According to biology, the respiration of plants and animals is a unique and universal process. It acts as an integral property of any organism inhabiting the Earth. Let us next consider how plant respiration occurs.

Biology

The life of organisms, like any manifestation of their activity, is directly related to energy consumption. Plant respiration, nutrition, organs, photosynthesis, movement and absorption of water and necessary compounds, as well as many functions are associated with the continuous satisfaction of necessary needs. Organisms require energy. It comes from the nutritional compounds consumed. In addition, the body needs plastic substances that serve as building materials for cells. The breakdown of these compounds, which occurs during breathing, is accompanied by the release of energy. It ensures the satisfaction of vital needs.

Plant growth and respiration

These two processes are closely related to each other. Full respiration of plants ensures the active development of the body. The process itself is presented as a complex system, including many coupled redox reactions. During them, the chemical nature of organic compounds is changed and the energy present in them is used.

general characteristics

Cellular respiration of plants is an oxidative process that occurs with the participation of oxygen. During it, the breakdown of compounds occurs, which is accompanied by the formation of chemically active products and the release of energy. The overall equation for the entire process looks like this:

С6Н12О6 + 602 > 6С02 + 6Н20 + 2875 kJ/mol

Not all the energy that is released can be used to support vital processes. The body needs mainly that part of it that is concentrated in ATP. In many cases, the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate is preceded by the formation of a difference in electric charges on the membrane. This process is associated with differences in the concentration of hydrogen ions on different sides. According to modern data, not only adenosine triphosphate, but also the proton gradient acts as a source of energy to ensure the life of the cell. Both forms can be used to activate the processes of synthesis, supply, movement of nutrient compounds and water, and the formation of a potential difference between the external environment and the cytoplasm. Energy that is not stored in ATP and the proton gradient is largely dissipated as light or heat. It is useless for the body.

Why is this process needed?

What is the importance of respiration in plants? This process is considered central to the life of the body. The energy released during respiration is used to grow and maintain the already developed parts of the plant in an active state. However, these are not all the points that determine the importance of this process. Let's consider the main role of plant respiration. This process, as mentioned above, is a complex redox reaction. It takes place in several stages. At intermediate stages, the formation of organic compounds occurs. They are subsequently used in various metabolic reactions. Among the intermediate compounds, pentoses and organic acids can be distinguished. Plant respiration is thus a source of many metabolites. From the overall equation it can be seen that water is also formed during this process. In conditions of dehydration, it can save the body from death. In summary, respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. However, in some cases these processes complement each other. They contribute to the supply of both energy equivalents and metabolites. In some cases, when energy is released in the form of heat, plant respiration leads to a wasteful loss of dry matter. Therefore, increasing the intensity of this process is not always beneficial for the body.

Peculiarities

Plants respire around the clock. During this process, organisms absorb oxygen from the atmosphere. In addition, they inhale O2, formed in them as a result of photosynthesis and available in the intercellular spaces. During the day, oxygen mainly enters through the stomata of young shoots and leaves, lenticels of stems, and the skin of roots. At night, almost all plants have them covered. During this period, plants use oxygen for respiration, which has accumulated in the intercellular spaces and was formed during photosynthesis. Oxygen entering the cells oxidizes the organic complex compounds present in them, converting them into water and carbon dioxide. In this case, the energy spent on their formation during photosynthesis is released. Carbon dioxide is removed from the body through the cell surface of young roots, lentils, and stomata.

Experiments

To make sure that plant respiration actually occurs, you can do the following:

How to use the acquired knowledge?

In the process of growing crops, the soil becomes compacted, and the air content in it is significantly reduced. To improve the flow of life processes, soil is loosened. Those plants that are grown in swampy (heavily moist) soils especially suffer from a lack of oxygen. Improving the O2 supply is achieved by draining the land. The breathing process is negatively affected by dust that settles on the leaves. Its small solid particles clog the stomata, which significantly impedes the flow of oxygen into the leaves. In addition, impurities that enter the air during combustion in industrial enterprises also have a harmful effect. different types fuel. In this regard, when landscaping urban areas, dust-resistant trees are usually planted. These, for example, include horse chestnut, linden, bird cherry, and poplar. During grain storage Special attention should be given to their moisture content. The fact is that as its level increases, the intensity of breathing increases. This, in turn, contributes to the fact that the seeds begin to become very warm with the generated heat. This, in turn, negatively affects the embryos - they die. To avoid such consequences, seeds that are stored must be dry. The room itself must be well ventilated.

Conclusion

Thus, plant respiration is of great importance to ensure their normal development at any stage. Without this process, it is impossible not only to ensure the normal functioning of the body, but also to form all its parts. During respiration, the most important compounds are formed, without which the plant’s existence is impossible. This complex, multi-stage process is a central link in the entire life of any organism. Knowledge about this helps to ensure proper conditions for growing and storing cultivated plants, achieving high yields of grain and other agricultural crops. It is known that breathing produces heat. Near some crops, air temperatures can rise by more than 10 degrees. This property is used by humans for various purposes.

Respiration and metabolism in plants

Plants, like all living organisms, constantly breathe. For this they need oxygen. It is needed by both unicellular and multicellular plants. Oxygen is involved in the life processes of plant cells, tissues and organs.

Most plants receive oxygen from the air through stomata and lentils. Aquatic plants consume it from water over the entire surface of their body. Some plants growing in wetlands have special respiratory roots that absorb oxygen from the air.

Breath- a complex process occurring in the cells of a living organism, during which the breakdown of organic substances releases the energy necessary for the vital processes of the organism. The main organic substance involved in the respiratory process is carbohydrates, mainly sugars (especially glucose). The intensity of respiration in plants depends on the amount of carbohydrates accumulated by the shoots in the light.

Respiration is the process of decomposition of organic nutrients into inorganic ones (carbon dioxide and water), which occurs with the participation of oxygen, accompanied by the release of energy that is used by the plant for vital processes.

Respiration is the opposite process of photosynthesis. Let's compare the processes of respiration and photosynthesis in the cells of a green leaf of a plant.

The breathing process involves the continuous consumption of oxygen day and night. The respiration process is especially intense in young tissues and organs of the plant. The intensity of respiration is determined by the needs of plant growth and development. A lot of oxygen is required in areas of cell division and growth. The formation of flowers and fruits, as well as damage and especially tearing off of organs, is accompanied by increased respiration in plants. At the end of growth, with yellowing of the leaves and especially in winter, the intensity of respiration noticeably decreases, but does not stop.

Breathing is an indispensable condition for plant life.

To live, a plant must obtain the substances and energy it needs through nutrition and respiration.

Absorbed substances, in the process of transformation in cells and tissues, become substances from which the plant builds its body. All transformations of substances occurring in the body are always accompanied by energy consumption. A green plant (as an autotrophic organism), absorbing light energy, converts it into chemical energy and accumulates it in complex organic compounds. During the process of respiration during the breakdown of organic substances, this energy is released and used by the plant for the transformation of substances and vital processes that occur in cells.

Both of these processes - photosynthesis and respiration - occur through successive numerous chemical reactions in which some substances are converted into others.

For example, during the process of photosynthesis, sugars are formed from carbon dioxide and water, which are then, through a series of intermediate reactions, converted into starch, fiber or proteins, fats and vitamins - substances necessary for the plant to feed and store energy.

The entire process of respiration takes place in the cells of the plant organism. It consists of two stages, during which complex organic substances are broken down into simpler, inorganic substances - carbon dioxide and water. At the first stage, with the participation of special proteins that accelerate the process (enzymes), the breakdown of glucose molecules occurs. As a result, simpler organic compounds are formed from glucose and some energy is released. This stage respiratory process occurs in the cytoplasm.

At the second stage, simple organic substances formed in the first stage, interacting with oxygen, are oxidized - forming carbon dioxide and water. This releases a lot of energy. The second stage of the respiratory process occurs only with the participation of oxygen in special cell organelles - mitochondria .

Thus, during the process of respiration, more complex organic substances are broken down into simple inorganic compounds - carbon dioxide and water. In this case, the plant is provided with released energy. At the same time, various chemical elements are transferred from one compound to another. These transformations of substances in the body are called metabolism . Metabolism is one of the important signs of life.

Metabolism is a set of various chemical transformations occurring in the body that ensure the growth and development of the organism, its reproduction and constant contact with the environment.

Metabolism connects all organs of the body into a single whole. At the same time, thanks to metabolism, the body unites with the environment. From it, the plant absorbs substances through roots and leaves and releases its metabolic products into the environment. Breathing, like nutrition, is a necessary condition for metabolism, and therefore for the life of the body.

Table 3.2. Characteristic features of the processes of photosynthesis and respiration

1. Modifications of underground shoots

3. Vegetative propagation.

Aerial nutrition of plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the creation of organic substances. Root nutrition provides the plant only with mineral salts and water. The plant receives organic substances and the energy contained in them in the process photosynthesis (from the Greek photos - “light” and synthesis - “connection”). Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts. During this process, using the energy of sunlight, the plant, with the help of green chlorophyll in the leaves, forms the organic substances it needs from inorganic substances - carbon dioxide and water. Since the main supplier of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis is air, this method of obtaining organic substances by a plant is called air powered .

Photosynthesis is always supported by root nutrition - the absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil. Without water, photosynthesis does not occur.

Green leaf - specialized air supply organ. Due to the flat shape of the leaf blade, the leaf has a large surface of contact with the air and sunlight. The presence in the pulp of the leaf of numerous chloroplasts with chlorophyll creates a huge photosynthetic surface, thus turning the leaf into a powerful factory for the formation of organic substances.

The role of light in photosynthesis. It is possible to prove that a green plant forms organic substances only in light by a simple experiment. A green plant, such as pelargonium zonalis (geranium), is placed in a dark closet. After 2-3 days, a small part of one leaf of this plant is darkened with black paper or foil and the plant is placed in the light. After 8-10 hours, cut off this leaf and remove the darkening plate from it. Then, to bleach the leaf, it is boiled in alcohol (this destroys the chlorophyll and the green color disappears). After this, the leaf is placed in an iodine solution. As a result of the experiment, you can see that the undarkened part of the leaf, which contained starch, turned blue (starch turns blue from iodine), while the darkened part of the leaf acquired the yellow color of iodine. This indicates that here, in the darkened part of the sheet. starch was not formed because the leaf cells did not receive light energy. Starch is an organic substance that a plant produces in the light during photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis

a process in which a green plant from inorganic substances (carbon dioxide and water) using the energy of sunlight forms organic substances - carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, starch), as well as oxygen.

Moss mosses. Horsetails. Ferns. plant art. Horsetails

Modern horsetails - perennial herbaceous plants with a rigid stem and well-developed underground rhizome. Adventitious roots extend from the rhizome. The segmentation of the shoots is characteristic. On the stems there are whorls of branches and small scale-like leaves at the nodes.

Horsetails (from left to right): spore-bearing and sterile stems of field horsetail, forest horsetail, meadow horsetail

Autotrophic nutrition– chlorophyll is contained in the chloroplasts of green cells of summer shoots. In spring, shoots grow on the rhizomes, ending in spore-bearing spikelets. This is where disputes form. Ripe spores spill out and, once in favorable conditions, germinate and heterosexual gametophytes are formed - the sexual generation. Fertilization occurs in water.

Development of the asexual generation of horsetail - sporophyte:

– Prothallus (gametophyte) sperm + egg zygote sporophyte (embryo) spore prothallus (gametophyte).

Horsetails grow in fields, forests or near water bodies, usually in areas with moist soil (only about 30 species have survived). In fields where horsetails live, the soil needs liming.

When fed with horsetail, cows and goats produce more milk. Some wild animals - deer and wild boars - also feed on horsetails. At the same time, horsetails are poisonous plants for horses.

In medicine, horsetail preparations are used, which have a versatile and varied effect. They are used as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, hemostatic, tonic, wound healing and astringent. They help with heart failure and improve water-salt metabolism. As part of various herbs, horsetail is used to treat hypertension, gout and wound healing. The plant is effective for edema of various origins and exudative (wet) pleurisy.

IN folk medicine The area of ​​application of horsetail is the same. In addition, it is believed that horsetail herb helps with certain malignant neoplasms, internal and external bleeding, gallstones and kidney stones.

Plant kingdom. Moss mosses

Perennial evergreen, herbaceous plants with erect and creeping shoots, found in coniferous and mixed forests. Originated from psilophytes. Adventitious roots extend from areas of the shoot creeping along the ground. The leaves are small, of various shapes, located on the shoots alternately, oppositely or whorled.

Moss mosses (from left to right): club moss, club moss, annual moss

Vegetative propagation – due to the death of sections of old shoots and the rooting of viable fragments that give rise to new plants. Asexual reproduction is also carried out by spores.

Species of club mosses are used as medicinal, dyeing, cosmetic and ornamental plants.

In scientific medicine, spores (usually club moss) are used - formerly in Russia they were called lycopodium, or moss seed - to prepare baby powders and pour pills. The spores contain up to 50% fatty, non-drying oil, alkaloids, phenolic acids, proteins, sugars, and mineral salts. Along with spores of this species, spores of the annual and oblate mosses are used.

Spores are collected at the end of summer - beginning of autumn, after the spore-bearing spikelets turn yellow. The spikelets are cut with scissors or a sharp knife, usually in wet weather, placed in bags made of thick fabric, then dried in the open air and sifted through a fine sieve to separate the spores.

In folk medicine, moss spores are used as a healing agent for filling wounds, burns, frostbite, for eczema, boils, lichen, and erysipelas. The stems are used for diseases of the bladder, liver, respiratory organs, urinary incontinence, stomach pain, hemorrhoids, dyspepsia and rheumatism.
The shoots of the club moss are used as an emetic, laxative, and for the treatment of chronic alcoholism and tobacco smoking. The entire club moss plant contains the poisonous alkaloid selyagin, so treatment should be carried out under the supervision of a doctor.

In cosmetology, mosses are used for furunculosis and against baldness.

Spores are also used in metallurgy to sprinkle molds during shaped casting - when they burn, a layer of gases is formed that prevents the product from sticking and gives the metal a smooth surface.

In pyrotechnics, spores are sometimes added to sparkler compositions.

The stems of all types of moss produce a blue dye suitable for dyeing fabrics.

The history of the discovery of an amazing and vitally important phenomenon such as photosynthesis is deeply rooted in the past. More than four centuries ago, in 1600, the Belgian scientist Jan Van Helmont performed a simple experiment. He placed a willow twig in a bag containing 80 kg of earth. The scientist recorded the initial weight of the willow, and then watered the plant exclusively with rainwater for five years. Imagine Jan Van Helmont's surprise when he re-weighed the willow. The weight of the plant increased by 65 kg, and the mass of the earth decreased by only 50 grams! Where the plant got 64 kg 950 grams of nutrients remains a mystery to the scientist!

The next significant experiment on the path to the discovery of photosynthesis belonged to the English chemist Joseph Priestley. The scientist put a mouse under the hood, and five hours later the rodent died. When Priestley placed a sprig of mint with the mouse and also covered the rodent with a cap, the mouse remained alive. This experiment led the scientist to the idea that there is a process opposite to breathing. Jan Ingenhouse in 1779 established the fact that only green parts of plants are capable of releasing oxygen. Three years later, Swiss scientist Jean Senebier proved that carbon dioxide, under the influence of sunlight, decomposes in green plant organelles. Just five years later, French scientist Jacques Boussingault, conducting laboratory research, discovered the fact that the absorption of water by plants also occurs during the synthesis of organic substances. The epochal discovery was made in 1864 by the German botanist Julius Sachs. He was able to prove that the volume of carbon dioxide consumed and oxygen released occurs in a 1:1 ratio.

Photosynthesis is one of the most significant biological processes

In scientific terms, photosynthesis (from ancient Greek φῶς - light and σύνθεσις - connection, binding) is a process in which organic substances are formed from carbon dioxide and water in the light. The main role in this process belongs to photosynthetic segments.

Speaking figuratively, a plant leaf can be compared to a laboratory, the windows of which face the sunny side. It is in it that the formation of organic substances occurs. This process is the basis for the existence of all life on Earth.

Many will reasonably ask the question: what do people who live in a city breathe, where you can’t even find a tree or a blade of grass during the day with fire? The answer is very simple. The fact is that terrestrial plants account for only 20% of the oxygen released by plants. The leading role in the production of oxygen into the atmosphere is played by seaweed. They account for 80% of the oxygen produced. Speaking in the language of numbers, both plants and algae annually release 145 billion tons (!) of oxygen into the atmosphere! It’s not for nothing that the world’s oceans are called “the lungs of the planet.”

The general formula for photosynthesis is as follows:

Water + Carbon dioxide + Light → Carbohydrates + Oxygen

Why do plants need photosynthesis?

As we have learned, photosynthesis is a necessary condition for human existence on Earth. However, this is not the only reason why photosynthetic organisms actively produce oxygen into the atmosphere. The fact is that both algae and plants annually form more than 100 billion organic substances (!), which form the basis of their life activity. Remembering the experiment of Jan Van Helmont, we understand that photosynthesis is the basis of plant nutrition. It has been scientifically proven that 95% of the harvest is determined by the organic substances obtained by the plant during the process of photosynthesis, and 5% by the mineral fertilizers that the gardener applies to the soil.

Modern summer residents pay the main attention to soil nutrition of plants, forgetting about its air nutrition. It is unknown what kind of harvest gardeners could get if they were careful about the process of photosynthesis.

However, neither plants nor algae could produce oxygen and carbohydrates so actively if they did not have an amazing green pigment - chlorophyll.

The Mystery of the Green Pigment

The main difference between plant cells and the cells of other living organisms is the presence of chlorophyll. By the way, it is he who is responsible for the fact that plant leaves are colored green. This complex organic compound has one amazing property: it can absorb sunlight! Thanks to chlorophyll, the process of photosynthesis also becomes possible.

Two stages of photosynthesis

Speaking in simple language, photosynthesis is a process in which water and carbon dioxide absorbed by a plant in the light with the help of chlorophyll form sugar and oxygen. Thus, inorganic substances miraculously transform into organic. The sugar obtained as a result of conversion is a source of energy for plants.

Photosynthesis has two stages: light and dark.

Light phase of photosynthesis

It is carried out on thylakoid membranes.

Thylakoids are membrane-bounded structures. They are located in the stroma of the chloroplast.

The order of events in the light stage of photosynthesis is:

1. Light hits the chlorophyll molecule, which is then absorbed by the green pigment and causes it to become excited. The electron included in the molecule moves to a higher level and participates in the synthesis process.
2. Water splits, during which protons are converted into hydrogen atoms under the influence of electrons. Subsequently, they are spent on the synthesis of carbohydrates.
3. At the final stage of the light stage, ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is synthesized. This is an organic substance that plays the role of a universal energy accumulator in biological systems.

Dark phase of photosynthesis

The place where the dark phase occurs is the stroma of chloroplasts. It is during the dark phase that oxygen is released and glucose is synthesized. Many will think that this phase received this name because the process occurring within this stage occurs exclusively at night. In fact, this is not entirely true. Glucose synthesis occurs around the clock. The fact is that it is at this stage that light energy is no longer consumed, which means it is simply not needed.

The importance of photosynthesis for plants

We have already determined the fact that plants need photoynthesis no less than we do. It is very easy to talk about the scale of photosynthesis in terms of numbers. Scientists have calculated that land plants alone store as much solar energy as could be consumed by 100 megacities within 100 years!

Plant respiration is the opposite process of photosynthesis. The meaning of plant respiration is to release energy during the process of photosynthesis and direct it to the needs of plants. In simple terms, yield is the difference between photosynthesis and respiration. The more photosynthesis and the lower the respiration, the greater the harvest, and vice versa!

Photosynthesis is an amazing process that makes life on Earth possible!

Photosynthesis is the process of formation of organic matter from carbon dioxide and water in the light with the participation of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll in plants, bacteriochlorophyll and bacteriorhodopsin in bacteria). In modern plant physiology, photosynthesis is more often understood as a photoautotrophic function - a set of processes of absorption, transformation and use of the energy of light quanta in various endergonic reactions, including the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic substances.

There are oxygenic and anoxygenic types of photosynthesis. Oxygen is much more widespread and is carried out by plants, cyanobacteria and prochlorophytes. This article describes only it; a separate article is devoted to anoxygenic photosynthesis of purple and green bacteria, as well as Helicobacteria.

There are three stages of photosynthesis: photophysical, photochemical and chemical. At the first stage, the absorption of light quanta by pigments occurs, their transition to an excited state and the transfer of energy to other molecules of the photosystem. At the second stage, charges are separated in the reaction center, electrons are transferred along the photosynthetic electron transport chain, which ends in the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The first two stages are collectively called the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis. The third stage occurs without the mandatory participation of light and includes biochemical reactions of the synthesis of organic substances using the energy accumulated in the light-dependent stage. Most often, such reactions are considered to be the Calvin cycle and gluconeogenesis, the formation of sugars and starch from carbon dioxide in the air.

Breathing is the main form of dissimilation in humans, animals, plants and many microorganisms. During respiration, energy-rich substances belonging to the body are completely decomposed into energy-poor inorganic end products (carbon dioxide and water), using molecular oxygen.

External respiration refers to the exchange of gases between the body and the environment, including the absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide, as well as the transport of these gases within the body.

Internal (cellular) respiration includes biochemical processes in the cytoplasm of cells and mitochondria, leading to the release of energy.

In organisms that have large surface areas in contact with the external environment, respiration can occur due to the diffusion of gases directly to the cells (for example, in plant leaves, in cavity animals). With a small relative surface area, gas transport is carried out due to blood circulation (in vertebrates, etc.) or in the trachea (in insects).

Chemosynthesis is a method of autotrophic nutrition in which the source of energy for the synthesis of organic substances from CO2 is the oxidation reactions of inorganic compounds. This type of energy production is used only by bacteria. The phenomenon of chemosynthesis was discovered in 1887 by the Russian scientist S. N. Vinogradsky.

It should be noted that the energy released in the oxidation reactions of inorganic compounds cannot be directly used in assimilation processes. First, this energy is converted into the energy of macroergic bonds of ATP and only then is spent on the synthesis of organic compounds.

13. Energy inecosystems

Let us recall that an ecosystem is a collection of living organisms that continuously exchange energy, matter and information with each other and with the environment. Let us first consider the process of energy exchange. Energy is defined as the ability to produce work. The properties of energy are described by the laws of thermodynamics.

The first law (law) of thermodynamics or the law of conservation of energy states that energy can change from one form to another, but it does not disappear or be created anew. The second law (law) of thermodynamics or the law of entropy states that in a closed system entropy can only increase. In relation to energy in ecosystems, the following formulation is convenient: processes associated with energy transformations can occur spontaneously only under the condition that the energy passes from a concentrated form to a dispersed one, that is, it degrades. The measure of the amount of energy that becomes unavailable for use, or otherwise the measure of the change in order that occurs during the degradation of energy, is entropy. The higher the order of the system, the lower its entropy. Thus, any living system, including an ecosystem, maintains its vital activity thanks to, firstly, the presence in the environment of an excess of free energy (the energy of the Sun); secondly, the ability, due to the design of its components, to capture and concentrate this energy, and when used, to dissipate it into the environment. Thus, first capturing and then concentrating energy with the transition from one trophic level to another ensures an increase in the orderliness and organization of a living system, that is, a decrease in its entropy.

14. Types of relationships between living organisms. Intraspecific and interspecific.

Relationships between organisms can be divided into interspecific and intraspecific. Interspecific relationships are usually classified according to the “interests” on the basis of which organisms build their relationships:

Interspecific interactions are much more diverse:

- neutralism (both types do not have any effect on each other);

-competition (both types have an adverse effect on each other);

--mutualism (both species cannot exist without each other);

-predation (a predatory species feeds on its prey);

-amensalism (one organism suppresses the development of another);

-commensalism (the commensal benefits from another species that is not indifferent to this association).

Intraspecific competition:

– direct competition – animals fight each other to the death. In plants, allopathy is the release of toxins.

– indirect competition – indirect, i.e. not directly.

Intraspecific relationships:

– competition;

-rivalry;

-mutual assistance;

– cooperation (herd).

15. Populations. Population structure. Mortality, birth rate, survival rate. Survival curves. Population dynamics.

Population is a term used in various branches of biology, as well as in genetics, demography and medicine. The most general meaning is a literal translation. A population is a human, animal or plant population some area. In European languages, this concept primarily refers to humans and, secondarily, to other living organisms. In Russian, population has a more specialized meaning as a term primarily used in biological and medical research. In biology: a population is a certain set of individuals of a species that is part of a specific biogeocenosis and manifests itself in it with its specific functional and energetic impact. Modern genetics carefully studies the history of modern ethnic groups using ethnogenetic data to a depth of tens of millennia - since the exodus of the first “homo sapiens” communities from Africa. Genetic transformations of populations were accompanied by ethnocultural ones, which turned populations in recent millennia into well-known historical peoples.

Population structure The demographic structure of a population is understood primarily as its gender and age composition. In addition, it is customary to talk about the spatial structure of the population - that is, about the characteristics of the distribution of individuals in the population in space. Knowledge of the population structure allows the researcher to draw conclusions about its well-being or disadvantage. For example, if there are no generative (that is, capable of producing offspring) individuals in the population and there are many old-age (senile) individuals, then an unfavorable prognosis can be made. Such a population may have no future. It is advisable to study the population structure in dynamics: knowing its changes over several years, one can speak much more confidently about certain trends. Age structure populations. This type of structure is associated with the ratio of individuals of different ages in the population

Mortality is a statistical indicator that estimates the number of deaths.

Fertility is a demographic term defined as the ratio of the number of births during a period per 1000 inhabitants.

Survival rate is the number of individuals (in percentage) surviving in a population over a certain period of time. Survival is usually determined for different ages and sex groups for different seasons, years, periods of increased mortality.

SURVIVAL RATE – the proportion of individuals in a population that survive to reproduce. SURVIVAL CURVES:

In differential form, the dependence is defined as dN/dt=rN((k-N)/k), N – number. In mat. the expression includes the resistance of the medium. r – hostile

speed pop.k – max. number of individuals.

r-species – pioneers, k-species – with a tendency towards equilibrium

17. Community productivity. Ecological pyramids.

COMMUNITY PRODUCTIVITY is an important functional indicator of the community, as well as its individual elements(autotrophic and heterotrophic components, individual trophic levels, populations of any species) is their ability to create (produce) new biomass.

Ecological pyramid - a graphic representation of the relationship between producers, consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem.

These pyramids arise in ecosystems (biogeocenoses) in food chains. Food chains are formed in ecosystems as a result of the life activity of various species. Thus, producers (autotrophic plants) are the only creators of organic matter. In a biogeocenosis, there are necessarily herbivorous and carnivorous animals (consumers of the 1st, 2nd, etc. orders), and, finally, destroyers of organic residues (decomposers). In an ecosystem, species belonging to these three main groups are in complex relationships and form power circuit,

Ecological pyramid rule

The pattern according to which the amount of plant matter that serves as the basis of the food chain is approximately 10 times greater than the mass of herbivorous animals, and each subsequent food level also has a mass 10 times less.

Power circuit

A chain of interconnected species that successively extract organic matter and energy from the original food substance. Each previous link in the food chain is food for the next link.

19. Ecology of communities and ecological succession.

A community is a set of interacting populations occupying a certain territory, a living component of an ecosystem. The community functions as a dynamic unit with different trophic levels, energy flows through it and nutrients cycle through it.

The community structure is created gradually over time. An example that can be used as a model for community development is the colonization of exposed rock by organisms on a newly formed volcanic island. Trees and shrubs cannot grow on bare rock because there is no soil necessary for them. However, algae and lichens different ways enter such territories and populate them, forming pioneer communities. The gradual accumulation of dead and decaying organisms and the erosion of rock through weathering results in the formation of a layer of soil sufficient to support larger plants such as mosses and ferns. These plants will eventually be followed by even larger, more nutrient-demanding seed forms, including grasses, shrubs, and trees.

This replacement of one species by another over a certain period of time is called ecological succession. Final community - stable, self-renewing and in balance with the environment - is called the climax community. In the animal world of these communities, there is also a replacement of some species by others, largely due to a change in vegetation, but this process also depends on what animals can migrate from neighboring communities.

The type of succession described above that begins with the colonization of exposed rock or other surfaces lacking soil (such as sand or a former glacier bed) is called primary succession. In contrast, secondary succession is called succession that begins where the surface is completely or largely devoid of vegetation, but was previously under the influence of living organisms and has an organic component. These are, for example, deforestation, burnt areas or abandoned agricultural land. Here, seeds, spores and organs of vegetative propagation, such as rhizomes, can be preserved in the soil, which will influence succession. In both primary and secondary succession, the flora and fauna of the surrounding areas are the main factor determining the types of plants and animals included in the succession as a result of random settlement and migration.

20. Biodiversity is the basis for the continuity of ecosystems.

Biodiversity (biological diversity) is the diversity of life in all its manifestations. In more in the narrow sense, biodiversity is understood as diversity at three levels of organization: genetic diversity (diversity of genes and their variants - alleles), diversity of species in ecosystems and, finally, diversity of the ecosystems themselves.

Biodiversity is a key concept in environmental discourse. Biodiversity has been defined as “the variability of living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within a species, diversity of species and diversity of ecosystems "

There are three main types of biodiversity:

- genetic diversity, reflecting intraspecific diversity and caused by the variability of individuals;

- species diversity, reflecting the diversity of living organisms (plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms). Currently, about 1.7 million species have been described, although total number, according to some estimates, up to 50 million;

- ecosystem diversity covers differences between ecosystem types, diversity of habitats and ecological processes. They note the diversity of ecosystems not only in structural and functional components, but also in scale - from microbiogeocenosis to the biosphere;

Sometimes in separate category highlight the diversity of landscapes, reflecting the characteristics of the territorial structure and the influence of local, regional and national cultures of society.

There are many reasons for the need to preserve biodiversity: the need for biological resources to meet the needs of humanity (food, materials, medicines, etc.), ethical and aesthetic aspects (life is valuable in itself), etc. However main reason conservation of biodiversity is that it plays a leading role in ensuring the sustainability of ecosystems and the Biosphere as a whole (absorption of pollution, stabilization of climate, provision of conditions suitable for life). Biodiversity performs a regulatory function (see Concept of biotic regulation, Gorshkov V.G.) in the implementation of all biogeochemical, climatic and other processes on Earth. Each species, no matter how insignificant it may seem, contributes to ensuring the sustainability of not only the “native” local ecosystem, but also the Biosphere as a whole.

21. Homeostasis of systems.

Homeostasis - ability open system maintain the constancy of one’s internal state through coordinated reactions aimed at maintaining dynamic balance.

Homeostasis is the ability of an ecosystem to self-regulate, i.e. ability to maintain balance.

Homeostasis is based on the principle of feedback.

– Negative (deviation from the norm decreases)

– Positive (deviation from the norm increases)

It is possible to maintain homeostasis within the limits of negative feedback. In any ecosystem where food chains exist, there are certain channels for transmitting information: chemical, genetic, energy, etc. The stability of the community is determined by the number of connections in the trophic pyramid. The balance of the ecological cycle and the balance of ecosystems is ensured by a feedback mechanism: the control component receives information from the controlled and accordingly makes adjustments to the further management process. An example of deer-wolves. The occurrence of interference is a violation of feedback connections. Strong disturbances mean the death of ecosystems. Interference: partial (pesticides, shooting of animals, fishing); extreme - destroy the ecosystem (destruction of the main trophic level). Homeostatic plateau - an area within which an ecosystem is able to maintain its stability despite stressful influences

22.Cycle of substances. Large (geological) and small (biogeochemical). Exchange and reserve funds.

The cycle in the biosphere is understood as repeating processes of transformations and spatial movements of substances that have a certain forward movement, expressed in qualitative and quantitative differences in individual cycles. There are 2 cycles - large (geological) and small (biotic). The large (geological) cycle of substances lasts from several thousand to several million years, including processes such as the water cycle and land denudation. DUNUDATION of land consists of the total withdrawal of substance from land (52990 million tons/year), the total input of substance onto land (4043 million tons/year) and amounts to 48947 million tons/year. Anthropogenic intervention leads to an acceleration of denudation, leading, for example, to earthquakes in the areas of reservoirs built in seismically active areas. SMALL (biotic) cycle of substances occurs at the level of biogeocinosis or biogeochemical cycle.

The energy balance of the biosphere is the ratio between absorbed and emitted energy. It is determined by the arrival of energy from the Sun and cosmic rays, which is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis, part of which is converted into other types of energy and another part is dissipated in outer space.

Cycle in the biosphere is a repeating process of transformations and spatial movements of substances that have a certain forward movement, expressed in qualitative and quantitative differences in individual cycles.

23.Hydrological cycle.

The Earth's water cycle, also called the hydrological cycle, involves the entry of water into the atmosphere through evaporation and its return through condensation and precipitation.

In general terms, the water cycle always consists of evaporation, condensation and precipitation. But it includes three main "loops":

surface runoff: water becomes part of surface waters;

evaporation - transpiration: water is absorbed by the soil, retained as capillary water, and then returned to the atmosphere, evaporating from the surface of the earth, or absorbed by plants and released as vapor during transpiration;

Groundwater: Water enters and moves through the ground, feeding wells and springs and thus re-entering the surface water system.

According to the water cycle diagram, the water pool in the atmosphere is small; the turnover rate is higher and the residence time is shorter than for carbon dioxide. The water cycle is beginning to be affected global consequences human activity. Precipitation and streamflow records are now well established around the world; it is necessary, however, to establish more complete control of all the main paths of water movement in the cycle as quickly as possible. Two other aspects of the water cycle should be emphasized.

1. Let us note that the sea loses more water due to evaporation than it receives through precipitation; on land the situation is reversed. In other words, the portion of precipitation that supports terrestrial ecosystems, including those that supply food to humans, comes through evaporation from the sea. It has been established that in many areas 90% of precipitation comes from the sea

2. According to estimates, the weight of water in fresh lakes and rivers is 0.25 geograms (1 geogram = 1020 g), and the annual flow is 0.2 geograms; therefore, the turnaround time is about a year. The difference between annual precipitation (1.0 geograms) and runoff (0.2 geograms) is 0.8; this is the amount of annual water flow into subsoil aquifers. As already indicated, increased runoff as a result of human activity can reduce the groundwater fund, which is very important for the cycle. We should be returning more water to aquifers rather than trying to store it all in lakes, where it evaporates faster

24. Cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.

CARBON CYCLE.

Carbon is found in nature both in a free state and in the form

numerous connections. Free carbon occurs in the form of diamond and

graphite

Carbon compounds are very common. In addition to fossil coal, in the depths

The earth contains large accumulations of oil, which is a complex mixture

various carbon-containing compounds, mainly hydrocarbons.

In addition, plant and animal organisms consist of substances that

in the formation of which carbon plays a major role.

Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producing plants and in the process

photosynthesis converts into carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and other organic

connections. These substances are used in food by animal consumers.

At the same time, the reverse process occurs in nature. All alive

organisms breathe, releasing carbon dioxide, which enters the atmosphere.

Dead plant and animal remains and animal excrement decompose

(mineralized) by decomposer microorganisms. Final product

mineralization - carbon dioxide - released from soil or water bodies into

atmosphere. Part of the carbon accumulates in the soil in the form of organic matter.

connections.

Carbon also enters the atmosphere from

exhaust gases from cars, smoke emissions from factories and factories.

During the carbon cycle in the biosphere, energy resources are formed

resources - oil, coal, flammable gases, peat, wood, which

widely used by humans. All these substances are produced

photosynthetic plants for different time. The age of the forests is tens and

hundreds of years; peat bogs - thousands of years; coal, oil, gases - hundreds of millions

years. It should be taken into account that wood and peat are renewable resources, i.e.

reproducing over relatively short periods of time, and oil,

flammable gas and coal are irreplaceable resources.

NITROGEN CYCLE.

Most nitrogen is found in a free state in nature. Inorganic nitrogen compounds do not occur naturally in large

seams on the coast Pacific Ocean in Chile. The soil contains minor

amounts of nitrogen, mainly in the form of salts of nitric acid. But in the form

complex organic compounds - proteins - nitrogen is part of all living

organisms.

Nitrogen is an essential element. It is part of proteins and nucleic acids

acids The nitrogen cycle is closely related to the carbon cycle. Partially

nitrogen comes from the atmosphere due to the formation of nitric oxide (IV) from

nitrogen and oxygen under the influence of electrical discharges during thunderstorms.

However, the bulk of nitrogen enters water and soil due to fixation

air nitrogen by living organisms.

The most effective nitrogen fixers are nodule bacteria that live in the roots of leguminous plants. Nitrogen from a variety of sources reaches the roots of plants, is absorbed by them and transported to the stems and leaves, where proteins are built through the process of biosynthesis.

Plant proteins serve as the basis for nitrogen nutrition of animals. After dying

organisms, proteins under the influence of bacteria and fungi decompose with the release

ammonia. Ammonia is partly consumed by plants and partly used

decomposer bacteria. As a result of the vital processes of some

bacteria converts ammonia into nitrates. Nitrates, like ammonium ions,

consumed by plants and microorganisms. Part of the nitrates under the influence

a special group of bacteria is reduced to elemental nitrogen, which

released into the atmosphere. This closes the nitrogen cycle in nature.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

Due to

easy oxidation, phosphorus in a free state is not found in nature

meets. Of the natural phosphorus compounds, the most important is

calcium orthophosphate, which sometimes forms in the form of the mineral phosphorite

large deposits. The richest deposits of phosphorites are located in Yuzhny

Kazakhstan in the Karatau mountains. Phosphorus, like nitrogen, is essential for all living things.

creatures, since it is part of some proteins, both vegetable and

and of animal origin. Phosphorus is mainly found in plants

way in the proteins of seeds, in animal organisms - in the proteins of milk, blood,

brain and nervous tissue. As an acidic residue of phosphoric acid

phosphorus is part of nucleic acids - complex organic

polymer compounds directly involved in processes

transfer of hereditary properties of a living cell. Raw materials for obtaining

phosphorus and its compounds are phosphorites and apatites. Natural phosphorite

or apatite is crushed, mixed with sand and coal and heated in furnaces with

using electric current without access to air in all living organisms.

Its main source is rocks (mainly igneous

nye). It is represented mainly by apatite and fluorapatite. In sedimentary rocks this is usually vivianite, wavelite, phosphorite. With the formation of the biosphere, the release of phosphorus from rocks increased, resulting in a significant redistribution of it. In phosphorus transformations

Living matter plays an important role. Organisms absorb phosphorus from soils,

aqueous solutions. Phosphorus is a component of proteins, nucleic acids, and

other organic compounds.

There is especially a lot of phosphorus in animal bones. With death

organisms, phosphorus returns to the soil and is concentrated in the form

marine phosphate nodules, fish bone deposits, which creates conditions for

formation of phosphorus-rich rocks, which in turn serve

source of phosphorus in the biogenic cycle.

SULFUR CYCLE.

Sulfur occurs in nature both in a free state (native sulfur) and

and in various compounds. Sulfur compounds are very common

various metals. Sulfur compounds are also common in nature

sulfates, mainly calcium and magnesium. Finally, sulfur compounds

Sulfur is widely used in the national economy. In the form of sulfur color sulfur

used to kill some plant pests. It applies

also for the preparation of matches, ultramarine (blue paint), carbon disulfide and

a number of other substances.

The sulfur cycle occurs in the atmosphere and lithosphere. Sulfur entering

atmosphere occurs in the form of sulfates, sulfuric anhydride and sulfur from

lithosphere during volcanic eruptions, in the form of hydrogen sulfide due to

decomposition of pyrite (FeS2) and organic compounds. Anthropogenic source

sulfur emissions into the atmosphere are thermal power plants and others

facilities where coal, oil and other hydrocarbons are burned, and

the entry of sulfur into the lithosphere, in particular into the soil, occurs with fertilizers

and organic compounds. Transport of sulfur compounds in the atmosphere

carried out by air currents, and precipitation on earth's surface or

in the form of dust, or with precipitation in the form of rain (acid rain) and

snow. On the surface of the Earth in soil and water bodies, binding occurs

sulfate and sulfite compounds of sulfur with calcium to form gypsum

(CaSO4). In addition, sulfur is buried in sedimentary rocks with

organic residues of plant and animal origin, of which

Subsequently, coal and oil are formed. There's a change in the soil

sulfur compounds occur with the participation of sulfobacteria using

sulfate compounds and releasing hydrogen sulfide, which enters

atmosphere and oxidizes again into sulfates. In addition, hydrogen sulfide in

soil can be reduced to sulfur, which denitrifies

oxidized by bacteria to sulfates.

25.Principles of ecosystem functioning.

Obtaining resources and getting rid of waste occur within the cycle of all elements.

This principle is in harmony with the law of conservation of mass. Since atoms do not appear, disappear, or transform into one another, they can be used endlessly in a wide variety of compounds and their supply is practically unlimited. This is exactly what happens in natural ecosystems.

It is very important to emphasize, however, that the biological cycle does not occur solely at the expense of matter, since it is the result of the activity of organisms, the maintenance of which requires constant energy costs supplied by the Sun. The energy of sunlight absorbed by green plants, unlike chemical elements, cannot be used by organisms indefinitely. This conclusion follows from the second law of thermodynamics: energy, when converted from one form to another, that is, when work is performed, is partially converted into thermal form and dissipated in the environment.

Consequently, each cycle of the circulation, depending on the activity of organisms and accompanied by losses of energy from them, requires more and more new supplies of energy.

So, the existence of ecosystems of any rank and life on Earth in general is due to the constant circulation of substances, which, in turn, is supported by a constant influx of solar energy. This is the second basic principle of ecosystem functioning:

Ecosystems exist due to non-polluting and almost eternal solar energy, the amount of which is relatively constant and abundant.

26. Environmental quality. MPC. The effect of summation of maximum permissible concentrations for a large number of pollutants. Maximum permissible concentrations of working areas. Average daily concentration limit.

Environmental quality is the state of natural and human-transformed ecological systems, preserving their ability to constantly exchange substances and energy, and reproduce life.

Maximum permissible concentration (MAC) is a legally approved sanitary and hygienic standard for the content of a harmful substance in the environment (or industrial) environment, which has virtually no effect on human health and does not cause adverse consequences.

Many toxic substances have a summation effect, i.e. their mixtures have a more toxic effect on living organisms than individual components. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the combined effects of impurities on humans and the environment.

Maximum permissible concentration of a harmful substance in the air of a working area. This concentration should not cause in workers, with daily inhalation for 8 hours, during the entire period of their working experience, any diseases or deviations from the norm in their health status, which could would be discovered modern methods research directly during work or at long-term periods.

MPC.c is the average daily maximum permissible concentration of a harmful substance in the air of populated areas. This concentration of a harmful substance should not have a direct or indirect harmful effect on the human body under conditions of indefinitely long round-the-clock inhalation.

27.Environmental monitoring. Classification of monitoring systems.

Monitoring is the systematic collection and processing of information that can be used to improve decision-making, and also indirectly to inform the public or directly as a feedback tool for the purposes of project implementation, program evaluation or policy development. It has one or more of three organizational functions:

identifies the state of critical or changing environmental phenomena for which future courses of action will be developed;

can help establish relationships with one's community by providing feedback regarding the previous successes and failures of particular policies or programs;

may be useful in establishing compliance with regulations and contractual obligations.

classification

(monitoring sources of impact)Sources of impact->

(Monitoring of impact factors) Impact factors: Physical, Biological, Chemical ->

(Monitoring the state of the biosphere): Natural environments: Atmosphere, Ocean, Land surface with rivers and lakes, Biota

28. Hydrosphere. Hydrosphere pollution. Concepts of COD, BOD.

The hydrosphere is the totality of all the Earth's water reserves.

Most of the water is concentrated in the ocean, much less in the continental river network and groundwater. There are also large reserves of water in the atmosphere, in the form of clouds and water vapor. Over 96% of the volume of the hydrosphere is made up of seas and oceans, about 2% is groundwater, about 2% is ice and snow, and about 0.02% is land surface water. Some of the water is in a solid state in the form of glaciers, snow cover and permafrost, representing the cryosphere.

Surface waters, occupying a relatively small share of the total mass of the hydrosphere, nevertheless play a vital role in the life of our planet, being the main source of water supply, irrigation and water supply. This geosphere is in constant interaction with the atmosphere, the earth's crust and the biosphere.

The interaction of these waters and mutual transitions from one type of water to another constitute a complex water cycle on the globe. Life on Earth first originated in the hydrosphere. Only at the beginning Paleozoic era the gradual relocation of animals began and plant organisms to land.

Main types of hydrosphere pollution.

1. Pollution with oil and petroleum products leads to the appearance of oil stains, which impedes the processes of photosynthesis in water due to the cessation of access to sunlight, and also causes the death of plants and animals. Each ton of oil creates an oil film over an area of ​​up to 12 square meters. km. Restoration of affected ecosystems takes 10-15 years.

2. Pollution with wastewater as a result of industrial production, mineral and organic fertilizers as a result of agricultural production, as well as municipal wastewater leads to eutrophication of water bodies, enrichment of them with nutrients, leading to excessive development of algae, and to the death of other aquatic ecosystems with stagnant water ( lakes, ponds), and sometimes to swamping of the area.

3. Pollution with heavy metal ions disrupts life. aquatic organisms and man.

4.Acid rain leads to acidification of water bodies and the death of ecosystems.

5.Radioactive contamination is associated with the discharge of radioactive waste into water bodies.

6. Thermal pollution causes the discharge of heated water from thermal power plants and nuclear power plants into water bodies, which leads to the massive development of blue-green algae, the so-called water bloom, a decrease in the amount of oxygen and negatively affects the flora and fauna of water bodies.

7. Mechanical pollution increases the content of mechanical impurities.

8.Bacterial and biological contamination is associated with various pathogenic organisms, fungi and algae.

COD is the amount of oxygen in milligrams per 1 liter of water required to oxidize carbon-containing substances toCO2 andH2O, nitrogen-containing - to nitrates, sulfur-containing - to sulfates, phosphorus-containing - to phosphates.

BOD is an indicator used to characterize the degree of contamination of wastewater with organic impurities that can be decomposed by microorganisms with the consumption of oxygen.

29. Pollution of seas and rivers. Self-purification of the hydrosphere.

The process of self-purification in the hydrosphere is associated with the water cycle in nature. In water bodies, this process is ensured by the combined activity of the organisms that inhabit them. IN ideal conditions The self-purification process proceeds quite quickly, and the water restores its original state. Factors that determine the self-purification of water bodies can be divided into three groups: physical, chemical, biological.

Among the physical factors, the main ones are dilution, dissolution and mixing of incoming contaminants. For example, the intense flow of a river provides good mixing, resulting in a decrease in the concentration of suspended particles. The settling of insoluble particles in water during the settling of polluted waters contributes to the self-purification of water bodies. Under the influence of gravity, microorganisms are deposited on organic and inorganic particles and gradually sink to the bottom, while being exposed to other factors. An increase in the intensity of the action of physical factors contributes to the rapid death of polluting microflora. When exposed to ultraviolet radiation, water is disinfected, based on the direct destructive effect of these rays on protein colloids and enzymes of the protoplasm of microbial cells. Ultraviolet radiation can affect not only ordinary bacteria, but also spore organisms and viruses.

Oil and petroleum products are the main pollutants of the water basin. On tankers transporting oil and its derivatives, before each regular loading, as a rule, containers (tanks) are washed to remove the remnants of previously transported cargo. The washing water, and with it the remaining cargo, is usually dumped overboard. In addition, after delivering oil cargo to destination ports, tankers are most often sent empty to the new loading point. In this case, to ensure proper draft and safe navigation, the ship's tanks are filled with ballast water. This water is contaminated with oil residues and is poured into the sea before loading oil and petroleum products. Of the total cargo turnover of the world maritime fleet, 49% currently falls on oil and its derivatives. Every year, about 6,000 tankers of international fleets transport 3 billion tons of oil. As oil cargo transportation grew, more and more oil began to end up in the ocean during accidents.

Purification of water in the ocean occurs due to the filtration abilities of plankton. In 40 days, a surface layer of water hundreds of meters thick passes through the plankton filtration apparatus.

30. Wastewater. Eutrophication of water bodies.

Wastewater - any water and precipitation, discharged into reservoirs from the territories of industrial enterprises and populated areas through the sewerage system or by gravity, the properties of which turned out to be deteriorated as a result of human activity.

Wastewater can be classified according to the following criteria:

by source of origin:

production (industrial) wastewater (generated in technological processes during production or mining) is discharged through an industrial or general sewage system

Domestic (domestic and fecal) wastewater (generated in residential premises, as well as in domestic premises in production, for example, showers, toilets) is discharged through the domestic or general sewerage system

atmospheric wastewater (divided into rain and melt water, that is, formed by the melting of snow, ice, hail), is usually discharged through a storm sewer system

Eutrophication is the enrichment of rivers, lakes and seas with nutrients, accompanied by an increase in the productivity of vegetation in water bodies. Eutrophication can be the result of both the natural aging of a reservoir and as a result of anthropogenic impacts. The main chemical elements contributing to eutrophication are phosphorus and nitrogen.

Eutrophic reservoirs are characterized by rich littoral and sublittoral vegetation and abundant plankton. Artificially unbalanced eutrophication can lead to rapid development of algae (“blooming” of waters), oxygen deficiency and death of fish and other animals. This process can be explained by the low penetration of sunlight into the depths of the reservoir (due to phytoplankton on the surface of the reservoir), and as a consequence, the lack of photosynthesis in above-bottom plants, and therefore oxygen.

31.lithosphere. Types of lithosphere pollution.

Lithosphere is the hard shell of the Earth. It consists of the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle, up to the asthenosphere, where the velocities of seismic waves decrease, indicating a change in the plasticity of the rocks.

The lithosphere is divided into blocks - lithospheric plates, which move along a relatively plastic asthenosphere. The section of geology on plate tectonics is devoted to the study and description of these movements.

The lithosphere beneath oceans and continents varies considerably. The lithosphere beneath the oceans has undergone many stages of partial melting as a result of the formation of the oceanic crust, it is highly depleted in fusible trace elements and mainly consists of dunites and harzburgites.

The lithosphere is polluted by liquid and solid pollutants and waste.

Sources of soil pollution can be classified as follows

Residential buildings and public utilities. Pollutants in this category of sources are dominated by household waste, food waste, construction waste, waste from heating systems, worn-out household items, etc. All this is collected and taken to landfills. For large cities, the collection and destruction of household waste in landfills has become an intractable problem. Simple burning of garbage in city landfills is accompanied by the release of toxic substances. When such items, for example, chlorine-containing polymers, are burned, highly toxic substances are formed - dioxides. Despite this, in recent years, methods have been developed for the destruction of household waste by incineration. A promising method is considered to be burning such waste over hot melts.

Industrial enterprises. In solid and liquid industrial waste Substances that can have a toxic effect on living organisms and plants are constantly present. For example, waste from the metallurgical industry usually contains salts of non-ferrous heavy metals. The mechanical engineering industry releases cyanide, arsenic and beryllium compounds into the environment; the production of plastics and artificial fibers generates waste containing phenol, benzene, and styrene; during the production of synthetic rubbers, waste catalysts and substandard polymer clots enter the soil; During the production of rubber products, dust-like ingredients, soot that settle on the soil and plants, waste rubber textiles and rubber parts are released into the environment, and when tires are used, worn-out and failed tires, inner tubes and rim tapes are released into the environment. The storage and disposal of used tires are currently still unsolved problems, since this often causes severe fires that are very difficult to extinguish.

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Photosynthesis is the process of formation of organic substances (sugars) from inorganic substances (carbon dioxide and water) in green leaves using sunlight. Photosynthesis is the process of formation of organic substances (sugars) from inorganic substances (carbon dioxide and water) in green leaves using sunlight.

Stages of photosynthesis Stage 1 – light: light activates chlorophyll. Activated chlorophyll breaks down water molecules. In this case, hydrogen is released and part of the oxygen is released into the air. At the same time, two active components are formed in the chloroplast: a substance charged with energy (1) and a substance capable of transporting hydrogen (2).

Stages of photosynthesis Stage 2 - dark: then, during chemical reactions involving carbon dioxide and active components obtained in the first stage of photosynthesis, organic compounds are formed, from which various energy-rich carbohydrates (sugars) are subsequently synthesized.

Photosynthesis occurs in the light all year round from simple minerals. The sun will shed its light, a ray will fall on a leaf, to give oxygen to everyone. And our stubborn people will never understand That they breathe, eat and live, Because in the morning, as soon as the time comes, the foliage produces sweet juice.

Stages of the respiration process Stage 1 - gas exchange: with the participation of special proteins that accelerate the process, glucose molecules disintegrate. As a result, simpler organic compounds are formed from glucose and some energy is released (in the cytoplasm). Stage 2 - cellular respiration: the breakdown of complex organic substances into carbon dioxide and water with the release large quantity energy (in cell mitochondria).

Comparative table of the processes of photosynthesis and respiration Photosynthesis Comparison points Respiration 1. Only in the presence of sunlight or stored solar energy. 1. Flow time 2. Only green cells containing chlorophyll. 2. Place of leakage 3. Stands out 3. Oxygen 4. Absorbed4. Carbon dioxide 5. Synthesized5. Organic matter 6. Absorbed.6. Energy

Find the biological error Photosynthesis is the process of formation of organic substances from inorganic substances in the chloroplasts of a leaf in the light. For photosynthesis to occur, the following conditions are necessary: ​​the presence of oxygen and water, green leaves and sunlight. Photosynthesis is the process of formation of organic substances from inorganic substances in the chloroplasts of a leaf in the light. For photosynthesis to occur, the following conditions are necessary: ​​the presence of oxygen and water, green leaves and sunlight. During the process of photosynthesis, an organic substance called starch is formed. The byproducts of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water. During photosynthesis, an organic substance is formed - starch. The byproducts of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water.

1. All living organisms breathe. 2. Gas exchange in the leaves occurs through the lentils. 3. Unicellular organisms breathe over the entire surface of the body. 4. Stomata - respiratory organs earthworm. 5. Algae breathe through lentils. 6. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is released. 7. Plants breathe only in the dark. 8. Oxygen breaks down glucose in mitochondria