Subject: Ecological characteristics of animals in relation to temperature.

Goals:

• Show various adaptations of animals to temperature as an environmental factor.
• Learn to distinguish between cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals.
• Develop cognitive interests and logical thinking.
• Form the right attitude towards nature.

Equipment: map “Natural areas of the world”, multimedia projector for viewing the presentation, task cards, handouts.

During the classes

1. Organizational part.

-Hello guys! Sit down!

2. Communicate the topic and objectives of the lesson.

–In previous ecology lessons, you already learned what environmental factors are, how they affect living organisms, what characteristics animals have in connection with the influence of these environmental factors. Look at the topic of our lesson. What associations do you have when you read it? What will we study today?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– You know a lot! And it’s clear, my friend,
What is an important lesson for you now!

– We have several tasks ahead of us! It is necessary to find out what temperature conditions are on our planet, what groups of animals are distinguished due to the influence of temperature, and most importantly, how animals adapt to different temperatures.

– Open your notebooks and write down the date and topic of the lesson.

III. Learning new material.

1. Teacher’s story with elements of conversation.

– So what are the temperature conditions on our planet?

Mountains, deserts, savannas, forests,
Rivers, lakes, fields and seas.
How huge you are, my planet!
How mysterious you are, our Earth!

– Look at the map “Natural areas of the world.” From geography lessons you already know that there are different natural zones. Think about what criteria are used to distinguish them?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– They are depicted different colors. The hottest territories are located near the equator - these are the tropics and subtropics.

– What color is it shown on the map?

(ORANGE)

- Right. But this color is fine arts classified as warm colors!

- And here they are shown coldest zones – near the poles are subpolar regions. What color is used here?

(VIOLET)

- Right! It belongs to the group of cool flowers!

- And between them lie areas with moderate temperatures. They are shown to us in green.

The planet is huge!
Where it's humid, where it's hot!
Where the cold is terrible
And severe frost.
And there is no corner on the huge planet
Where someone would not be able to survive at all!

(IN THE PROGRESS OF READING THE POEM I DEMONSTRATE NATURE VIEWS)

– Animals live in almost the entire temperature range that is presented on the planet. Testate amoebas are found at + 58 °C; the larvae of many dipterans can live at temperatures around + 50 °C. Bristletails, springtails and mites that live high in the mountains survive well at night temperatures of about -10 °C. Science knows of the flightless mosquito, the jerk, which lives on the slopes of the Himalayas. It remains active even at a temperature of –16 °C. Metabolism is constantly occurring in the animal's body. Its intensity depends on the animal’s body temperature. At the same time, metabolism provides the animal with energy. The body temperature of animals is influenced by temperature environment. If the heat is too strong or the cold is too cold, the animal dies.

2. Working with the textbook.

– Temperature, as an environmental factor, of course, affects living organisms, and depending on this, two groups of animals are distinguished: cold-blooded and warm-blooded.

(I FORM A DIAGRAM ON THE BOARD)

- Guys, write down the diagram in your notebook.

– COLD-BLOODED...WARM-BLOODED

– These are compound adjectives formed by adding two roots: cold and blood, warm and blood.

– What do these terms mean?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

–And how is it said in the textbook? Nick?

- Open your textbooks. Find § 12 on page 31 4 paragraph from the top. Read the definition.

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

- Right. The cold-blooded group includes all invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles.

– Turn the page of the textbook and find paragraph 2 from the bottom. Read the definition in italics. (STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– The group of warm-blooded animals includes only birds and mammals. (IN THE PROGRESS OF EXPLANATION, I AMENDING THE PREVIOUSLY FORMED DIAGRAM). Write this down in your notebook.

– Pay attention to the diagram. Why do I use cold-blooded animals? Blue colour, and when denoting warm-blooded animals, red?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– That's right, today in class we will use blue to represent low temperatures and cold-blooded animals, and red to represent high temperatures and warm-blooded animals.

– Take pencils and highlight the terms in your notebook.

– Name the animals that we can classify as warm-blooded.

– What about animals that can be classified as cold-blooded?

3. Work in small groups.

– Guys, I propose to unite in groups of 5 people. To do this, the guys from the third desks will have to change seats. There are packets of assignments on your desks. You need to determine which group these animals belong to. There are 5 cards, like you, and there are also 5 circles around the animal. Each person fills out 1 circle and passes it on to the next one. Write your names on the package and remember the serial number. Each person colors only the circle with their own serial number. We use colors for warm-blooded animals – red, and cold-blooded ones – blue. Based on the results obtained, you will make the only right decision. In addition, you need to think about where the animal lives. The work needs to be done quickly! I'll give you a minute to discuss! Get started! Time has passed!

(INCLUDING MUSIC AND VIDEO IMAGES OF NATURE)

– The group that finishes the work, raise your hand.

(DISCUSSION OF WORK RESULTS)

– Now, let’s place our animals on the map.

(THE GUYS NAME THE ANIMAL, SAY TO WHICH GROUP IT IS ASSIGNED TO, NAME ITS PLACE OF HABITAT AND LOCATE THEM ON THE MAP).

– Now look at the map, guys! In areas with low temperatures, both warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals live. And representatives of these two groups also live in areas with high temperatures.

4. Working with a multimedia projector.

– How do animals adapt to life in different conditions?

STEP 1.

An image of a lizard appears on the screen.

– What kind of animal is shown here? Which group does he belong to?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– In the morning, when it is not yet hot, the desert iguana is colored in darker tones, and as the sun’s heat increases, it turns pale. Why do you think this happens?

(DARK COLOR HELPS ABSORB OUTSIDE HEAT, WHILE LIGHT COLOR REFLECTS SOLAR RADIATION.)

– Thus, by changing color throughout the day, the turtle adapted to tolerate temperature changes. The desert tortoise also uses the same device.

The following message appears on the screen: Change in body color.

STEP 2.

An image of a frog and a crocodile appears on the screen.

– Who is depicted on the screen? Which group do these animals belong to?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– Where can these animals live? Since these animals are cold-blooded, they also have to adapt to temperature changes throughout the day. They do this by changing motor activity. As the temperature drops, cold-blooded animals become more active.

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

The following message appears on the screen: Changes in physical activity due to temperature fluctuations during the day.

STEP 3.

An image of a turtle appears on the screen.

-And this is a desert tortoise. With a strong increase in air temperature, her salivation sharply increases. Flowing from the mouth, it wets the lower part of the head, neck and limbs - this is how the turtle cools down. To avoid overheating, many animals bury themselves in the sand or, on the contrary, try to find some hill and climb onto it, because The sand gets very hot. Thus, behavioral maneuvers come to the rescue here.

The following message appears on the screen: Behavioral maneuvers.

STEP 4.

An image appears on the screen grape snail and a bear.

– Look at this image, what can unite such different animals? And the whole point is to avoid unfavorable temperatures for them; they fall into hibernation and torpor. In addition to mollusks, fish and amphibians can go into torpor. What animals living in our area are capable of hibernating in winter? ( Hedgehogs, shrews, badgers, gophers, etc.)

The following message appears on the screen: Hibernation, torpor due to seasonal temperature changes.

STEP 5.

An image of a group of penguins appears on the screen.

– Look at the image. These are penguins.

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– Now I need 10 of the bravest assistants. Please, guys, come to the board!

(A GROUP OF GUYS COME OUT, GIVE THEM HATS AND ALL TOGETHER TRY TO DEMONSTRATE THE MOVEMENTS OF THE PENGUINS).

– We will now depict behavior in a group of penguins.

Guys, stand close to each other and form an outer and inner circle.

This is how penguins are built. They stand like that for a while, shifting from foot to foot. They then move in a circle, stepping left or right. Later, those penguins that were inside the group go out into the outer circle, and those penguins find themselves inside the group. And again they stand and mark time and again after a certain time they change places. This is how they warm up.

– What conclusion can be drawn about what kind of device this is?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

The following message appears on the screen: Formation of groups of animals when the temperature drops.

STEP 6.

An image appears on the screen polar bear and brown and immediately the inscription: The hotter the climate, the less body weight.

– Here you see representatives of the same class and even the same detachment, but they live in different conditions. This, of course, is reflected in their appearance. These features were formulated as follows: The hotter the climate, the less body weight! In ecology, this is called Bergmann's rule, after the name of the scientist who formulated it.

STEP 7.

An image of foxes and an arctic fox appears on the screen and the inscription immediately appears: The colder the climate, the shorter the protruding parts of the body (ears, tail, paws). Allen's rule.

– There is also a rule here, but which one? Let's imagine ourselves for a moment as research scientists and try to formulate this rule. Shown here is a Fennec fox, common fox and arctic fox. They live in different climatic conditions. I CALL THE TEMPERATURE LIMITS,

– What can be said about the distinctive features appearance these animals?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– Guys, does Bergman’s rule apply in this case?

STEP 8.

An image of a bird, a bear, or a walrus appears on the screen.

-Perhaps someone has guessed why these animals are united here? Look at the background. it's blue, which means we're looking at adaptation to low temperatures here.

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

The following message appears on the screen: Presence of protective cover.

STEP 9.

An image of a dog appears on the screen.

- Guys, what usually happens to you when you run a cross-country race?

(STUDENTS' ANSWERS)

– That’s right, you sweat, but dogs, due to their physiological characteristics, do not have sweat glands. How do they get out of this situation? What equipment do they have to carry high temperatures?

(STICK OUT THEIR TONGUE)

The following message appears on the screen: Evaporation increases with increasing temperature.

STEP 10.

– So, having examined the adaptations of animals to different temperature conditions, we formulated the following conclusions:

All theses are displayed on the screen.

– So we have completed all the tasks set at the beginning of the lesson.

There were many tasks
But everything is decided!
But how much longer do you have ahead?
There is so much to know!!!
What do you know - don't be lazy.
You always strive to understand the world!

IV. Consolidation of new material.

– Now let’s check the results of our joint work!

– Remind us what color we used today to denote warm-blooded animals and cold-blooded animals.

– Look at the screen. Determine who is the odd one out here and why?

– You have cards on your tables with the names of animals; highlight the warm-blooded ones in red and the cold-blooded ones in blue.

V. Lesson summary.

(IMAGE OF THE PLANET IS LIGHTED AND MUSIC SOUNDS)

How beautiful our world is!
Forests and gardens, a brook babbling,
The waters of a quiet river!
The villages, roads, fields fell silent,
And the Earth sleeps in the cradle of the Universe.
Don’t be, my friend, you’re cruel to the planet,
Take care of every flower and leaf,
Protect her, help her with work...
The earth among the stars is our only home.

- So, guys, our lesson is coming to an end. Look again at the map and remember that the temperature regime of our planet is very diverse, look at the diagram in your notebook and remember which animals we classify as warm-blooded and cold-blooded, and, finally, remember what various adaptations animals have in order to withstand the effects different temperatures.

VI. Homework:§12.

Grading.

_________________________ worked well in class today.

Ecology (from Greek. oikos - house and logo- doctrine) - the science of the laws of interaction of living organisms with their environment.

German biologist is considered the founder of ecology E. Haeckel(1834-1919), who first used the term in 1866 "ecology". He wrote: “By ecology we mean the general science of the relationship between an organism and the environment, which includes all “conditions of existence” in the broad sense of the word. They are partly organic and partly inorganic in nature.”

This science was originally biology, which studies populations of animals and plants in their environment.

Ecology studies systems at a level above the individual organism. The main objects of its study are:

• population - a group of organisms belonging to the same or similar species and occupying a certain territory;
• , including the biotic community (the totality of populations in the territory under consideration) and habitat;
• - area of ​​distribution of life on Earth.

To date, ecology has gone beyond the scope of biology itself and has turned into an interdisciplinary science that studies the most complex problems of human interaction with the environment. Ecology has traveled a difficult and lengthy path to understanding the “man-nature” problem, relying on research in the “organism-environment” system.

The interaction of Man with Nature has its own specifics. Man is endowed with reason, and this gives him the opportunity to realize his place in nature and purpose on Earth. Since the beginning of the development of civilization, Man has been thinking about his role in nature. Being, of course, part of nature, man created a special habitat, which is called human civilization. As it developed, it increasingly came into conflict with nature. Now humanity has already come to the realization that further exploitation of nature may threaten its own existence.

The relevance of this problem caused by the exacerbation environmental situation on a global scale, led to "greening"- To the need to take into account environmental laws and requirements- in all sciences and in all human activity.

Ecology is currently called the science of man’s “own home” - the biosphere, its characteristics, interaction and relationship with man, and man with the entire human society.

Ecology is not only an integrated discipline where physical and biological phenomena are connected, it forms a kind of bridge between natural and social sciences. It is not one of the disciplines with a linear structure, i.e. It does not develop vertically - from simple to complex - it develops horizontally, covering an ever wider range of issues from various disciplines.

No single science is capable of solving all the problems associated with improving the interaction between society and nature, since this interaction has social, economic, technological, geographical and other aspects. Only integrated (generalizing) science, which is what modern ecology is, can solve these problems.

Thus, from a dependent discipline within biology, ecology has turned into a complex interdisciplinary science - modern ecology- with a pronounced ideological component. Modern ecology has gone beyond the boundaries of not only biology, but also in general. The ideas and principles of modern ecology are ideological in nature, therefore ecology is connected not only with the sciences of man and culture, but also with philosophy. Such serious changes allow us to conclude that, despite more than a century of environmental history, modern ecology is a dynamic science.

Goals and objectives of modern ecology

One of the main goals of modern ecology as a science is the study of basic laws and the development of the theory of rational interaction in the “man - society - nature” system, considering human society as an integral part of the biosphere.

The main goal of modern ecology at this stage of development human society— to lead Humanity out of the global environmental crisis onto the path of sustainable development, in which the satisfaction of the vital needs of the present generation will be achieved without depriving future generations of such an opportunity.

To achieve these goals, environmental science will have to solve a number of diverse and complex problems, including:

• develop theories and methods for assessing the sustainability of ecological systems at all levels;
• explore the mechanisms of regulation of population numbers and biotic diversity, the role of biota (flora and fauna) as a regulator of the stability of the biosphere;
• study and create forecasts of changes in the biosphere under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors;
• assess the state and dynamics of natural resources and the environmental consequences of their consumption;
• develop methods for managing environmental quality;
• to form an understanding of the problems of the biosphere and the ecological culture of society.

Surrounding us living environment is not a disorderly and random combination of living beings. It is a stable and organized system, formed in the process of evolution of the organic world. Any systems can be modeled, i.e. it is possible to predict how a particular system will react to external influences. Systems approach— the basis for studying environmental problems.

The structure of modern ecology

Currently, ecology divided into a number of scientific branches and disciplines, sometimes far from the original understanding of ecology as a biological science about the relationship of living organisms with the environment. However, all modern trends in ecology are based on fundamental ideas bioecology, which today represents a combination of various scientific directions. So, for example, they distinguish autecology, exploring the individual connections of an individual organism with the environment; population ecology , dealing with the relationships between organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same territory; synecology, which comprehensively studies groups, communities of organisms and their relationships in natural systems (ecosystems).

Modern ecology is a complex of scientific disciplines. Basic is general ecology, studying the basic patterns of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions. Theoretical ecology explores general patterns organization of life, including in connection with anthropogenic impact on natural systems.

Applied ecology studies the mechanisms of human destruction of the biosphere and ways to prevent this process, and also develops principles for the rational use of natural resources. Applied ecology is based on a system of laws, rules and principles of theoretical ecology. The following scientific directions are distinguished from applied ecology.

Ecology of the biosphere, studying global changes, occurring on our planet as a result of the impact economic activity man to natural phenomena.

Industrial ecology, studying the impact of enterprise emissions on the environment and the possibilities of reducing this impact by improving technologies and treatment facilities.

Agricultural ecology, which studies ways to produce agricultural products without depleting soil resources while preserving the environment.

Medical ecology, which studies human diseases associated with environmental pollution.

Geoecology, studying the structure and functioning mechanisms of the biosphere, the connection and interrelation of biosphere and geological processes, the role of living matter in the energy and evolution of the biosphere, the participation of geological factors in the emergence and evolution of life on Earth.

Mathematical ecology models environmental processes, i.e. changes in nature that can occur when environmental conditions change.

Economic ecology develops economic mechanisms for rational use of natural resources and environmental protection.

Legal ecology develops a system of laws aimed at protecting nature.

Engineering ecology - A relatively new direction of environmental science, it studies the interaction of technology and nature, the patterns of formation of regional and local natural-technical systems and methods of managing them in order to protect the natural environment and ensure environmental safety. It ensures compliance of equipment and technology of industrial facilities with environmental requirements

Social ecology arose quite recently. Only in 1986 did the first conference dedicated to the problems of this science take place in Lvov. The science of “home”, or the habitat of society (person, society), studies the planet Earth, as well as space - how living environment society.

Human ecology - part of social ecology, which considers the interaction of man as a biosocial being with the world around him.

- one of the new independent branches of human ecology - the science of quality of life and health.

Synthetic evolutionary ecology- new scientific discipline, including particular areas of ecology - general, bio-, geo- and social.

A brief historical path to the development of ecology as a science

In the history of the development of ecology as a science, three main stages can be distinguished. First stage - the origin and development of ecology as a science (until the 1960s), when data on the relationship of living organisms with their habitat was accumulated, the first scientific generalizations were made. During the same period, the French biologist Lamarck and the English priest Malthus for the first time warned humanity about the possible negative consequences of human influence on nature.

Second phase - formalization of ecology into an independent branch of knowledge (after the 1960s to the 1950s). The beginning of the stage was marked by the publication of works by Russian scientists K.F. Roulier, N.A. Severtseva, V.V. Dokuchaev, who first substantiated a number of principles and concepts of ecology. After Charles Darwin's research in the field of evolution of the organic world, the German zoologist E. Haeckel was the first to understand that what Darwin called the “struggle for existence” represents an independent field of biology, and called it ecology(1866).

Ecology finally took shape as an independent science at the beginning of the 20th century. During this period, the American scientist C. Adams created the first summary on ecology, and other important generalizations were published. The largest Russian scientist of the 20th century. IN AND. Vernadsky creates a fundamental doctrine of the biosphere.

In the 1930-1940s, the English botanist A. Tansley (1935) first put forward concept of "ecosystem", and a little later V. Ya. Sukachev(1940) substantiated a concept close to him about biogeocenosis.

Third stage(1950s to present) - transformation of ecology into a complex science, including conservation sciences surrounding a person environment. Simultaneously with the development theoretical foundations ecology were decided and applied issues related to ecology.

In our country, in the 1960-1980s, almost every year the government adopted resolutions to strengthen nature protection; Land, water, forest and other codes were published. However, as the practice of their use has shown, they did not give the required results.

Today Russia is experiencing an environmental crisis: about 15% of the territory is actually an environmental disaster zone; 85% of the population breathe air polluted significantly above the MPC. The number of “environmentally caused” diseases is growing. There is degradation and reduction of natural resources.

A similar situation has developed in other countries of the world. The question of what will happen to humanity in the event of degradation of natural ecological systems and the loss of the biosphere’s ability to maintain biochemical cycles is becoming one of the most pressing.

Forest as an ecosystem

Also distinguished anthropogenic factors

Abiotic factors.

1. Photophilous

2. Shade-tolerant

3. Shade-loving

1. Moisture-loving

2. Drought resistant

1. Plants little demanding

2. Plants very demanding

3. Plants medium-demanding

Biotic factors.

1. Phytophagous or herbivores

2. Zoophagi

3. Omnivores

saprophages

Questions and tasks

ECOLOGICAL FEATURES OF FORESTS

Forest as an ecosystem

What is a "plant community"?

Name the signs by which plants are united into forest communities

Forest ecosystems in the Vologda region are the predominant type of terrestrial ecosystems. In our region, forests occupy about 80% of the area. They are quite diverse in structure, composition and habitat conditions. Forests contain a variety of plant life forms. Among them the main role belongs to trees and shrubs. Plants that form forests exist together and influence each other. In addition, forest plants interact with their environment and other organisms (animals, fungi, bacteria). In their unity they form a complex developing ecosystem.

A peculiar combination of natural conditions allowed the formation of woody plant forms. For tree growth, the most important factors are temperature and humidity. So low temperature limits the development of trees in the tundra, and insufficient humidity in the steppes. In our natural area The height of the trees reaches 35 - 40 meters.

A feature of the forest ecosystem is the clear distribution of plants into tiers. This is due to the fact that plants differ in height and distribution of root systems in soil horizons. The species composition of plants and the number of tiers depend on the physical conditions of the environment.

In a forest community, tiers are distinguished according to life forms: woody, shrub, herbaceous-shrub and moss-lichen. In different types of forest these tiers are expressed differently. In forests there is also a group of extra-tiered organisms – epiphytes.

The tree layer in the forests of the Vologda region contains 22 species of trees. But some of them can have two life forms: trees and shrubs (bird cherry, willow, rowan).

Depending on the type of forest, the development of the shrub layer varies - from single specimens to closed thickets. Since shrubs are always lower than trees, their thickets are called "undergrowth". There are 32 species of shrubs in our forests. Some of them - willow, raspberries, buckthorn, currants, rose hips - form thickets.

Herbaceous plants and shrubs form their own special layer in the forest. The dominant species of this layer determine the name of the forest community (lingonberry pine forest, blueberry pine forest, etc.). Species composition The herbaceous plants of the forest are diverse. Each forest community corresponds to a specific complex of herbaceous plant species. In coniferous forests there are about 10-15 species, and in small-leaved forests up to 30-50 species. Among them, flowering plants predominate; higher spore plants (horsetails, mosses, ferns) are found in smaller numbers.

The lowest tier of forests is formed by mosses and lichens. From mosses, depending on moisture, green, long-moss or sphagnum mosses develop. Lichens predominate in dry pine forests: various types of Cladonia, Icelandic Cetraria and others. The dominant species of this layer determine the name of the forest community: lichen pine forest (“white moss”), green moss spruce forest, long-moss spruce forest (with the dominance of cuckoo flax), sphagnum spruce forest.

The out-of-tier group (epiphytes) is formed by algae, mosses and lichens growing on trees and dead wood. Epiphytic mosses are more diverse on deciduous trees, and lichens on old spruce and pine trees.

The tiered distribution of plants creates a variety of habitats for animals. Each species of animal occupies the most favorable conditions for it at a certain altitude. But animals, unlike plants, are mobile. They can use different tiers for feeding and breeding. Thus, fieldfare thrushes build nests in trees, in the first half of summer they feed on invertebrates on the ground, and in the second half of summer they eat berries on trees.

Thanks to the tiered arrangement, a larger number of species coexist in the forest community, which allows for fuller use of the habitat. This ensures diversity of forest organisms.

This is also facilitated by the different combination of living conditions in the forest. On the one hand, the life of organisms depends on the climate of the taiga zone, the topography and soils of the territory where the forest community is located. On the other hand, under the forest canopy, each layer creates its own microclimate. The growth of a certain set of plants depends on fluctuations in temperature and humidity. In turn, this creates habitat features for animals where they can feed, reproduce and hide from enemies.

The living conditions of organisms are a combination of environmental factors.

Natural environmental factors are usually divided into two groups: abiotic and biotic.

Abiotic environmental factors– factors inanimate nature. In forests, the most important factors for organisms are temperature, light, humidity, soil composition, and relief features.

Also distinguished anthropogenic factors – all forms of human influence on nature.

Abiotic factors. They, first of all, affect the life activity of organisms and have different meanings for plants and animals. For example, light is necessary for photosynthesis for plants, and helps most animals navigate in space. Each species makes certain demands on the environment, which, due to certain environmental factors, do not coincide among different species. For example, Scots pine is photophilous and tolerates dry and poor soils. Norway spruce is shade tolerant and needs richer soils, etc.

In relation to light, there are three main groups of plants: light-loving, shade-tolerant and shade-loving.

1. Photophilous The species grows best in full light. Forest light-loving species include: Scots pine, birch, many shrubs (bearberry) and herbaceous plants of pine forests. The greatest diversity of such species can be found in pine forests.

2. Shade-tolerant The species can grow in full light, but develop better in some shade. This is a fairly large group of forest herbaceous plants that lives in different types forests and occupying different tiers, for example, lily of the valley, lungwort, rowan, bird cherry.

3. Shade-loving species never grow in full light. This group includes some forest grasses and mosses: wood sorrel, ferns, wintergreens and other species that are characteristic of dark spruce forests.

The temperature factor and sufficient humidity determine the predominance of woody vegetation over other plant communities in our natural area. These factors change throughout the year, leading to well-defined seasons and changes in the state of the flora and fauna. The appearance of the forest community and the activity of its inhabitants depend on the time of year. Seasonality corresponds to such phenomena as vegetation, flowering, fruiting, leaf fall, bird migration, reproduction and hibernation of animals.

In relation to humidity, forest plants belong to three main ecological groups:

1. Moisture-loving species growing on waterlogged soils and in conditions of high air humidity (some types of sedges, ferns and others). This group is widespread in communities such as black alder forests and willow forests.

2. Drought resistant Plants are inhabitants of dry places; they are able to tolerate significant and prolonged dryness of air and soil. This includes herbaceous plants growing in pine forests (bearberry, creeping thyme, sheep fescue).

3. The intermediate group consists of plants of moderately humid habitats(many deciduous trees and herbaceous plants). This group of plants predominates due to the climate and topography of the region.

According to the requirements for the content of minerals in the soil nutrients There are three ecological groups of species:

1. Plants little demanding to the content of nutrients in the soil. They can grow on very poor sandy soils (Scots pine, heather, cat paw and others). Many of them develop mycorrhiza on the roots. It helps plants absorb water and nutrients from the soil.

2. Plants very demanding to nutrient content. These are herbaceous species that grow in alder forests: stinging nettle, common stinging nettle, common impatiens, etc.

3. Plants medium-demanding to nutrient content. This is the majority forest species: two-leaved myringue, common sorrel and others. They predominate in forest communities.

Biotic factors. No less an important condition the existence of organisms in forests is the relationship between them. This can be a cooperative relationship that benefits both species. For example, birds eat the fruits of plants and distribute their seeds. Mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plants are known. In other cases, one species can take advantage of another without causing harm. Thus, in winter, tits can feed on woodpeckers, who leave some of the food uneaten. Species that have similar requirements for living conditions compete with each other. When growing together, spruce gradually displaces light-loving aspen, creating shading as it grows and preventing its regeneration. Among animals, competition between species occurs over territory and food. For example, 5 species of thrushes living in the Vologda region feed on small invertebrates in the lower tiers of the forest in the first half of summer. Then, as the berries ripen, they mainly stay in the upper tiers of the forest. Competition between them is weakened due to the diversity of invertebrates and the abundance of berries.

Food is a very important environmental factor, as it is the energy for the existence of organisms. The food of animals in forests varies. In general, everything that is in the forest is used for food, and animals are found from the tops of trees to the deepest roots.

Based on nutrition, different ecological groups of animals can be distinguished.

1. Phytophagous or herbivores animals are consumers of various parts of plants (foliage, wood, flowers, fruits). The abundance of plant food is associated with a variety of herbivorous animals. The main consumers of vegetative mass in our forests are moose, white hares and various insects (leaf beetles, bark beetles, longhorned beetles and many others). The generative parts of plants (flowers, fruits, seeds) are eaten by birds (crossbill, redpoll, goldfinch, siskin, bullfinch), mammals (squirrel) and insects. Many insects, feeding on nectar and pollen of plants, simultaneously pollinate them. Therefore, they play an extremely important role in plant reproduction. Birds that eat berries take part in the spread of plants, since plant seeds are not digested and fall into new places with excrement.

2. Zoophagi– consumers of other animals. Many people in the forest eat invertebrate animals. Spiders feed on insects. Their fellow insects become prey for predatory insects. These include beetles (ground beetles, soft beetles, ladybugs), wasps, grasshoppers and many others. Toads, lizards, and shrews feed on insects, mollusks, and worms. Tits eat insects, and hawks and falcons hunt other birds. Owls, stoats, and weasels eat small mammals. Wolves chase large animals, and lynx hunt from ambush.

3. Omnivores– animals that consume various foods: plants, mushrooms, animals, including carrion. These are the wild boar, bear, badger, raven, hooded crow and others that live in our forests. These animals are characterized by very diverse methods of obtaining food and places where they feed.

4. A group of animals that use dead vegetation ( saprophages). By processing fallen leaves and dead wood, these organisms play an important role in the existence and development of forests. Insects predominate among them. This is how the larvae of various longhorn beetles develop and feed in dead tree trunks. Among soil animals, worms belong to this group.

In temperate forests different seasons Every year, the abundance and availability of food varies greatly, so many animals eat both plant and animal foods. For example, hazel grouse, wood grouse, great spotted woodpecker, and even rodents, which are considered to be herbivores.

Environmental factors act jointly on organisms, determining the distribution and vital activity of plants and animals. For example, the complex action of abiotic and biotic factors led to the formation of sedentary, nomadic and migratory species in birds.

Questions and tasks

Why are plants in forests distributed into tiers?

Give examples of plants of different tiers. What features are characteristic of them?

Why are temperature, humidity and light some of the most important abiotic factors?

Think about what ecological groups of animals can be distinguished in relation to light?

H Give examples of different plants environmental groups, growing in the forests of your area.

General requirements that a particular species imposes on the environment

Caused by heredity. Each species has, as they say, specific ecological characteristics. These include, for example, certain requirements for temperature, the presence of water, nutrients, light, etc., and in the early stages of plant development these requirements may be different than during its flowering and fruiting.

Thus, for the germination of seeds of many species of plants, a certain soil temperature is required; sometimes before germination, that is, during the dormant period, the seeds must be strongly cooled, and in order for the plant to bloom, it is usually also necessary to be exposed to certain external conditions. In this case, we are talking mainly about factors of inanimate nature, that is, abiotic factors. Only in cases where these factors correspond to the ecological characteristics of the plant can it grow well and go through its full life cycle.

So, the growth and distribution of plants is largely determined by environmental conditions. But the concept of “external environment” itself is very ambiguous. This includes not only abiotic factors, but also the living world, that is, the influences exerted by other plants, animals, and also - and not least - humans. All of them are in close interaction, and it is often very difficult to identify the influence of any of them on the distribution of plants, especially since it is often determined by historical reasons. In this section we will limit ourselves to considering only the components of inanimate nature, namely their two large complexes - climate and soil, to which in most cases all abiotic factors can be reduced. Of course, these sets of factors are also closely interdependent.

The boundaries of the ranges of many species are partially determined by the boundaries of continents washed by oceans and seas. Although it is generally accepted that such natural boundaries are also determined by abiotic factors, from an ecological point of view they are not of particular interest, and we will not dwell on them. And in the mountains, environmental conditions often change very sharply, so it is not surprising that there the boundaries of habitats are often quite clearly defined, especially since it is the highlands that present obstacles to the spread of many plants. We also find clear, relatively easily detectable boundaries of habitats near the high-latitude regions of the Arctic without vegetation cover, extremely arid desert areas or areas with highly saline soils (if they occupy very large areas).

However, the boundaries of most habitats lie where there are no such obstacles to the spread of plants. Here these boundaries are often not sharply expressed, and the range is usually gradually “rarefied.” This indicates that the conditions for the existence of the corresponding species are deteriorating until they finally disappear altogether. Changes often play an important role climatic conditions, which we will now focus on.

Ecology is a science that studies the environment, the patterns of life of living organisms, as well as the human impact on nature. This field of knowledge studies those systems that are higher than an individual organism. In turn, it is subdivided into more private sectors. What disciplines are included in ecology?

Bioecology

One of the oldest branches of ecology is bioecology. This science is based on the fundamental knowledge about the flora and fauna that man has been able to accumulate throughout his history. The subject of this direction in science is living beings. At the same time, humans are also studied within the framework of bioecology as a separate species. This direction in ecology uses a biological approach to evaluate various phenomena, the relationships between them and their consequences.

Main directions

The focus of the study of bioecology is the biosphere. The section of ecology, which studies living beings, due to the diversity of data on nature, cannot consist of only one discipline. Therefore, it is divided into several subsections.

• Auetecology is a scientific field whose subject of study is living organisms in certain living conditions. The main task of this direction is to study the processes of adaptation to the environment, as well as those boundaries of physicochemical parameters that are compatible with the life of the organism.
• Eidecology - studies the ecology of species.
• Synecology is a branch of ecology that studies populations various types animals, plants, and microorganisms. The discipline also explores the ways of their formation, development in dynamics, productivity, interaction with the outside world and other features.
• Demecology - studies natural groups of living organisms that belong to the same species. This is a branch of ecology that studies the structure of populations, as well as the basic conditions that are necessary for their formation. Also the subject of its study are intrapopulation groups, features of the process of their formation, dynamics, and numbers.

Currently, bioecology is the doctrine that underlies environmental management and environmental protection. Currently, environmental processes are carried out using modern biotechnological methods.

Relevance of science

Every person sooner or later thinks about how important a quality environment is for life and health. Nowadays the environment is changing rapidly. And not the least role here is played by human economic activity. Due to the destructive activities of plants and factories, fresh drinking water is getting worse, bodies of water are becoming shallower, and the landscape of the suburbs is changing. Pesticides pollute the soil.

Bioecology is a branch of ecology that studies methods by which the environment can be cleansed of pollution, the ecological balance restored again, and total ecological catastrophy prevented.

How is knowledge about nature applied?

One example of the successful use of the knowledge that bioecology possesses is the invention of a special toilet in Singapore, with the help of which water consumption is reduced by up to 90%. The waste in this toilet is converted into fertilizer and electrical energy. How does this system work? Liquid waste undergoes treatment, during which it is decomposed into the elements phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen. Solid waste awaiting processing in a bioreactor. During the digestion process, methane gas is formed in this device. Since it does not have any odor, it is used for household needs. The result of using bioecological knowledge in this case is the complete restoration of natural resources.

General ecology

This branch of ecology studies organisms in the context of their interaction with the entire world around them. This connection between a living being and the environment in which it lives. This also applies to humans. Experts divide the entire living world into three categories: plants, animals and people. Therefore, general ecology also branches into three directions - plant ecology, animal ecology, and humane ecology. It should be noted that scientific knowledge is quite extensive. There are about a hundred sections of general ecology. These are areas of forestry, urban, medical, chemical discipline and many others.

Applied direction

This is a branch of science that deals with the transformation of ecological systems based on the knowledge that humans have. This direction represents the practical part environmental activities. At the same time, the applied direction contains three more large blocks:

• applied research in the field of environmental management;
• environmental design, as well as design, with the help of which it is possible to create environmentally friendly factories and enterprises;
• development of management systems in the field of environmental management, which also includes issues of examination, licensing and control of projects.

Geoecology

This is one of the main branches of ecology, the origin of which is associated with the name of the German geographer K. Troll. In the 30s of the last century, he introduced this concept. He considered geoecology to be one of the branches of general natural science, in which studies from the fields of geography and ecology are combined. In Russia, this term has become widespread since the 70s of the last century. Researchers identify several concepts of geoecology.

According to one of them, this discipline studies the geological environment and its environmental features. This approach assumes that the geological environment is connected with the biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Geoecology can also be defined as the science that studies the interaction of biological, geographical, and production spheres. In this case, this branch of natural science studies various aspects environmental management, relations between the environment and humans. Various interpretations are distinguished depending on which science (geology, geography, or ecology) the author of the definition takes as the main one.

In this area of ​​natural science, there are three main directions.

• Natural geoecology is the science of stable parameters of geospheres, zonal and regional natural complexes, which ensure a comfortable environment for humans and their self-development.
• Anthropogenic geoecology. Studies the scale of all those changes that occur in nature as a result of human activity.
• Applied geoecology. It is a synthesis of knowledge about what strategy and tactics can be applied in order to preserve the evolutionary parameters of ecology and prevent the onset of crisis situations.

Particular areas of research in this area of ​​natural science are the ecology of land, fresh waters, the atmosphere, the Far North, high mountain regions, deserts, geochemical ecology, as well as other areas. The main objectives of the discipline are to identify the patterns of the impact that humans have on nature, and also to direct this impact to improve the environment and its improvement.

Social ecology

This is a branch of ecology that studies the relationship between humans and the environment - geographical, social, and also cultural. The main objective of this scientific direction is to optimize economic activity and the environment. Moreover, this interaction must be optimized on an ongoing basis.

Harmonious relationships between nature and humans are possible only if environmental management occurs rationally. Scientific principles Other disciplines are called upon to develop rational use of the resources of the surrounding world: medicine, geography, economics. Social ecology is also called human ecology. The predecessor of this science is the theologian Thomas Malthus, who called on humanity to limit population growth for the reason that Natural resources are not unlimited.