journalistic style – written (including the style of newspaper publications, essays and articles) and oral (oratorical style). The journalistic style is characterized by a subjective evaluative attitude towards the subject under discussion - the influence on the reader and the achievement of such. desired reaction. Function of newspaper style = evaluation and discussion of facts that are presented in short articles. Newspaper articles are divided into: editorials, criticism, feuilleton. A feature of a newspaper article is the use of emotionally charged words (vital importance, dark & dirty political deeds).
Oratorical style is characteristic of speeches whose style creates a refined character. The goal is to convince the listener of the correctness of someone’s ideas, sometimes to motivate them to take action. Stylistic devices in oratorical style: repetition, parallel constructions, rhetorical questions. The following forms of address are also used: My Lords, Ladies & Gentlemen, Honorable members of the house.
The conversational style is used in everyday two-way communication, the expressiveness of the statement is complemented by intonation and gestures, complex sentences are used - mainly non-conjunctive combinations of subordinate clauses (There’re a few little things my wife just sent over). Elliptical sentences. Subjects, link-verbs, and auxiliary verbs of analytical tense forms are often omitted. Lexical features: the use of gestures makes the choice of words less important than in other styles, so the vocabulary is less varied. Words are often used in different semantic functions, acquiring thus. very general meanings, for example: business, way, affair, thing, etc. Verbs are often used: be, go, get, do, fix, have, make, put, take, etc. Emotions are expressed in various kinds of hyperbole: Thx a lot, I told her. Thx a million.

Here you can download the book for free: Maria Trykova. "Stylists in English".

Description: This book examines in detail the stylistics of the English language.

Year of issue:?

1. Subject, tasks and basic concepts of stylistics.
2. Linguistic stylistics. Its connection with other sciences.
3. Expressive means and stylistic devices.
4. Onomatopoeia.
5. Alliteration.
6. Rhyme and rhythm.
7. Sound symbolism.
8. Graphic stylistic means (GS). Punctuation (P).
9. Graphic imagery.
10. Paths and figures. Metaphor.
11. Metonymy and synecdoche.
12. Half-marked structures.
13. Antonomasia.
14. Syntactic stylistic devices (SST).
16. Stylistic potential of pronouns.
17. Stylistic potential of the adjective.
18. Archaisms.
19. Barbarisms and borrowed words.
20. Jargon.
21. Slang.
22. Functional styles.
25. Main directions of hermeneutics.
24. Bakhtin’s concept of dialogism and the theory of intertextuality.

Book size: 154Kb

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The question of language styles and speech styles is one of the most complex, undeveloped and controversial in the stylistics of literary language. Soviet linguists V.V. Vinogradov, A.I. Efimov, V.G. Kuznetsov and others have repeatedly written about how diverse the concept of style is. M. N. Kozhina explains this situation, on the one hand, by the very historical process of development of stylistics as a science, the presence in it of several directions, in each of which the subject of research is inadequately defined, and on the other hand, by the complexity of the concept itself.

The most accurate definition of functional styles is that of V.G. Kuznetsov: “Functional styles are varieties of language that correlate with certain areas of social consciousness and linguistic functions.”

Researchers usually identify five functional styles: n scientific, conversational, official business, newspaper and journalistic, artistic.

1. Scientific style

The scientific style is characteristic of texts intended to convey accurate information from any special field and to consolidate the process of cognition. The main meaning of scientific works is the presentation of data obtained through research, introducing the reader to scientific information. This predetermines the monological nature of the language of science. Informative function of this style is also reflected in its genre uniqueness: it is represented by scientific literature (monographs, articles, abstracts), as well as educational and reference literature. The content and purpose of these types of literature are varied, but they are united by the nature of scientific thinking: its main form is the concept, and the linguistic expression of thinking is judgments and conclusions, following one after another in a strict logical sequence. This determines such features of the scientific style as abstraction, generalization; it is structurally

the logic of the presentation is expressed.

Characteristic features of the scientific and technical style are its informativeness (content), consistency (strict consistency, clear connection between the main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity and the clarity and intelligibility arising from these features.

Scientific and technical people have a special, unique use of linguistic means that help meet the needs of this sphere of communication. This style of speech primarily uses terminology and so-called special vocabulary. So, for example, the terms are the following words and groups of words: cost – costs; stock exchange – commodity exchange; computer-aided design system – computer-aided design system.

The process of constructing a complex term can be represented in the following form: system – system; control system – control system; aircraft control system – aircraft control system; fly-by-wire aircraft control system – fly-by-wire aircraft control system, EDSU; digital fly-by-wire aircraft control system – digital fly-by-wire aircraft control system, digital EMDS.

From the above examples it is clear that a term can be single-word and consist of a keyword (first example), or represent a terminological group that includes a keyword or the core of a group, one (second) or several (third) left definitions. The number of left definitions attached to the core of the term in the process of its development can reach up to 10 - 12, however, with an increase in the number of attached left definitions, the term becomes cumbersome and begins to show a tendency to become an abbreviation.

The general characteristics of the lexical composition of this or any other scientific text include the following features: words are used either in basic direct or terminological meanings, but not in expressive-figurative ones. In addition to neutral words and terminology, the so-called book words are used: automaton – automata, perform, cardinal, comprise, susceptible, analogous, approximate, calculation, circular, heterogeneous, initial, internal, longitudinal, maximum, minimum, phenomenon – phenomena, respectively, simultaneous . Words of other styles are not used.

If we consider the syntactic structure of scientific texts, we can note that complex sentences predominate in its text structure. And a few simple sentences are expanded using homogeneous members. Short simple sentences very few, but their very brevity highlights the very important thoughts they contain. For example, This is the analogue of memory. They lend themselves very well to describe in physiological terms, etc.

A scientific text is characterized by double conjunctions: not merely... but also, whether... or, both... and, as... as... In many scientific texts there are also double conjunctions such as thereby, therewith, hereby, which in fiction have already become archaisms.

Word order is predominantly straight. The inversion in the sentence Between the receptor or sense organ and the effector stands an intermediate set of elements serves to provide a logical connection with the previous one.

The author's speech in this kind of texts is constructed in the first person plural: we are coming to realize, we have taken it to be, the tube has shown us, etc. This “we” has double meaning. Firstly, N. Wiener everywhere emphasizes that the new science was created by the community of a large team of scientists, and, secondly, the lecturer’s “we” involves listeners and, accordingly, readers in the process of reasoning and proof.

In the scientific style, a noticeable preference is given to the passive, where the doer is not necessarily indicated, and impersonal forms of the verb. So, instead of “I use the same notation as previously” they write: “The notation is the same as previously used”. Along with the first person plural, the impersonal forms “It should be borne in mind”, “it may be seen” and constructions with one are widely used: one may write, one may show, one may assume, one can readily see. The content of verbs in the personal form is reduced, and interjections are completely absent.

Durov. com: Stylistics of the English language, - -

Stylistics of the English language

1. Subject and tasks of stylistics

4. Metaphor as a trope

5. Types of speech metaphor.

6. Comparison and epithet.

7. Metonymy as a trope.

8. Periphrasis and euphemism.

9. Hyperbole and meiosis.

10. Antithesis and irony.

11. Paradox and oxymoron,

12. Phonetic means of stylistics.

13. Stylistic stratification of general literary vocabulary of the English language.

14. Functional and stylistic characteristics of English poetisms and archaisms.

15. Stylistic differentiation of non-standard vocabulary of the English language.

16. Functional and stylistic features of English slang.

17. Functional and stylistic characteristics of English neologisms.

18. Functional and stylistic characteristics of occasionalisms.

19. Play on words as a stylistic device.

20. Stylistic potential of intertext.

21. Stylistic use of morphological x-k English noun, adj., and pronouns.

22. Stylistic use of morphological categories of the English verb.

23. Stylistic means of syntax (absence of a component in a sentence).

24. Stylistic means of syntax (excess of components in speech)

25. Functional style.

26. General style of artistic speech.

27. Main features of journalistic style.

28. Oratory in the system of English language styles.

29. Stylistic characteristics of scientific and technical style

30. Linguistic and stylistic features of the official business style.

31. general characteristics newspaper-information style

32. The main features of a free conversational style.

1. Subject and tasks of stylistics

Issues of style have occupied people since ancient times. Rhetoric is the predecessor of modern stylistics. its goal is to teach the art of oratory (the importance of the beauty of expressing thoughts): well-organized speech, ways to decorate speech, interpretation of style in antiquity. Aristotle began the theory of style, the theory of metaphor, and was the first to contrast poetry and prose. Style from Latin stilos – “stick”, then “ability to use language correctly” (metonym transfer)

Stylistics is called the science of language use, a branch of linguistics that studies the principles and effect of the choice and use of lexical, grammatical, phonetic and generally linguistic means to convey thoughts and emotions in different communication conditions. There are stylistics of language and stylistics of speech, linguistic stylistics and literary stylistics, stylistics from the author and stylistics of perception, stylistics of decoding, etc.

Stylistics of the language explores, on the one hand, the specifics of language subsystems, called functional styles and sublanguages and characterized by the originality of vocabulary, phraseology and syntax, and, on the other hand, the expressive, emotional and evaluative properties of various linguistic means. Stylistics of speech studies individual real texts, considering how they convey content, not only following the norms known to the grammar and stylistics of the language, but also on the basis of significant deviations from these norms.

Item studying stylistics – emotional expression language, all expressions of the language. -> stylistics – the science of the expressions of language + the science of functional styles

Stylistic tasks:

analysis of the choice of a specific language in the presence of synonymous forms of expression of thought for the complete and effective transmission of information. ( we have closed a deal - finalized the transaction).
analysis of express, image-based language at all levels (background: alliteration, seme: oxymoron, synth: inversion).
definition of a functional task - definition of a style function that a language medium performs.

2. Sections of stylistics and the connection of stylistics with other disciplines

Stylistics is usually divided into linguistic stylistics And literary stylistics.

Linguistics, the foundations of which were laid by S. Bally, compares the national norm with special subsystems characteristic of different spheres of communication, called functional styles and dialects (linguistic stylistics in this in the narrow sense called functional style) and studies the elements of language from the point of view of their ability to express and evoke emotions, additional associations and evaluation.

An intensively developing branch of stylistics is comparative style, which simultaneously examines the stylistic possibilities of two or more languages. Literary stylistics studies the totality of funds artistic expression, characteristic of literary work, an author, a literary movement or an entire era, and the factors on which artistic expressiveness depends.

LingvoS. and lit.C are divided according to levels into lexical, grammatical and phonetic stylistics.

Lexicalstylistics studies the stylistic functions of vocabulary and considers the interaction of direct and figurative meanings. Lexical stylistics studies the different components of the contextual meanings of words, their expressive, emotional and evaluative potential and their attribution to different functional and stylistic layers. Dialect words, terms, slang words, colloquial words and expressions, neologisms, archaisms, foreign words, etc. are studied with t.zr. their interactions with different conditions context. An important role in stylistic analysis is played by the analysis of phraseological units and proverbs.

Grammatical stylistics divided into morphological And syntactic. Morph.stylistics examines the stylistic possibilities of various grammatical categories inherent in certain parts of speech. Here we consider, for example, the stylistic possibilities of the category of number, oppositions in the system of pronouns, nominal and verbal styles of speech, connections between artistic and grammatical tenses, etc. Synthetic stylistics explores the expressive possibilities of word order, types of sentences, types of syntactic connections. An important place here is occupied by figures of speech - syntactic, stylistic or rhetorical figures, i.e. special syntactic structures that give speech additional expressiveness. Both in linguo and lit. S a lot of attention is paid to different forms transmission of speech of the narrator and characters: dialogue, indirect speech, stream of consciousness, etc.

Phonostylistics, or phonetic stylistics, includes all phenomena of the sound organization of poetry and prose: rhythm, alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme, assonance, etc. - in connection with the problem of the content of the sound form, i.e. the presence of a stylistic function. This also includes consideration of non-standard pronunciation with a comic or satirical effect to show social inequality or to create local color.

Practical style teaches the ability to express oneself correctly. Advises to use words whose meanings we know. Do not overuse words such as staff, avoid fr. words (faux-pas instead of mistake), tautologies (decline to accept). Teaches how to use the language correctly. Everything should be used according to the occasion.

Functional style studies style as a functional variety of language, especially in artistic text.
The connection between stylistics and ancient disciplines:

literary criticism (study of content)
semiotics (text is a system of signs, signs can be read in different ways) Eco, Lotman
pragmatics (studies impact)
sociolinguistics (language selection as opposed to the communication situation, communication status, relationships)

3. The concept of stylistic device and stylistic function.

Basic concepts:

image of language - tropes (serve description and are primarily lexical)
expressions of language (they do not create images, but increase the expressiveness of speech and enhance its emotionality with the help of special syntactic structures: inversion, contrast)
image-expression of language - figures of speech
stylist.reception M.b. self or coincide with the characteristics of the language Under the stylistic device of I.R. Halperin understands the intentional and conscious strengthening of any typical structural and/or semantic feature of a linguistic unit (neutral or expressive), which has reached generalization and typification and thus become a generative model. The main feature is the intentionality or purposefulness of the use of a particular element, as opposed to its existence in the language system.

The same article may not be a stylist: repetition - in colloquial speech there is no effect, in artistic speech it enhances the effect

Convergence – simultaneous use of several. style techniques (bun). May coincide with the concept of genre (paradox).
Stylistic function is the role that the language plays in express transmission. information:

creation of artistic expression
-//- pathos
-//- comic effect
hyperbola
M.B. descriptive (characterological)
d/creation of speech characteristics of the hero

There is no direct correspondence between style media, style techniques and style function, because style media are ambiguous. Inversion, for example, depending on the context and situation, can create pathos and elation or, on the contrary, give an ironic, parody sound. Polyunion, depending on contextual conditions, can serve to logically highlight the elements of an utterance, to create the impression of a leisurely, measured story, or, conversely, to convey a series of excited questions, assumptions, etc. Hyperbole can be tragic and comic, pathetic and grotesque.

Functional-stylistic coloring should not be confused with stylistic function. The first belongs to the language, the second to the text. In dictionaries, functional-stylistic connotation - the historical attribution of words and belonging to special terminology - as well as emotional connotation, is indicated by special marks: colloquial, poetical, slang, ironical, anatomy, etc.

Unlike style connotation, style function helps the reader to correctly place emphasis and highlight the main thing.

It is also important to distinguish the style function from the style technique. Style techniques include style. figures and paths. Syntax is also a stylistic device. or stylistic figures that increase the emotionality and expressiveness of the statement due to unusual syntactic construction: different types of repetitions, inversion, parallelism, gradation, polynomial compositional unities, ellipsis, comparison of opposites, etc. A special group is formed by phonetic stylistic devices: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia and other methods of sound organization of speech.

4. Metaphor as a trope

Tropes are lexical figurative and expressive means in which a word or phrase is used in a transformed meaning.

The essence of tropes is to compare the concept represented in the traditional use of a lexical unit and the concept conveyed by the same unit in literary speech when performing a special stylistic function.

The most important tropes are metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, hyperbole, litotes and personification. Allegory and periphrasis stand somewhat apart, which are constructed as an extended metaphor or metonymy.

Metaphor (metaphor) usually defined as a hidden comparison made by applying the name of one object to another and thus revealing some important feature of the second. (transfer based on similarity).

Function m – powerful image medium

M. may noun at the language level: bridge - the bridge of the nose. It has firmly entered into everyday life and is no longer reproduced. like a metaphor. This is a worn out/dead metaphor.

Stylistics deals with speech m. = artistic m. It is not fixed. in dictionary : ” pancake" instead ofthe “ sun” (round, hot, yellow), ” silver dust" instead of "stars”. They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate. (W.S.Gilbert)

Dead/living m.: the only difference is that m.m. – image srv-o, and m.m. – expression.sr-vo.

Decoding m. may require knowledge:

Shakespeare: jealousy is a green-eyed monster (like a cat mocking a mouse).

Interpretation m.b. ambiguous:

Shakespeare: Juliet is the sun. (light, warmth, is it far away?)

Subject of designation = theme/designated metaphor -> His voice wasa dagger of corroded brass . Metaphor image (S. Lewis)

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Functional styles of English

Introduction

1. Scientific style

2. Formal business style

3. Conversational style

4. Style of artistic speech

Conclusion

Introduction

The question of language styles and speech styles is one of the most complex, undeveloped and controversial in the stylistics of literary language.

Soviet linguists V.V. have repeatedly written about how diverse the concept of style is. Vinogradov, A.I. Efimov, V.G. Kuznetsov and others. M.N. Kozhina explains this situation, on the one hand, by “the very historical process of development of stylistics as a science, the presence in it of several directions, in each of which the subject of research is inadequately defined,” and on the other, by the complexity of the concept itself. There are quite a few definitions of the concept of style in linguistics. So, Yu.N. Karaulov gives two meanings of this concept.

According to him, style is “1) a socially conscious system of linguistic elements within a literary language, united by a certain functional purpose, methods of their selection, use, mutual combination and correlation; 2) a functional variety, or variant, of a literary language.”

The subject of functional stylistics is the style of language in the second meaning.

In our opinion, the most accurate definition of functional styles is the definition of V.G. Kuznetsova: “Functional styles are varieties of language that correlate with certain areas of social consciousness and linguistic functions.”

Researchers usually distinguish five functional styles: scientific, conversational, official business, newspaper journalistic, and artistic.

In this work we will give a linguistic and stylistic description of the styles of modern English.

1. Scientific style

The scientific style is characteristic of texts intended to convey accurate information from any special field and to consolidate the process of cognition. The main meaning of scientific works is the presentation of data obtained through research, introducing the reader to scientific information. This predetermines the monological nature of the language of science. The informative function of this style is also reflected in its genre uniqueness: it is represented by scientific literature (monographs, articles, abstracts), as well as educational and reference literature. The content and purpose of these types of literature are varied, but they are united by the nature of scientific thinking: its main form is the concept, and the linguistic expression of thinking is judgments and conclusions, following one after another in a strict logical sequence. This determines such features of the scientific style as abstraction, generalization; it structurally expresses the logic of presentation.

The characteristic features of the scientific and technical style are its information content (content), logic (strict consistency, clear connection between the main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity, and the clarity and intelligibility resulting from these features.

Scientific and technical people have a special, unique use of linguistic means that help meet the needs of this sphere of communication. This style of speech primarily uses terminology and so-called special vocabulary. So, for example, the terms are the following words and groups of words: cost - costs; stock exchange - commodity exchange; computer-aided design system - computer-aided design system.

The process of constructing a complex term can be presented in the following form: system - system; control system - control system; aircraft control system - aircraft control system; fly-by-wire aircraft control system - fly-by-wire aircraft control system, EDSU; digital fly-by-wire aircraft control system - digital fly-by-wire aircraft control system, digital EMSU.

From the given examples it is clear that the term can be single-word and consist of a keyword (first example), or represent a terminological group that includes keyword or core group, one (second) or several (third), left definitions. The number of left definitions attached to the core of the term in the process of its development can reach up to 10-12, however, with an increase in the number of attached left definitions, the term becomes cumbersome and begins to show a tendency to become abbreviated.

The general characteristics of the lexical composition of this or any other scientific text include the following features: words are used either in basic direct or terminological meanings, but not in expressive-figurative ones. In addition to neutral words and terminology, the so-called book words are used: automaton - automata, perform, cardinal, comprise, susceptible, analogous, approximate, calculation, circular, heterogeneous, initial, internal, longitudinal, maximum, minimum, phenomenon - phenomena, respectively, simultaneous . Words of other styles are not used. linguistic spoken English

If we consider the syntactic structure of scientific texts, we can note that complex sentences predominate in its text structure. And the few simple sentences are expanded due to homogeneous members. There are very few short, simple sentences, but their very brevity highlights the very important ideas they contain. For example, This is the analogue of memory. They lend themselves very well to describe in physiological terms, etc.

The author's speech in this kind of texts is constructed in the first person plural: we are coming to realize, we have taken it to be, the tube has shown us, etc. This "we" has a double meaning. Firstly, N. Wiener everywhere emphasizes that the new science was created by the community of a large team of scientists, and, secondly, the lecturer’s “we” involves listeners and, accordingly, readers in the process of reasoning and proof.

This is a general characteristic of the scientific style in modern English.

2. Formal business style

In the English literary language, in the process of its development, another speech style has emerged, which is called the style of business speech, or the style of business documents (official style). Business speech has several varieties.

In area international relations the style of diplomatic documents is highlighted; in the field of trade and economics - the style of commercial correspondence; in the field of jurisprudence - the language of codes, judicial procedural documents, government regulations, parliamentary decisions. The language of military documents: orders, regulations, reports, etc. is distinguished as a special type of business speech in modern English.

The main purpose of business speech is to determine the conditions that will ensure normal cooperation between the two parties, i.e. The purpose of a business speech is to reach an agreement between two interested parties. This applies to business correspondence between representatives of various companies, and to the exchange of notes between states, and to the establishment of the rights and obligations of a soldier, written down in the military regulations of the English army, and to the procedure of meetings. All these relationships find one way or another expression in the form official document- letters, notes, agreements, pacts, laws, charters, etc.

In the official business style, as in the scientific style, there is specific terminology and phraseology. For example: I beg to inform you; I start to move; the above mentioned; on behalf of; to constitute a basis; to draw consequences; discontinue; negotiable; to second the motion; provided that; provisional agenda draft resolution adjournments; private advisory, etc.

This kind of phraseological combinations and individual words - terms can be found in reports, charters, laws, notes, etc., and each area has its own specific terminology. For example, in business documents of a financial and economic nature, terms such as extra revenue; taxable capacities; liability to profit tax, etc. In diplomatic terminology: high contracting parties; to ratify an agreement; memorandum; pact; Charge d'affaires; protectorate; extraterritorial status; plenipotentiary, etc. Legal documents often contain such terms and combinations as the international court of justice; casting vote; judicial body; to deal with a case; summary procedure; a body of judges ,ecc.

A significant number of archaic words and expressions are found in official business documents. In any business document you can find the use of words such as hereby; henceforth; aforesaid; beg to inform, etc.

The diplomatic language is characterized by the use of a certain number of Latin and French words and expressions, which have received a kind of terminological coloring in the language of diplomatic documents. The most common words and expressions are: persona grata; persona non grata; pro tempore; the quorum; conditio sine qua non; status quo; mutatis mutandis, etc.

Common to all types of business style is the presence of all kinds of abbreviations, abbreviations, compound words, etc. For example, M.P. (Member of Parliament); N.M.S. (His Majesty's Steamship); gvt (government); pmt (Parliament); i.e. (id est=that is); G.С.S.I. (Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India); U.N. (United Nations); D.A.S. (Department of Agriculture, Scotland); D.A.O. (Divisional Ammunition Officer).

In the style of business documents, words are used primarily in basic subject-logical meanings (except for those cases when derived subject-logical meanings are terminological in a given area of communication). In this regard, there is another feature of the style of business speech. This is the absence of any figurative means: in the texts of business documents there are no metaphors, metonymy or other techniques for creating figurative speech.

As for the syntactic features of business speech, the most common of them are long sentences, extended periods with an extremely branched system of conjunctions.

Commercial correspondence in modern English has developed its own particular features, of which, perhaps, the most characteristic are the formulas of address, conclusion and phraseological combinations opening the letter, for example: Dear Sir, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Yours very truly, We remain your obedient servants, Yours obediently, Yours faithfully, Yours respectfully, I am, dear sir, yours truly, etc.

Business letters are brevity, they rarely take more than 8-10 lines, but they also show that general pattern, which was mentioned above, namely, a detailed system of conjunctions that precisely defines the relationship between sentences.

A business letter consists of a header, which indicates the place from where the letter is being written, the dates; followed by the name of the addressee (inside address), then successively the address, the contents of the letter itself, the polite form of the conclusion and, finally, the signature

A characteristic feature of the syntax of military documents is, unlike other types of business style, ellipticity. Here the modal verbs shall and will are often omitted, as are other members of the sentence.

Military documents are replete with special terminology relating both directly to military affairs and to various areas of technology used in the army. No norms of lively colloquial speech and, in particular, professionalisms, which are often referred to as “military slang” and which are very widely used in the live communication of soldiers among themselves, are not used in official documents.

3. Conversational style

The colloquial style of speech performs the main function of language - the function of communication, its purpose is the direct transmission of information, mainly orally (with the exception of private letters, notes, diary entries). The linguistic features of the conversational style determine the special conditions for its functioning: informality, ease and expressiveness verbal communication, lack of preliminary selection of linguistic means, automaticity of speech, routine content and dialogic form.

A major style-forming role in conversational style is played by two opposing trends associated with the specific conditions of communication (i.e., primarily with its oral form), namely compression, which leads to various kinds of incompleteness of expression, and redundancy. We will focus on them first.

Compression manifests itself at all levels - it can be phonetic, morphological, syntactic. The use of a truncated form, i.e. phonetic reduction auxiliary verbs, is a characteristic feature of English colloquial form: it"s, it isn"t, I don"t, I didn"t, we"ll, etc. In cases where the truncated forms of the verb have I"ve and he"s are insufficient to convey the meaning " have, possess", a construction with the verb get is used: I"ve got, he"s got; the same construction also performs the modal function characteristic of have + Inf.: I"ve got to go now.

At the lexical level, compression is manifested in the predominant use of monomorphemic words, verbs with postpositives: give up, look out, abbreviations: frig, marg, vegs, ellipse like mineral waters - minerals or other types of ellipse: Morning!, words of broad semantics: thing, stuff etc. The ellipse is especially characteristic of syntactic compression.

The opposite trend, i.e. the tendency towards redundancy is associated primarily with unpreparedness and spontaneity of spoken language. Redundant elements include, first of all, the so-called time fillers, i.e. “trash words” that do not have a semantic load such as well, I mean, you see and doubling conjunctions: like as if. Elements that are redundant for subject-logical information can be expressive or emotional. In common parlance, this is a double negative: don"t give me no riddles, don"t bring no discussion of politics, pleonastic use of personal pronouns in imperative sentences: Don"t you call mother names. She"s had a hard life. Don't you forget it. (J. Saga), as well as the rude use of you: You, come here! or Come here, you!

The syntactic specificity of colloquial speech is that a unit larger than a sentence in it, as in dialogical speech, is a combination of a number of remarks connected by structural-semantic interdependence. They are called dialogical unity. In most cases, these are two-term units - question-and-answer, with pickup, with repetition, or syntactically parallel.

This connection of cues is the reason for the prevalence of one-part sentences. Here are some examples from the works of J. Galsworthy:

1) Question-answer unity: "When do you begin?" - "Tomorrow" said the Rafaelite.

2) Unity formed by pickup: "So you would naturally say." - "And mean."

3) Unity formed by repetition: “There’s - some - talk - of - suicide...” he said. James's jaw dropped. - "Suicide? What should he do that for?"

4) Unity of syntactically parallel remarks: “Well, Mr Desert, do you find reality in politics now?” - "Do you find reality in anything, sir?" .

The main function of spoken language is emotive. The emotive function is the reason for the abundance of various types of amplifiers in colloquial speech, which can appear in various combinations and are different for the literary-colloquial and familiar-colloquial substyles. So, for example, in a familiar conversational style, how, when, where, who, which, what, why are combined with the word ever, or the suffix ever, or with expressions such as: on earth, the devil, the hell, etc. . For example: Whatever are you doing? or What ever are you doing? Whoever"s that? However did you get in here? What on earth are you doing? Who the devil do you think you are? Who on earth can that be? Why the hell do you ask?

This type of emphasis is only possible in interrogative or exclamatory sentences. Emotionality in this case has a rude, impolite character, i.e. associated with irritation, impatience, reproach.

The familiar conversational style, with its emotionality and emphaticness, also combines many swear words or their euphemisms: damn, dash, beastly, confounded, lousy. They are possible in sentences of any type, optional in their syntactic connections, syntactically multifunctional and can express both negative and positive emotions and assessments: damned pretty, damned nice, beastly mean, damn decent.

A pronounced emotional, evaluative and expressive character has a special, genetically very heterogeneous layer of vocabulary and phraseology, called slang, which exists in colloquial speech and is outside the limits of the literary norm. The most important properties of slangisms are their crudely cynical or rude expressiveness, dismissive and playful imagery. Slang is not distinguished as a special style or substyle, since its features are limited to only one level - the lexical one. Thus, as we see, the stylistic structure of colloquial speech is heterogeneous. This includes various socially conditioned substyles that interact in it.

4. Style of artistic speech

The style of artistic speech is a complex unity of heterogeneous features that distinguish this style from all other styles of modern English literary language. The fact that this style allows the use of elements of other styles puts it in a somewhat special position in relation to other speech styles. Moreover, the style of artistic speech allows the use of such elements of language that are unacceptable at this stage of development of the literary norm of the language. Thus, in the language of works of art of modern English writers you can find linguistic facts that go beyond the norms of the literary language, for example, jargon, vulgarisms, dialectisms, etc. True, these elements in the style of artistic speech appear in a processed, typified, selected form. They are not used here in their own way, so to speak. in kind; such use of non-literary words would clog the language and would not contribute to the enrichment and development of the literary norm of the language.

The style of artistic speech has the following varieties: poetic speech, artistic prose and the language of drama.

The most significant characteristic of this style of speech is imagery. Along with a purely logical way of expressing thoughts, in which words are used in their subject-logical meanings, in the style of artistic speech there are often different shades of meanings: contextual meanings, emotional meanings of words - conductors of the author’s subjective evaluative views.

A poetic image is created in poetry not for the image itself. It, so to speak, performs a service function: it contains a thought. This image must be interpreted, and for this it must be understood. The more accurately the image is created, the easier it is perceived by our consciousness, the easier and more clearly the thought appears. The image is revealed by analyzing words, their contextual and emotional meanings.

For example, hyperbole is used in fiction for a variety of purposes, one of which is to express the emotional state of the narrator, which is clearly shown by the following example from O. Wilde’s fairy tale “The Happy Prince.” The swallow tells the prince about Egypt, where she dreams of flying: At noon the yellow lions come down to the water "s edge to drink. They have eyes like green beryls, and their roar is louder than the roar of the cataract" (O. Wilde. "The Happy Prince"). In artistic speech, hyperbole often interacts with other stylistic means - metaphor, personification, comparison. For example, at the beginning of the fairy tale “The Selfish Giant,” O. Wilde, telling about the Giant’s possession and trying to emphasize that the flowers in his garden were as huge as he himself, writes: “Here and there over the grass stood beautiful flowers like stars..." (O. Wilde. "The Selfish Giant". In in this example There is an obvious relationship between hyperbole and comparison.

The most stylistically significant is a figurative metaphor, which arises as a result of metaphorization of an identifying name in the position of a predicate referred to another, already named object or class of objects. The metaphor here is a search for an image, a method of individualization, evaluation, a search for semantic nuances. By appealing to the recipient's intuition, she leaves the recipient the opportunity for her creative interpretation.

Let us give an example of a metaphor from O. Wilde’s fairy tale “The Selfish Giant”: “Who hath dared to wound thee?” cried the Giant, "tell me, that I make take my big sword and slay him." "Nay," answered the child: "but these are the wounds of Love." .

Here direct meaning the verb wound (to wound) has become metaphorical noun the wounds of love. The writer seems to want to say that love also hurts - just not physically, but mentally.

The style of artistic speech is often considered as a synthesis of various styles of literary language. Elements of other styles often become publicly accessible precisely through the style of artistic speech.

5. Newspaper and journalistic style

According to the definition of the encyclopedic dictionary-reference book "Culture of Russian Speech", newspaper-journalistic style is "a functional and stylistic variety of ... literary language, a set of linguistic means serving the sphere of mass information on topical, primarily socio-political issues." The written variety of journalistic style includes the language of essays, newspaper articles, magazine articles of a literary, critical and socio-political nature, pamphlets, essays, etc.

The function of the newspaper-journalistic style, which distinguishes it from other speech styles, I.R. Halperin formulates as follows: “the influence on the reader or listener in order to convince him of the correctness of the propositions put forward or to evoke in him the desired reaction to what was said, not so much by logically sound argumentation, but by the force, emotional intensity of the statement, showing those features of the phenomenon that can most effectively be used to achieve the stated goal."

In newspaper vocabulary, researchers note a large percentage of proper names: toponyms, anthroponyms, names of institutions and organizations, etc., a higher percentage of numerals and, in general, words related to the lexico-grammatical field of plurality compared to other styles, as well as an abundance of dates. From an etymological point of view, it is characterized by an abundance of international words and a penchant for innovation, which, however, very quickly turn into cliches: vital issue, tree world, pillar of society, bulwark of liberty, escalation of war. The abundance of clichés has been noticed for a long time and is pointed out by all researchers. In terms of connotations, there is an abundance of not so much emotional, but rather evaluative and expressive vocabulary. Positive assessment: all-important fact, to the effect, etc. Negative: to cause mischief, to gravity endanger, etc.

The same term in a newspaper-journalistic style can receive different meanings depending on the ideological orientation of the text in which it is used. Thus, the term idealism can be used in a philosophical sense as the name of a worldview opposed to materialism, and have a positive or negative meaning depending on the ideological position of the author. But even more often it is used in a positive sense, directly relating to the concept of ideals - ideals and meaning "service (commitment) to high ideals (or principles)." For example: "The Foreign Secretary"s most elaborate and numerous speeches seem to prove that idealism is his guiding star."

A characteristic feature of the English newspaper and information style is the stylistic diversity of vocabulary. Along with book vocabulary, colloquial and poetic words and combinations are widely used here. For example, "The Tories hope to get away with it by invoking their old familiar maxim: When in trouble wave the Flag."

In the field of phraseology, newspaper information style is distinguished by the widespread use of “ready-made formulas,” or clichés. Here we find numerous introductory phrases indicating the source of information (it is reported; it is claimed; our correspondent reports from; according to well-informed sources), stable combinations with faded imagery (to set the tone; to throw light; to lay the corner-stone; to give the lie), as well as a whole series of political cliches such as: government reshuffle; vested interests; an unnamed Power; generation gap; a forego conclusion, etc. In newspaper information materials, some features of the syntactic organization of the text are noted: the presence of short independent messages (1-3 statements), consisting of long sentences with a complex structure (“Marooned by a gale on a skeleton of a fire-gutted Wyle light-house in Morecombe Bay, with their dingey swamped, nine workmen last night decided to risk the two-mile journey back over the sands to Fleetwood"), maximum division of the text into paragraphs, when almost every sentence begins on a new line, the presence of subheadings in the text body for increasing reader interest). The specificity of newspaper information style is especially clearly manifested in newspaper headlines.

The specific construction of English newspaper headlines serves various purposes: they should make the reader interested in the article and provide compression of information. For example: “Italy”s radio, TV workers on strike”, “Apollo trail-blazers back relaxed and joking”, “Back to work - to kill the bill”, etc. In a newspaper text, the reader can get a very general idea of the main events of the day by headings and subheadings and read in full only those that particularly interest him.

In the area of vocabulary, English newspaper headlines are characterized by the frequent use of a small number of special words that make up a kind of “headline jargon”: ban, bid, claim, crack, crash, cut, dash, hit, move, pact, plea, probe, quit, quiz , rap, rush, slash, etc.

Newspaper headlines also have a number of grammatical features. Thus, in English and American newspapers, verbal headlines like: Roods Hit Scotland predominate; William Faulkner Is Dead; Exports to Russia Are Rising. A specific feature of the English heading is the ability to omit the subject: Hues Teen-Agers as Scabs; Want No War Hysteria in Toronto Schools; Hits Arrests of Peace Campaigners, etc. The infinitive is widely used to indicate the future tense in headlines: for example, America To Resume Testing.

The journalistic style occupies a special place in the system of literary language styles, since in many cases it must rework texts created within the framework of other styles. If scientific and business speech is focused on the intellectual reflection of reality, and artistic speech is focused on its emotional reflection, then journalism plays a special role - it strives to satisfy both intellectual and aesthetic needs. To this we can add that journalism is the language of both thoughts and feelings.

Conclusion

The system of speech styles is constantly evolving. She is not closed. Some of the speech styles we have analyzed show a greater, others less, tendency towards strict isolation.

The blurring of lines between individual styles in modern English is not as intense as in Russian. There are reasons for this, arising from the peculiarities of the development of literary languages in England and Russia.

Speech styles in the English language show greater stability, greater resistance to the leveling tendency of the national literary language. Of course, these styles generally cannot completely dissolve in the literary language. This is prevented by the difference in goals and functions that are characteristic of each style. But the tendency to blur the sharp lines between speech styles is an undeniably progressive phenomenon.

List of used literature

1. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of modern English. - M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2002. - 384 p.

2. Galperin I.R. Essays on the stylistics of the English language. - M.: Publishing house of literature on foreign languages, 1958. - 460 p.

3. Golub I.B. Russian language and culture of speech. - M.: Logos, 2003. - 432 p.

4. Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language. - M.: Education, 1977. - 223 p.

5. Kuznetsov V.G. Functional styles of modern French. - M.: graduate School, 1991. - 160 p.

6. Culture of Russian speech: Encyclopedic dictionary-reference book / Ed. L.Yu. Ivanova, A.P. Skovorodnikova, E.N. Shiryaeva and others - M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2003. - 840 p.

7. Russian language. / Ed. Yu.N. Karaulova. - M.: Bustard, 1998. - 703 p.

8. Wilde O. Fairz Tales ans Stories. - Czechoslovakia: Octopus Books, 1980. - 336 p.

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Functional styles - stylistics of the English language. All about styles in English

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1. Scientific style

1. Subject and tasks of stylistics

2. Sections of stylistics and the connection of stylistics with other disciplines

3. The concept of stylistic device and stylistic function.

4. Metaphor as a trope

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