TO important inventions The 20th century can be attributed to those achievements that did not turn the world upside down, but made a certain contribution to the lives and everyday life of people.
Vacuum cleaner, 1901
English inventor Cecil Booth came up with a device that sucked dust in train cars. This gasoline-powered device moved through the streets on a horse-drawn carriage by a team of four people.
On August 30, 1901, a representative of the southwestern part of England, Herbert Cecil Booth, received a patent for his device that performs the functions of a vacuum cleaner.
Disposable blades, 1909
Disposable blades were invented by American inventor King Camp Gillette, founder of The Gillette Company, as an inexpensive alternative to using a razor. These are important inventions for men.
Motor airplane, 1903
American inventors Orville and Wilbur Wright invented the first motorized airplane. After much trial and error, testing the wing design, the construction of the airplane was completed and they were able to rise to 37 meters in 12 seconds. The design, further improvements in safety and control resulted in stable flight from the ground with a pilot. This is an important invention, which is why today we see the impact of airplanes and aircraft in the military and transportation industries.
Parachute, 1913
With the invention of the airplane, it was quite natural to invent the parachute. Although the idea of a parachute has been around since the 15th century since the time of Leonardo da Vinci, it was not applied practically. American inventor Stefan Banich gave his invention to the military at the beginning of the 20th century. He donated a US patent to the US Army and gained the respect of the inventor.
There is also a patent for the invention of the Russian inventor of the backpack parachute, Gleb Kotelnikov, which he registered in France on March 20, 1912. The tsarist government was not interested in recruiting pilots. However, after the ballooning tragedies, the development of this means of rescue resumed. Several types were manufactured from RK-1 to RK-4 (RK - Russian Kotelnikov).
The parachute was already widely used during the Second World War. Today, parachutes are still used in military and civilian aircraft.
Liquid fuel for a rocket, 1914
Using fuel from liquid oxygen and gasoline, the first flight of the rocket occurred on March 16, 1926. American professor Robert H. Godart launched a liquid fuel rocket to a height of 12.5 meters in 2.5 seconds. She demonstrated that it was possible to use liquid fuel. Ultimately, this fuel is now used to launch spacecraft.
Electronic television, 1923
Russian émigré American inventor Vladimir Zworykin is credited with inventing the first fully electronic television (as opposed to an electromechanical television). Vladimir Zvorykin invented the final design of the transmitting tube iconoscope, which became the basis future system electronic television.
Sliced Bread, 1928
Otto Frederick Rowwedder Davenport invented the first machine to slice one loaf of bread at a time. Other inventors stood on the sidelines of this invention, cutting off the sandwich's crust for the lazy.
Antibiotics, 1928
Although the ancient Chinese used antibiotics 2,500 years ago, they didn't use them until nearly the 20th century. Scottish biologist and pharmacologist Alexander Fleming, who accidentally discovered the unique properties of the famous antibiotics, penicillin. After working on some germ cultures, he noticed areas in some cultures where bacteria did not grow, and it turned out that fungi were affecting these areas. After separating the extract, he identified them as part of the Penicillinaceae genus. Now penicillin is used to treat cellulite, gonorrhea, meningitis, pneumonia, and syphilis. So yes, penicillin is a good antibiotic.
Ballpoint pen, 1938
Hungarian inventor Lazio Biro created this possible replacement for a fountain pen. A ballpoint pen is cheap, reliable and easy to maintain. The ink dries almost immediately after contact with the paper. These important inventions of ballpoint pens help in many ways.
Spiral, 1945
Elegant and ingenious in its simplicity, the spiral is one of the greatest toys ever. No one can resist the toy's charm of moving down the stairs or simply rocking back and forth. In 1943, after observing the movement of a torsion spring, engineer Richard James approached his wife Betty about the possibility of making this toy. After various tests and materials, they came up with the toy we know and love today.
Microwave, 1945
This common kitchen appliance was discovered by accident. While working as an engineer, Percy Spencer noticed that the chocolate in his pocket began to melt while he was working on an active radar installation. It was the microwave radar that caused the sticky mess. He then deliberately cooked the popcorn, then the egg. Spencer then sealed the microwaves in a metal box with the food moving inside the box. After Percy, Spencer filed a US patent where the first microwave oven was built in 1947. It was a 1.8 m oven, weighed 340 kg and cost about $5000, consuming 3000 watts (compared to today's standard of 1000 watts). Today, microwave ovens are slightly smaller and more economical.
These simple and important inventions led to.
In the 19th century Great strides have been made in the fields of education, science and technology. Scientific discoveries, pouring out of a cornucopia, contributed to the development of modern industry. Under their influence, people's ideas about the world around them and the centuries-old way of their life changed. Over the course of one century, man moved from a carriage to a train, from a train to a car, and in 1903 he took off in an airplane.
Up to the 20th century. the world's population as a whole remained illiterate. Most people couldn't even read or write. Only in the highly developed countries of Western Europe, embraced by industrialization, was noticeable progress observed. In the 19th century, especially in the second half, education began to spread widely. This became possible due to the fact that society became richer and the material well-being of people increased. In addition, industrial civilization needed skilled workers. Therefore, the state began to pay more attention to education issues and began the transition to universal compulsory education. In Great Britain, the law on compulsory education for all children under 12 years of age was passed in 1870, in France - in 1882.
In some European countries, the transition to universal primary education began even earlier. In Lutheran Sweden, for example, in 1686 a law was passed obliging the head of the family to teach literacy to his children and even servants. And this law was strictly followed. After all, the most important duty of a Lutheran was to independently read the Bible. It was even impossible to get married until young people mastered reading. It is not surprising that by the end of the 18th century. The Swedish population was the most literate in Europe. However, the law on compulsory primary education was adopted only in the 1880s.
By the end of the 19th century. The number of literate men in Western Europe reached 90%. Universities opened in many cities. However higher education was not accessible to everyone. It still remained elitist. Secondary schools were created for children from wealthy families, from which a direct route to higher education institutions opened.
The science
XIX century often called the age of science. Under the influence of its rapid and rapid development, human ideas about the structure of matter, space and time, the ways of development of flora and fauna, the origin of man and life on Earth changed.
In the 19th century scientists occupied an important place in society and enjoyed great influence. Their work was surrounded by honor and respect. They were looked upon as modern wizards. Not like in previous centuries, when leading the life of a scientist was risky and dangerous.
In the XV - XVII centuries. such a life sometimes ended at the stake of the Inquisition. Remember how the church burned Giordano Bruno. Life almost ended at the stake Galileo Galilei who argued that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Clashes between science and religion were commonplace back then. The situation became completely different in the 19th century. After all, the world of industry, machine production and transport depended on science. And it was impossible to refuse it. Science advanced along all fronts, changing not only the environment, but also the inner world of man.
Discoveries in mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology and social sciences followed one after another. The geometric theory of Euclid, which dominated for two millennia, was supplemented by the non-Euclidean geometry of N. I. Lobachevsky and the German B. Riemann. The law of conservation of energy made it possible to substantiate the unity of the material world and the indestructibility of energy. The discovery of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction paved the way for the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa. J. Maxwell established the electromagnetic nature of light. A. Einstein discovered that at speeds close to the speed of light, the laws of Newtonian mechanics do not apply.
Another discovery of the brilliant scientist - the theory of relativity - forced us to take a fresh look at time and space, to recognize the existence of a body in four-dimensional space, the coordinates of which are length, width, height and time. It is impossible to depict this system graphically. It can only be imagined with the help of imagination.
One of the largest discoveries of the 19th century. was the construction by D.I. Mendeleev of the periodic system of elements. She not only established the relationship between atomic weight and chemical properties elements, but also made it possible to predict the discovery of new ones.
French scientist Louis Pasteur founded the science of microbes, after which the successful fight against epidemic diseases began.
A revolution in natural science was made by scientists who penetrated the secrets of " strange world" - the world of elementary particles. In 1895, X-rays were discovered (named after the German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen). This discovery immediately found application in medicine and technology. This was followed by the discovery of radioactivity and research in the field of the atomic nucleus, associated with the names of such outstanding physicists as Maria Sklodowska-Curie (Poland), P. Curie (France), J. Bohr (Denmark) and E. Rutherford (England).
Scientists penetrated not only into the secrets of the atomic nucleus, but also got to know the Universe better. New planets Uranus and Neptune were discovered.
Darwin's teachings and the formation of a new picture of the world
The most important achievement of science of the 19th century. was the creation of the theory of the evolution of species through natural selection. It found its complete embodiment in the teachings of Charles Darwin, who had a huge influence on the formation of a new picture of the world.
What seems quite obvious to us was not so obvious in mid-19th V. Most people in Europe and North America at that time believed in the biblical accounts of the creation of the world four thousand years before the birth of Jesus Christ. They believed that God separately created every plant and animal, including humans. All this contradicted the latest scientific discoveries and was incompatible with the data of geologists, who calculated the age of the Earth in millions of years. The usual picture of the world collapsed. Religion demanded that they believe in one thing, and reason suggested another.
In 1859, Charles Darwin’s book “The Origin of Species” was published in England. She brought the conflict between religious and scientific worldviews to a boiling point. Darwin's main idea was that plant and animal world constantly changing through natural selection. Only that type of plant or animal life survives that is most adapted to living conditions, and, conversely, unadapted organisms are thrown aside and die. There was no place left for God in this development. The Church opposed Darwin, seeing in his teachings the basis for atheism.
The attacks became more fierce after the publication of the scientist’s new book, “The Descent of Man” (1871). It proved that man descended from a creature common to the monkey.
Darwin himself jokingly called his books “the gospels of Satan.” The Descent of Man has been the subject of intense controversy. Many scientists did not accept Darwin's theory of human origins. It has not received scientific confirmation to date. But her general ideas about evolution and natural selection remain important.
There is nothing surprising. Back in the 6th century. BC, one Chinese philosopher and biologist came to the same conclusions as Darwin. His name was Zong Jie. He wrote that organisms acquired differences through gradual changes, generation after generation. The only amazing thing is that it took the world two and a half thousand years to come to the same conclusion.
The ruling classes distorted Darwin's theory. They saw in her yet another proof of their superiority. As a result of “natural selection,” they survived the struggle for existence and ended up at the top, becoming the rulers. It was also an argument in favor of imperialist policies and white supremacy. At the same time, K. Marx and F. Engels saw in “The Origin of Species” a natural scientific basis for understanding the historical struggle of classes.
Revolution in technology
The creation of large-scale machine production and machine technology constitutes the main content of the second period of New History.
A powerful impetus for the mechanization of production was given by the invention at the end of the 18th century. steam engine. With its help, working machines of any type could be set in motion. Almost simultaneously, a process for producing iron and steel from cast iron was developed. A new branch of production arose - mechanical engineering. Mass production of various machines began. Steam plants began to be used in various industries, agriculture, land, river and sea transport. It is no coincidence that contemporaries characterized the 19th century. as "the age of steam and iron."
Transport development
Decisive changes in the life of Europe, North America, and the whole world, contributed to the creation of steam transport. The first steamship was a river boat built in the USA in 1807. Steamboats gradually replaced sailing ships. Since 1822 they began to be built from iron, and from the 80s - from steel. At the beginning of the 20th century. Russian designers launched the first motor ship.
A real revolution in transport was brought about by the invention of the steam locomotive (1814) and the construction of railways, which began in 1825. In 1830, the total length of railway lines in the world was only 300 km. By 1917 it reached 1 million 146 thousand km.
The "iron horse" of the English engineer Stephenson reached a speed of about 10 km per hour, 1814
At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, after the creation of the internal combustion engine, new types of transport arose - automobile and air. At first, airplanes had purely sporting significance, then they began to be used in military affairs.
The construction of bridges, canals and hydraulic structures played a major role in the development of transport. In 1869, the Suez Canal was opened, reducing sea route from Europe to countries South-East Asia almost 13 thousand km. In 1914, construction of the Panama Canal, connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean, was completed.
Relationship between science and practice
Scientific discoveries and technical inventions were closely related. Some scientists developed ideas in some branch of science. Others tested them in laboratories at institutes and universities. In the course of such experiments, ways of practical application of one or another scientific discovery were identified. This is what happened, for example, with the study of electricity.
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta - creator of the first chemical light source - the Voltaic column, 1800.
Battery demonstration before Napoleon Bonaparte
Electrical and magnetic phenomena were known even before the 19th century, but they were considered in isolation from each other. In 1831, the English scientist Michael Faraday (1791-1867) conducted important experiments demonstrating the laws of electricity. It turned out that an electric current arises in a copper wire crossing magnetic lines of force. This discovery is known as the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. From his contemporaries Faraday received the humorous title “Lord of Lightning.” His ideas were confirmed and developed by Scottish scientist James Maxwell, who proved the connection between electricity and magnetism in 1873.
People of the 19th century They believed that they had already invented everything when the first steam locomotives and cars appeared, moving at a speed of twenty kilometers per hour. But how wrong they were! There was so much more to discover! The science of electricity led to the creation of the electrical industry, which began to serve man. First, the electric motor was invented, and in 1880, Siemens produced the first electric train. The world's first power plants began operating, and electric motors began to be used more and more in factories. Electric lighting of city streets, residential buildings, public and industrial premises appeared. The horse-drawn horse was becoming a thing of the past. Trams rumbled along the streets of European cities, notifying the world of the beginning of the era of electricity.
The electric light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. Cheaper and more practical, it replaced the gas jet. Edison is the author of over 1000 inventions. He improved the telegraph and telephone, invented the phonograph (1882), built the world's first public power station (1882)
A new type of energy opened up new horizons for European countries. But it, like many other inventions, was soon used for military purposes.
Means of communication
In the second half of the 19th century. There was a revolution in communications. For centuries, people have communicated with each other through letters. In the navy and in the land army - with the help of signal flags, lights or any other conventional signs. The development of industry and trade required more advanced means of information transmission. Scientific discoveries in the field of electricity and magnetism fully satisfied this need.
In 1836, an American named Samuel Morse fundamentally invented the new kind communications - telegraph. Morse's electrical apparatus transmitted messages in coded dots and dashes over wires. By the end of the century, the main cities of the world were connected by telegraph communications. It took scientists forty years to move from coded messages to the transmission of live voices over wires. In 1876, the telephone was invented and gained universal recognition. At the turn of the 20th century. the third important discovery in the field of information transmission was born - wireless communication over the air using radio waves. Since that time, radio has become the main source of information for the whole world.
IN late XIX V. Thanks to technological progress, cinema appeared. The Lumière brothers invented the first film projector in 1895 and founded the world's first movie theater in Paris. Cinema very quickly became a form of art and entertainment of the 20th century.
The triumphant march of science has greatly changed people's lives. Telegraph, telephone, railways and steamships, automobiles, and later airplanes shortened distances and made the world suddenly small. But man made bad use of the gifts of science. Brilliant discoveries blinded him. With the help of science, the most advanced methods of destruction were developed. Power over nature led to the gradual destruction of the environment. True, man at that time did not yet realize this.
References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History Modern times XIX - early XX century, 1998.
Climb industrial production, transport, communications, the growth of industrialization of the state - all this contributed to the successful development of natural sciences in Russia. During this period, a number of discoveries were made in natural science (the system of natural sciences) and technology.
From history, economics, sociology, i.e. The humanities required new approaches and understanding, explanations of the past and present.
During this period of time such names appeared in science as:
1). Zhukovsky Nikolai Egorovich (d. 1921) is the father of Russian aviation and aerodynamics. Based on his works, Moscow University created aerodynamic tube and the Aerodynamic Institute was founded.
2). Tsiolkovsky Konstantin Eduardovich (1m.1935) - Russian and Soviet self-taught scientist, researcher and school teacher. He was one of the pioneers of astronautics. Justified the conclusions of the jet propulsion equation. Came to the conclusion about the use of multi-stage rockets, the so-called. multistage rockets.
3). Vernadsky Vladimir Ivanovich (d. 1945) – academician, natural scientist. The creator of many scientific schools. One of the representatives of Russian cosmism; creator of the science of biogeochemistry. His interests included geology and crystallography, mineralogy and geochemistry, organizational activities in science and social activities, radiogeology and biology, biogeochemistry and philosophy. He was nicknamed the Lomonosov of the 20th century. He predicted the splitting of the Atom and the danger this splitting brings.
4). In 1904, academician Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (d. 1936) was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of physiology of digestion and higher nervous activity.
5). In 1908, biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (d. 1916) was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of physiology and medicine, for the discovery of phagocytosis and cellular digestion.
Research centers were opened and not only in the central regions of Russia: geographical, astronomical, anthropological, mineralogical, electromechanical, aeronautics, etc. Scientific congresses and conferences were held. Russian scientists regularly traveled abroad.
6) Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich (d.
1911) was the “patriarch” of all Russian historians, he is the author of the famous 5-volume “Course of Russian History”.
The works of that time by S.F. became famous. Platonova, N.A. Rozhkova, V.I. Semevsky, Yu.V. Gautier. New topics were developed on the history of the peasantry, internal and foreign policy Russia, and social thought, the Decembrist movement; the problems of feudalism in Rus' were raised.
Gained fame religious philosophers": Berdyaev Nikolai Alexandrovich (representative of existentialism), Bulgakov Sergei Nikolaevich (deputy of the 2nd G.D., theologian, representative of Russian religious philosophy), Florensky Pavel Alexandrovich (theologian, scientist, poet, religious philosopher).
Major works in the field of philology (a set of sciences in literary criticism and speech) were created by: Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov, who conducted research on Russian chronicles and ancient Russian literature, laid the foundations of Russian literary language, editor of the academic dictionary “Dictionary of the Russian Language”, Baudouin de Courtenay Ivan Aleksandrovich, professor, linguist influenced the development of general linguistics (linguist), advocated the equality of Russian and Polish languages, was arrested by the tsarist authorities, advocated the cultural independence of Poland. Under his editorship in 1903-1914, supplemented editions of Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl’s dictionary were published.
Many publications appeared that promoted the achievements of Russian science among a wide range of the population, for example, magazines: “Around the World”, “Scientific Review”, “Nature and People”, as well as popular books by N.A. Rubakina “Russia in numbers”, Ya.I. Perelman “Entertaining Physics”, A.A. Ignatiev "In the kingdom of ingenuity." The number of periodicals and magazines grew rapidly: 1900 - 125 titles, 1913 - 1130 titles.
The number of universities and gymnasiums grew, incl. and non-state, so-called “people's universities” and, as a consequence, the number of students increased and the general level of education of the population increased. Printing houses and libraries developed (up to 76 thousand). There was a rapid growth of cultural, educational and educational societies throughout the empire (in 20 years they increased 8 times).
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More on topic 37. Development of science and technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries:
- 19. Development of astronomy at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. Tycho Brahe, Kepler.
- 22. Mathematics at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries Imaginary numbers. Logarithms. Decimal fractions. Development of algebra. Viet. Farm.
In the article we will talk about the great discoveries of the 20th century. It is not surprising that since ancient times people have tried to make their wildest dreams come true. At the turn of the last century, incredible things were invented that changed the life of the whole world.
X-rays
Let's start the list of great discoveries of the 20th century by looking at electromagnetic radiation, which was actually discovered at the end of the 19th century. The author of the invention was the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. The scientist noticed that when the current was turned on, a slight glow began to appear in the cathode tube coated with barium crystals. There is another version, according to which the wife brought dinner to her husband, and he noticed that he could see her bones visible through the skin. These are all versions, but there are also facts. For example, Wilhelm Roentgen refused to obtain a patent for his invention, because he believed that this activity could not generate real income. Thus, we rank X-rays among the great discoveries of the 20th century, which influenced the development of scientific and technological potential.
A television
More recently, a television was a thing that testified to the wealth of its owner, but in modern world television faded into the background. Moreover, the idea of the invention itself originated in the 19th century simultaneously with the Russian inventor Porfiry Gusev and the Portuguese professor Adriano de Paiva. They were the first to say that a device would soon be invented that would allow image transmission via wire. The first receiver, whose screen size was only 3 by 3 cm, was demonstrated to the world by Max Dieckmann. At the same time, Boris Rosing proved that it was possible to use a cathode ray tube in order to be able to convert an electrical signal into an image. In 1908, physicist Hovhannes Adamyan from Armenia patented a signal transmission apparatus consisting of two colors. It is believed that the first television was developed at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It was collected by Russian emigrant Vladimir Zvorykin. It was he who split the light beam into green, red and blue, thus obtaining a color image. He called this invention an iconoscope. In the West, John Bird is considered the inventor of television, who was the first to patent a device that creates a picture of 8 lines.
Cell phones
The first mobile phone appeared in the 70s of the last century. One day an employee famous company Motorola, which was developing portable devices, Martin Cooper, showed his friends a huge handset. Then they did not believe that something like this could be invented. Later, while walking around Manhattan, Martin called his boss at a competitor's company. Thus, for the first time in practice, he demonstrated the effectiveness of his huge telephone handset. Soviet scientist Leonid Kupriyanovich conducted similar experiments 15 years earlier. This is why it is quite difficult to definitively talk about who is actually the opener of portable devices. In any case, mobile phones are a worthy discovery of the 20th century, without which it is simply impossible to imagine modern life.
Computer
One of the greatest scientific discoveries of the 20th century is the invention of the computer. Agree that today it is impossible to work or relax without this device. A few years ago, computers were used only in special laboratories and organizations, but today they are a common thing in every family. How was this super machine invented?
The German Konrad Zuse in 1941 created a computer that, in fact, could perform the same operations as a modern computer. The difference was that the machine worked using telephone relays. A year later, American physicist John Atanasov and his graduate student Clifford Berry jointly developed an electronic computer. However, this project was not completed, so it cannot be said that they are the real creators of such a device. In 1946, John Mauchly demonstrated what he claimed was the first electronic computer, ENIAC. Much time passed, and huge boxes replaced small and thin devices. By the way, personal computers appeared only at the end of the last century.
Internet
The great technological discovery of the 20th century is the Internet. Agree that without it, even the most powerful computer is not that useful, especially in the modern world. Many people do not like to watch TV, but they forget that the Internet has long seized power over human consciousness. Who came up with the idea of such a global international network? She appeared in a group of scientists in the 50s of the last century. They wanted to create a high-quality network that would be difficult to hack or eavesdrop on. The reason for this idea was the Cold War.
During the Cold War, US authorities used a certain device that allowed data to be transmitted over a distance without the need for mail or telephone. This device was called APRA. Later, scientists from research centers in different states began creating the APRANET network. Already in 1969, thanks to this invention, it was possible to connect all the computers of the universities represented by this group of scientists. After 4 years, other research centers joined this network. After e-mail appeared, the number of people wanting to penetrate the World Wide Web began to quickly grow exponentially. Concerning current state, then on this moment More than 3 billion people use the Internet every day.
Parachute
Despite the fact that the idea of a parachute came to the mind of Leonardo da Vinci, this invention in its modern form is still considered one of the great discoveries of the 20th century. With the advent of aeronautics, regular jumps from large balloons, to which half-opened parachutes were attached. Already in 1912, one American decided to jump from an airplane with such a device. He successfully landed on earth and became the bravest resident of America. Later, engineer Gleb Kotelnikov invented a parachute made entirely of silk. He also managed to pack it into a small backpack. The invention was tested on a moving car. Thus, they came up with a braking parachute that would allow the emergency braking system to be activated. Thus, before the outbreak of World War I, the scientist received a patent for his invention in France, and thus became the discoverer of the parachute in the 20th century.
Physicists
Now let's talk about the great physicists of the 20th century and their discoveries. Everyone knows that physics is the basis without which it is in principle impossible to imagine the comprehensive development of any other science.
Let us note Planck's quantum theory. In 1900, German professor Max Planck discovered a formula that described the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body. Note that before this it was believed that energy was always distributed evenly, but the inventor proved that the distribution occurs proportionally thanks to quanta. The scientist compiled a report that no one believed at that time. However, after 5 years, thanks to Planck’s conclusions, the great scientist Einstein was able to create a quantum theory of the photoelectric effect. Thanks to quantum theory, Niels Bohr was able to build a model of the atom. Thus, Planck created a powerful basis for further discoveries.
We must not forget about the greatest discovery of the 20th century - the discovery of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. The scientist managed to prove that gravity is a consequence of the curvature of four-dimensional space, namely time. He also explained the effect of time dilation. Thanks to Einstein's discoveries, it was possible to calculate many astrophysical quantities and distances.
The greatest discoveries of the 19th and 20th centuries include the invention of the transistor. The first working device was created in 1947 by researchers from America. Scientists have experimentally confirmed the correctness of their ideas. In 1956, they already received the Nobel Prize for their discoveries. Thanks to them, a new era began in electronics.
Medicine
Let's begin our consideration of the great discoveries in medicine of the 20-21st centuries with the invention of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. It is known that this valuable substance was discovered as a result of negligence. Thanks to Fleming's discovery, people stopped being afraid of the most dangerous diseases. In the same century, the structure of DNA was discovered. Its discoverers are considered to be Francis Crick and James Watson, who using cardboard and metal created the first model of the DNA molecule. An incredible sensation was created by the information that all living organisms have the same DNA structure. For this revolutionary discovery, scientists were awarded Nobel Prize.
The great discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries continue with the discovery of the possibility of organ transplantation. Such actions were perceived as something unrealistic for quite a long time, but already in the last century scientists realized that it was possible to achieve a safe, high-quality transplant. The official discovery of this fact took place in 1954. Then the American doctor Joseph Murray transplanted a kidney to one of his patients from his twin brother. Thus, he showed that it is possible to transplant a foreign organ into a person, and he will live for a long time.
In 1990, the doctor was awarded the Nobel Prize. However, for a long time, specialists transplanted everything except the heart. Finally, in 1967, an elderly man received a young woman's heart. Then the patient managed to live only 18 days, but today people with donor organs and hearts live for many years.
Ultrasound
Also important inventions of the last century in the field of medicine include ultrasound, without which it is very difficult to imagine treatment. In the modern world, it is difficult to find a person who has not undergone an ultrasound scan. The invention dates back to 1955. In vitro fertilization is considered the most incredible discovery of the last century. British scientists managed to fertilize an egg in laboratory conditions, and then place it in a woman’s uterus. As a result, the world famous “test tube girl” Louise Brown was born.
Great geographical discoveries of the 20th century
In the last century, Antarctica was explored in detail. Thanks to this, scientists have obtained the most accurate data about climatic conditions and the fauna of Antarctica. Russian academician Konstantin Markov created the world's first atlas of Antarctica. We will continue the great discoveries of the early 20th century in the field of geography with an expedition that went to the Pacific Ocean. Soviet researchers measured the deepest oceanic trench, which was named Mariana.
Marine atlas
Later, a marine atlas was created, which made it possible to study the direction of currents, winds, determine depth and temperature distribution. One of the most high-profile discoveries of the last century was the discovery of Lake Vostok under a huge layer of ice in Antarctica.
As we already know, last century was very full of various kinds of discoveries. We can say that there has been a real breakthrough in almost all areas. The potential capabilities of scientists from all over the world have reached their maximum, thanks to which the world is currently developing by leaps and bounds. Many discoveries have become turning points in the history of all mankind, especially when it comes to research in the field of medicine.
Development of technology in the twentieth century
Usually, a scientific and technological revolution was understood as a leap in the development of the productive forces of society, their transition to a qualitatively new state based on fundamental changes in the system scientific knowledge. Dramatic changes in science and technology have been occurring increasingly since the end of the 16th century. The accelerating process of development of science and technology since the middle of this century has been called the scientific and technological revolution (STR). It was then that modern technical potential began to take shape.
On the development of science in the twentieth century. The revolution in natural science that began at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries had a huge impact: the discovery of the electron, radioactivity and the principle of relativity. A particularly important role here was played by E. Rutherford, M. Planck, N. Bohr, A. Einstein, whose scientific research radically changed previous ideas about the physical picture of the world. Great importance there were successes in chemical science, especially in the field of creating artificial materials (artificial rubber, gasoline, polymer materials, artificial fibers, etc.), nuclear physics, which influenced the development of astronomy, biology, medicine, chemistry, etc., mathematical sciences, which made it possible to significantly expand and deepen ideas about unity and interconnection natural phenomena and processes. Scientific and technological progress stimulated the development of production forces. Many scientific discoveries have received wide practical application (telephone, radio, cinema, etc.).
In the second half of the twentieth century. humanity has taken a new giant step in mastering the secrets of nature and their practical application. The discovery and use of atomic energy, space exploration, the emergence of new technologies (lasers, computers, robots, satellite communications, alternative energy sources) radically change the material and productive social forces, organization and management of production.
By the 1940s, conditions had matured for the transformation of what had previously been only theoretical calculations into the material sphere of technical achievements. This period includes the development of electronics, which led to the creation of the first computers, the use of radar, telemechanics and automation, the creation nuclear weapons and the beginning of work on thermonuclear, the development of projects for the peaceful use of atomic energy, experimental jet aircraft, including at supersonic speed, the widespread introduction of radio, the first steps of television and much more.
By the mid-50s of the twentieth century, material production technology began to develop rapidly under the influence of scientific knowledge. Science becomes a constant source of new ideas, indicating ways of development of material production.
From the 60s - 70s. automation of production processes occurs. Improved equipment such as robots, computer-controlled machines, and flexible production lines are emerging.
Since the late 70s. Qualitatively new features associated with the development of microelectronics appear. This stage was called the computer (microprocessor, or information) revolution. She's still going information Technology are constantly acquiring new and more advanced forms.
Typically, revolutions in technology are considered as a transition from the use of one type of energy to another, the replacement of machines of one kind by others. For a long time, the process of mechanization has been going on, replacing the muscular forces of humans and animals with the energy of machines. First, steam and then electric mechanisms were introduced, which made it possible to create a large industry. Since the late 40s of our century, mechanization has been complemented by the automation of production processes, the ability not only to use the energy of machines instead of muscles, but also to create specific working parts of machines that replace the human hand. Later, informatization came to their aid, associated with the widespread introduction of computers and computer networks in combination with advanced means of communication. The computer has become a unique means of automating intellectual activity. It is characterized by a speed of movement inaccessible to humans and a colossal speed of information processing. Unlike all other automation tools, computer and information technologies have penetrated into the intellectual sphere. A computer frees a person not only from contact with the tool, but also with the machine. The use of personal computers has increased creativity. During this period, the importance of information as a means of influencing information processes and people also increases. The struggle for control of the media has become part of the political struggle that is being waged both domestically and internationally.
The pace of technological progress is so rapid that no forecasts can prevent its rapidity. The development of science and technology in the twentieth century revealed an unprecedented revolution, as a result of which science became a decisive part of technology, both industrial and any other. We are talking about a technological revolution occurring alongside a technical one. Its essence is seen in the large-scale application and dissemination of technical achievements based on the latest scientific theories. The technology itself has become the most valuable product. The fundamental property of technology is transformation, i.e. technology is what a person uses to transform nature, himself, and society. How a person influences objects, changing them is technology; how exactly it influences is also a technique, but already manifesting itself as a technology.
The intensive application of scientific knowledge in almost all spheres of social life causes a change in the very nature of scientific activity. It is associated with a revolution in the means of storing and obtaining knowledge (computerization of science, the emergence of complex and expensive instrument systems that are serviced by research complexes and function similarly to means of industrial production). If classical science was focused on comprehending an increasingly narrowing fragment of reality, acting as the subject of one or another scientific discipline, then the specifics of modern science of the late 20th – early 21st centuries. define complex research programs in which specialists from various fields of knowledge take part.
The technological revolution has made a significant contribution to the production of material products: new ways of influencing and processing raw materials are emerging. In craft production, when processing the source material, the costs of raw materials and manual labor were taken into account, i.e. material intensity and labor intensity. The Industrial Revolution introduced a new accounting parameter - capital intensity. NTR supplemented them with science intensity. New technological processes are carried out at the molecular, atomic and subatomic levels.
Along with technique and technology, the subject of labor is also changing qualitatively - materials that are processed using developing scientific methods. Under the influence of new technologies, new magnetic, ceramic and optical materials, synthetic fibers and plastics, and chemical compounds appear in industry and everyday life.
The stone industry of primitive times, the craftsmanship of millennia and modern high-tech production are different bands in the existence of technology and its role in human life. There is no person and society outside the “technosphere”, technology is historical, does not stand still, the renewal of technical innovations acts as a catalyst, an impulse for fundamental changes in the entire system of human life. Technological progress is unstoppable. If we can talk about progress anywhere, it is in the field of science and technology.
It is legitimate to use the concepts of the technogenic world and industrial civilization as an essential characteristic of the era. The name of the qualitative designation of the state of the modern world in its entirety is applicable only to a part of the countries, covering no more than a fifth of the globe.
The problem of the threat to human corporeality
Scientific and technological achievements are a factor complicating the situation, which since the twentieth century has become more confusing compared to previous eras. The development of technogenic civilization has approached critical milestones, which mark the boundaries of civilizational growth. This was revealed in the second half of the twentieth century in connection with the growth of global crises and global problems.
Scientists believe that in the 21st century. Biology will become the leader of natural science. One of the promising areas of development of this science is experiencing an unprecedented rise - biotechnology, which uses biological processes for production purposes. With its help, such widely used feed proteins and medicines are produced, for example, contributing to victories over hunger and disease. Genetic engineering has emerged on the basis of molecular technology, which by transplanting foreign genes into cells makes it possible to breed new species of plants and animals.
There is a danger hanging over our physicality. On the one hand, this is a threat to the weakness of our body in a world we ourselves have created; the modern technogenic world is beginning to deform the foundations of the gene pool. And it was the result of millions of years of bioevolution and withstood such a difficult battle with nature, giving us both intelligence and the ability to perceive the world above the level of instincts necessary for survival. On the other hand, there is a danger of replacing it with mechanical modules and information blocks or, on the contrary, “improving” it genetically.
Physical health has always been one of the first places in the system human values, but there are increasing warnings from biologists, geneticists, and doctors about the danger of the destruction of humanity as a species, the deformation of its bodily foundations. The genetic burden of the human population is increasing. The weakening of the human immune system under the influence of xenobiotics and numerous social and personal stresses is being recorded everywhere. The number of hereditary deformities, female infertility and male impotence is growing.
The establishment of the technosphere on the planet, the emergence of “cultivated” nature, bearing the stamp of the mind and will of people, cannot but give rise to new acute problems. It is now becoming clear that a person’s adaptation to the environment that he has adapted to his life is a very difficult process. The rapid development of the technosphere is ahead of the evolutionarily established adaptive capabilities of humans. Difficulties in connecting the psychophysiological potentials of a person with the requirements of modern equipment and technology have been recorded everywhere, both theoretically and practically. The ocean of chemicals in which ours is now immersed everyday life, sudden changes in politics and zigzags in the economy - all this affects the nervous system, the abilities of perception are dulled and this manifests itself somatically in millions of people. There are signs of physical degeneration in a number of regions, the uncontrollable spread of drug addiction and alcoholism. The increasing mental stress that people increasingly face in the modern world causes the accumulation of negative emotions and often stimulates the use of artificial means of stress relief: both traditional (tranquilizers, drugs) and new means of mental manipulation (sects, television, etc.). ).
The problem of preserving the human personality as a biological structure in the conditions of a growing and comprehensive process of alienation is growing more and more, which is designated as the modern anthropological crisis: a person complicates his world, forces are increasingly being called upon that he can no longer control and which are becoming alien to his nature . The more it transforms the world, the more social factors are generated that begin to form structures that radically change human life and, apparently, worsen it. Modern industrial culture creates ample opportunities for manipulation of consciousness, in which a person loses the ability to rationally comprehend existence. The accelerated development of technogenic civilization makes the problem of socialization and personality formation very complex. The constantly changing world breaks off many roots, traditions, forces a person to live in different cultures, adapt to constantly changing circumstances.
The invasion of technology into all spheres of human existence - from the global to the purely intimate - sometimes gives rise to an unbridled apology for technology, the peculiar ideology and psychology of technicism. A one-sided, technicalized consideration of human problems leads to the concept of attitude towards the bodily-natural structure of man, which is expressed in the concept of “cyborgization”. According to this concept, in the future a person will have to give up his body. Modern people will be replaced by cybernetic organisms (cyborgs), where the living and the technical will give some new fusion. Such intoxication with technical prospects, in my opinion, is dangerous and inhumane. Of course, the inclusion of artificial organs (various prostheses, pacemakers, etc.) into the human body is a reasonable and necessary thing, but it should not cross the line when a person ceases to be himself.
Civilization has significantly extended human life, making it possible to treat many diseases, but at the same time eliminated the action of natural selection, which eliminated carriers of genetic errors from the chain of generational changes. The solution is sometimes seen in success genetic engineering. But simultaneously with the positive treatment of hereditary diseases, a threat arose to the foundations of human integrity, the temptation of systematic genetic improvement of man, adapting him to ever-new social pressures. This problem is seriously discussed not only in science fiction literature, but also by biologists, philosophers and futurologists. By possible consequences this is equivalent to using nuclear energy. The loosening of the gene pool and the steps of genetic engineering open up not only new horizons, but also ominous possibilities: the escape of mutational genes from control that can distort human evolutionary adaptations, the mass generation of artificial mutants. The possibility of breaking the basic genetic code as a result of ill-conceived interventions in its structure cannot be excluded.
Atomic threat
In the twentieth century, qualitatively new changes took place in the history of energy use - the use of nuclear energy is developing. One nuclear power plant produces enough energy with a small amount of fuel to meet the needs of several cities. At the same time, the threat of blind technological accident—the “Chernobyl variant”—is increasing. Any equipment breaks down, as history shows, and there are more than 430 nuclear power plants operating on the planet. Grand Weapon mass destruction, atomic and thermonuclear bombs define a strong superpower. There are only two options for getting out of this situation: disarmament, which is unlikely in the near future (in my opinion, only with the invention of even more destructive and terrible weapons or with a deep general change in attitude towards the world around us can humanity abandon atomic explosions) or application and quick death to all living things. Despite this, the threat of a thermonuclear fire remained. Treaties on the reduction of strategic nuclear arsenals have been signed, while they are tacitly observed, but have not yet acquired the status of law in more than one nuclear state. So far, only a few percent of the vast nuclear stockpile has been destroyed. The process of nuclear disarmament may take an indefinitely long time. In mid-1995, in the United States and the former USSR alone, there were about 25 thousand nuclear warheads.
It seems that the danger of a direct military clash between nuclear superpowers has decreased, but at the same time any of the hotbeds local wars could become the fuse for a worldwide war in which there will be no winner. It is impossible not to use atomic reserves and not to kill the planet; it will not be possible to balance for a long time on the edge of the atomic abyss. Many people, especially young people, live under the weight of the problem of survival in the conditions of continuous improvement of weapons of mass destruction: nuclear age humanity became mortal for the first time in history, and this sad result became “ side effect» scientific and technological progress, which opens up more and more new opportunities for the development of military equipment.
Ecological problem
The earth, our cradle and abode, is in danger - we are destroying it. The growing pressure of anthropological factors on the biosphere can lead to a complete breakdown of the natural cycles of reproduction of biological resources, self-purification of soils, waters, and the atmosphere. This gives rise to “collapse” - a sharp and rapid deterioration of the biological situation, which can lead to the rapid death of the planet’s population.
Our ecological niche has spread over almost the entire planet and our activities threaten destruction. The growing needs of humanity are increasing the negative, albeit unintended, impact on nature, causing an increase in the environmental crisis on a global scale. The two aspects of human existence as part of nature and as an active being come into conflict. Nature is by no means an endless reservoir of resources for human activity; it has long been depleted. We find new resources when the old ones have almost completely disappeared. Of course, the use of environmentally friendly types of energy (wind, sun, tides, underground heat, etc.) cannot ensure the level of economy and production at the proper level, but it is impossible not to think about alternatives. A new strategy for the scientific, technical and social development of mankind is required, a strategy for activities that ensure the joint evolution of man and nature in the face of an impending environmental catastrophe.
Views of philosophers and ordinary people on technology and its development
The middle of the century gave rise to a powerful surge of attention to the philosophy of technology. Martin Heider, Karl Jasper, Thomas Veblen, Olwin Toffler and a number of other philosophers (including our compatriots) raised pressing questions about the status and genesis of technology, its essence, characteristics and prospects for future development. What will its development be, is there an opportunity to choose paths, does a person have the right or guarantee of safety in certain areas of science? Back in 1949, A. Einstein and B. Russell announced the responsibility of scientists for the results of scientific research that are dangerous for the fate of humanity. In 1968, the Club of Rome was created - international association scientists concerned about the fate of humanity.
Of course, technology has always attracted the attention of philosophers. There are many views on it and many of them are opposite to each other. The humanitarian view strives to protect a person from becoming like his creations, because he, having believed in the omnipotence of technical achievements, can lose the values of a humanitarian nature: the ability to sympathize and have compassion for one’s neighbor, the values of beauty and goodness. This is a threat to the dehumanization of social relations.
The technocratic view, on the contrary, believes that the positive role of technological progress gives great hope, that everywhere we must strive for a technical replacement of everything that it liberates humanity.
Technicism is characterized by the desire to solve any problems (ideological, moral, political, pedagogical, etc.) according to the model of algorithms of technical knowledge. Technology is demonic, the world is a “megamachine” - these are the initial theses of technicism as a way of thinking, agreement with self-subordination to technology. Technicism, associated with the absolutization of technology, asserts its self-sufficiency and autonomy, believes that it is possible to resolve any social conflicts, bypassing man as an active subject of history, neglecting the nature of existing social relations.
The Luddites, the machine tool destroyers, appeared in the late 18th and early 20th centuries; modern neo-Luddites blame the soulless power of the machines of our days, turning everyone into a silent part of the social mechanism, which is entirely dependent on productive and household equipment and cannot live outside and apart from it. These people are ready to destroy such dependence immediately, leaving only the bare minimum in industry and, of course, not allowing it into everyday life where it will soften and thereby subjugate a person.
Since ancient China Ideas of discontent and hostility towards technology – technophobia – have survived to this day. Opponents of technology motivate their attitude by the fact that technology, of course, makes life easier, but enslaves the human “I”. In 1846, the English writer Mary Shelley created the image of Frankenstein, an artificial monster who rebelled against the people who created him. Since then, this neo-mythological image has become a household word for fueling technophobia in all its forms and does not leave the pages of print, films and television screens. “Riot of the machines” is a common theme in modern mass cult. From Aristotle to Mohandames Karamgad Gandhi, thinkers of various times and directions have expressed quite a few concerns about the possible exit of technology from the control of people. Human views in this sense were supplemented by the creations of the second half of the twentieth century: information technology and genetic engineering provide a wide field for fantasy and self-intimidation.
Humanity has always pinned its hopes on scientific achievements. In the 60s, people associated progress with automation, a little later - with the solution to the problem of thermonuclear fusion, which would provide an inexhaustible source of energy, in the 70s - 80s - with the development of biological science, which promised tempting prospects in the field of genetic engineering. Now information and computerization are the most frequently discussed and developed industries.
Technical and technological fetishism is not uncommon these days. It has heavily infected the technical intelligentsia, and has penetrated into the sphere of the economic and political elite. We should be alien to technological mythology, the desire to “machine” everything and everyone. It is not humanity that is technical, but technology that is human. It embodies and expresses what humanity has extracted from the world, what affirms its own mind and power.
As in ancient times, the new and incomprehensible seems dangerous to a person. For a weak human body, almost any object can become dangerous, but we use electricity and household chemicals without fear. Modern experiments and simple factory processes do not escape control in the least. Science gives us new materials, medicines, devices, and the media and popular art demonstrate the disastrous consequences that arise as a result of negligence or oversight. Neither the human factor nor the likelihood of breakdowns of important equipment can be denied, but at this stage and under the existing conditions, humanity has no other way. Over time, this same science will certainly be able to provide new, safer technologies. Personally, I now see it as necessary to minimize the consumption of Earth’s resources and waste emissions and develop the industrial (in terms of improvement) and scientific sectors.
Some aspects of the influence of the scientific and technological revolution on society and people
Scientific and technological revolution radically changes the position of a person (subject of labor) in the production system, causing fundamental changes in the organization of production and labor, in the production management system. A person is taken beyond the immediate process of creating a finished product and acts in relation to it as a controller, adjuster, or regulator. Its participation in production is declining. Analysis of primary information and decision-making begins to be carried out exclusively with the help of a computer. There is a process of revolution in the production forces, saving living labor, displacing it from the production process itself. Scientific and technological revolution aggravates the problem of employment and increases the anthropogenic load on the natural environment.
Scientific and technological revolution affects not only production, but also other areas of life. In the twentieth century, road transport increased sharply, the speed of transport increased, communications were modernized, with the achievements of space technology (satellites), the development of communications underwent a revolution, microelectronics was successfully used in everyday life and the service sector. The needs of mankind are growing, and scientific and technological progress immeasurably increases the technical capabilities of producing consumer goods and creates conditions for increasing the efficiency of healthcare and education. The concept of an isolated ethnic group and a closed culture are becoming a thing of the past, because means have been created thanks to which the highest achievements of culture have become the property of a huge number of people. Along with this, progress makes it possible to create gigantic forces of destruction and mass destruction; in unclean hands there may be colossal opportunities for manipulating the consciousness of people for purposes alien to them.
Humanity has very great and tempting opportunities. Grandiose achievements, unique devices and technologies that allow raising production to a level sufficient for prosperity, scientific experiments, the implementation of which will open up new facets of the world, improving people's lives, what else does he need to achieve? And nearby is a threat to the world, which is already suffocating in the products of our vital activity and can be completely destroyed in a very short time.
The development of technology sometimes gives rise to absurd situations. For example, the rapid development of communication networks (telephone, radiotelephone, computer networks) is outstripping the possibility of filling them with meaningful and responsible content. Many technical innovations (inventions, design developments) are sometimes ahead of their time and become economically unprofitable. The massive number of technical devices, their introduction into production and everyday life are ahead of the intellectual and especially moral level of mass consciousness. There is a need to include in technical systems what the British call fool proof. The overcrowding of the entire flow of life with technology multiplies disasters, accidents, and tragic incidents.