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Management principles. Basic concepts of control theory and radio automation

Lecture 1. Basic concepts of control theory and radio automation. Fundamental principles of management. Classification of control systems. General characteristics of problems of analysis and synthesis of systems

The main content of control theory consists of mathematical methods of analysis and synthesis of systems. The main tasks of the analysis are to study the properties of the system, primarily stability (in most cases, an unstable system is inoperative) and assess its quality indicators. The main tasks of synthesis are adjusting an existing system or building a new system in accordance with the requirements for its properties and quality.

Management - This is an organized influence on an object in order to ensure the required course of a process in the object or the required change in its state.

Figure 1 graphically interprets this concept.

In Figure 1:

OU– control object;

y– output signal characterizing the current state of the control object;

g– setting influence describing the required state of the control object (control goal);

u– control signal;

UU– control device (regulator);

f– disturbing influence – unregulated influence of the external environment.

The classification of control systems determines the choice of the mathematical apparatus used and is carried out according to several criteria. We will limit ourselves to the main ones.

1. According to control principle distinguish:

1a. Open systems, the general structure of which corresponds to Figure 1. A specific example is presented in Figure 2. Here the control signal is generated depending only on the setting influence. When a disturbing influence appears, the open-loop control system does not react to it in any way, which leads to an unpredictable deviation of the object’s state from the required one. Therefore, the open-loop control system itself is ineffective.

1b. Closed systems that implement control based on the feedback principle - generation of a control signal based on comparison of the current state of the control object with the required one (Figure 3).

The simplest and main option for implementing the feedback principle is rigid single negative feedback. In this case, the control signal is generated in accordance with the equation:

u(t)=k(g(t) – y(t)). (1.1)

Examples of closed systems are presented in Figures 4, 5.

A more detailed classification of closed systems is carried out according to the type of feedback.

1st century Systems with compensation for disturbance. The principle of disturbance compensation involves measuring or assessing (identifying) the magnitude of the disturbance and using this information to generate a control signal (Figures 6, 7)

1 year Systems combined control implement a combination of the principles discussed above. The most common option is a closed system with disturbance compensation (Figures 8,9).

1d. Adaptive systems. The principle of adaptive control is the accumulation of information about the behavior of the control object and the characteristics of the external environment during the operation of the system and the use of this information to adjust the structure and parameters of the control law (control device settings).

2. According to the purpose of management distinguish:

2a. Stabilization systems:g=const. These include all the examples discussed.

2b. Program control systems: g= g(t). An example is a launch vehicle control system. When launching a satellite into a given orbit, the laws of change in altitude, speed, direction of movement, etc. are calculated in advance. The task of the control system is to ensure their changes according to given laws.

2c. Tracking systems: g= var. An example is the antenna control system for an air surveillance radar. The task of the system is to ensure alignment of the antenna axis with the aircraft when the law of its motion is unknown in advance.

2g. Terminal management systems. An example is a missile homing system. The task of the system is to ensure the minimum distance from the missile to the target (miss) at a certain final point in time.

2d. Extreme control systems. Such systems are built when, in the management process, it is necessary to ensure the maximum or minimum of certain indicators (optimality criteria). An example is a soft landing system for a spacecraft. The task of the system is to ensure a soft landing at a previously unknown initial speed and altitude with minimal fuel consumption.

3. By structure differentiate one-dimensional(with scalar input signals) and multidimensional(with vector input signals) control systems.

4. According to the form of mathematical description differentiate linear And nonlinear systems.

4a. Linear is a system for all elements of which a mathematical description can be obtained in the form of linear algebraic or differential equations.

4b. If at least one element of the system cannot be described by a linear equation, the entire system is considered nonlinear.

General concepts

Automatic control theory (ACT) appeared in the second half of the 19th century, first as a control theory. The widespread use of steam engines has created a need for regulators, that is, special devices that maintain stable operation of the steam engine. This gave rise to scientific research in the field of technical facility management. It turned out that the results and conclusions of this theory can be applied to the control of objects of various natures with different operating principles. Currently, its sphere of influence has expanded to the analysis of the dynamics of such systems as economic, social, etc. Therefore, the previous name “Theory of Automatic Control” was replaced by a broader one - “Theory of Automatic Control”.

Managing an object(we will denote the control object as OU) there is an impact on it in order to achieve the required states or processes. An airplane, a machine tool, an electric motor, etc. can serve as an op-amp. Controlling an object using technical means without human intervention is called automatic control. The set of op-amps and automatic control means is called automatic control system (ACS).

The main task of automatic control is to maintain a certain law of change of one or more physical quantities characterizing the processes occurring in the OS, without direct human participation. These quantities are called controlled quantities. If a baking oven is considered as a control unit, then the controlled variable will be the temperature, which must change according to a given program in accordance with the requirements of the technological process.

It is customary to distinguish three fundamental principles of management: open-loop control principle, compensation principle, feedback principle.

1.2.1. Open-loop control principle. Let's consider the automatic control system of a bakery oven (Fig. 1). Her circuit diagram shows the principle of operation of this particular self-propelled gun, consisting of specific technical devices. Circuit diagrams can be electrical, hydraulic, kinematic, etc.

Baking technology requires changing the temperature in the oven according to a given program; in particular cases, maintaining a constant temperature is required. To do this, you need to regulate the voltage on the NE heating element with a rheostat. A similar part of the op-amp, with which you can change the parameters of the controlled process, is called governing body object (OO). This could be a rheostat, valve, damper, etc.

The part of the op-amp that converts the controlled value into a value proportional to it, convenient for use in automatic control systems, is called sensitive element(CHE). The physical quantity at the output of the SE is called output value OU. As a rule, this is an electrical signal (current, voltage) or mechanical movement. Thermocouples, tachometers, levers, electric bridges, pressure, strain, position sensors, etc. can be used as SEs. In our case, this is a thermocouple, the output of which generates a voltage proportional to the temperature in the furnace, supplied to the IP measuring device for control. The physical quantity at the input of the op-amp control body is called input quantity OU.

Control actionu(t)- this is the influence applied to the control object of the object in order to maintain the required values of the controlled quantity. It's forming control device(UU). The core of the control unit is actuator, which can be used as electric or piston motors, membranes, electromagnets, etc.

Master device(ZU) is a device that sets a program for changing the control action, that is, it forms driving signal u o (t). In the simplest case u o (t)=const. The memory can be made in the form of a separate device, built into the control unit, or absent altogether. The memory can be a cam mechanism, a tape recorder, a clock pendulum, a profile setting device, etc. The role of control unit and memory can be performed by a person. However, this is no longer an SPG. In our example, the control unit is a cam mechanism that moves the rheostat slider according to a program that is specified by the cam profile.

The considered ACS can be represented in the form functional diagram, whose elements are called functional links. These links are depicted by rectangles in which the function of converting the input value into the output value is written (Fig. 2). These quantities may be of the same or different nature, for example, input and output electrical voltage, or electrical voltage at the input and mechanical speed at the output, etc.

Magnitude f(t), supplied to the second input of the link, is called indignation. It reflects the influence on the output value y(t) of changes in the environment, load, etc.

In the general case, a functional link can have several inputs and outputs (Fig. 3). Here u 1 ,u 2 ,...,u n- input (control) influences; f 1 ,f 2 ,...,f m- disturbing influences; y 1 ,y 2 ,...,y k- output values.

The operating principle of functional links can be different, therefore the functional diagram does not give an idea of the operating principle of a particular ACS, but only shows the paths and methods of processing and converting signals. Signal- this is an information concept corresponding to physical quantities in a circuit diagram. The paths of its passage are indicated by directed segments (Fig. 4). Signal branch points are called nodes. The signal is determined only by the form of change in the physical quantity, it has neither mass nor energy, therefore it is not divided at the nodes, and along all paths from the node there are identical signals equal to the signal entering the node. The summation of signals is carried out in adder, subtraction - in comparison device.

The considered automatic control system for a bakery oven can be represented by a functional diagram (Fig. 5). This scheme contains open-loop control principle, the essence of which is that the control program is rigidly specified by the memory; the control does not take into account the influence of disturbances on the process parameters. Examples of systems operating on the principle of open-loop control are a clock, a tape recorder, a computer, etc.

Corporate governance is based on the fundamental management principles of P. Drucker, proposed by him in the 1980s. .

First principle. Management is a key decisive factor in the development of civilization. Management allows people to effectively realize their strengths and eliminate their weaknesses. P. Drucker emphasized that work should always be organized in such a way that the strength, initiative, responsibility and competence inherent in individual team members would become a source of stability and high productivity of the entire group.”

Second principle. The influence of cultural and historical traditions on management. As Salvador Dali said well: “Tradition is a change of skin, the acquisition of a new, your and only your skin, but at the same time programmed by nature and therefore inevitable.”

The most significant differences in traditions can be seen through:

Sociocultural characteristics - characteristics of people, their mentality, the uniqueness of norms, goals and values (“People here are like that”);

Features of the organization - the specifics of human behavior in the organization and problems characteristic of the organization’s activities (“Organizations here are like that”),

Features of management - the tradition of carrying out management activities that has developed in any country

Let us remember the response received by the caricature of the prophet, published in a Danish newspaper. Ignorance of Muslim religious traditions has led to a negative synergistic effect in the world

Traditions in the economic policy of Russia before the revolution of 1917 were determined by the high share of the raw materials and extractive industries, the main ones being:

Support and strengthening of the public sector in the economy;

Traditions of reasonable prosperity;

Traditions of concentration of production; traditions of collectivism;

Specific labor cooperation in agricultural settlements, where trades and crafts have always been traditional;

Family labor cooperation;

Seasonal nature of production; artel organization of labor;

Traditionally high quality of work;

The tradition of moderate alcohol consumption (in 1913 in Tsarist Russia there were 2.3 liters of vodka per person, in 1977 - 8 liters of vodka, in 1995 - 18 liters of vodka);

Tradition of the health of the nation. Per 1 million people the population in Russia in 1913 was 100 times more centenarian than in all of Western Europe;

tradition of patronage. For example, the well-known in the past, but now forgotten merchant of the first guild, Christopher Semenovich Ledentsov, at one time created a fund that was larger than the fund of Alfred Nobel, who borrowed the idea of creating a fund from Pavel Demidov. Funded by H.S. Ledentsov financed the work of D.I. Mendeleev, V.I. Pavlova and other scientists. After the 1917 revolution, the fund was frozen abroad and today amounts to about one billion dollars.

Of course, we are not talking about only following traditions. Over time, new phenomena and traditions are always inevitably born. But abandoning the experience of generations and traditions means the destruction of national psychology and culture, the loss of moral values and the transformation of the country into a raw material appendage of developed countries.

There are already symptoms of this. The policy of our state must be subordinated to the national interests of Russia, which has always been a tradition, norm and principle of sovereignty.

The revival of the best Russian traditions has begun. For example, a public organization was recently created - the Association of Managers of the Russian Federation, which is engaged in charitable activities to resolve social problems.

Third principle. The task of management is to establish a system of values in the organization that can make all employees allies.

In the electronic age, human resource management must aim to create a culture of collective learning in which people share common values and combine diverse efforts to solve problems. Simple, mechanical coordination must give way to real integration based on collective knowledge and a common understanding of different opinions and positions.

Fourth principle. An important task of management is to provide the enterprise and each of its employees with the opportunity to grow and develop. At the same time, each enterprise must be constantly learning and learning.

P. Drucker wrote about this: “Development is growth, and growth always comes from within. Therefore, work should be such as to encourage and guide the growth of individuality.” “..The desire for self-improvement and advanced training is a constant source of innovation and progress in any area of management.”

In the conditions of phenomenal progress in information, telecommunications and globalization in the second half of the 1990s. Organizational change is becoming a fundamental necessity. Moreover, radical changes are not enough; we need the ability to make constant changes, supported by the process of understanding the results, in which knowledge and learning occur. Innovation requires complex knowledge provided by a wide network of specialists. Hence the need to move from vertical integration to intra-organizational interconnectedness based on appropriate mechanisms (cooperation, alliances, knowledge dissemination, balanced outsourcing).

Fifth principle. The performance of work by each employee should be based on personal responsibility for the assigned work and an assessment of their personal contribution to the common cause.

The role of the staff itself is great. P. Drucker noted that self-control means stronger motivation - the desire to do the best possible, and not just provide a “sufficient minimum” [p. 133). Thanks to self-esteem, the Japanese have achieved high quality products, introducing the principle of “zero defects”: for one million pieces of products - one defect!

Sixth principle. Control over production volume depends on management; his profit; market position; innovative activity; productivity; development of human resources.

Seventh principle. The main end result of any enterprise is satisfaction

consumer. Moreover, the final result of management lies outside the enterprise: for a hospital it is health; for school - knowledge; for the enterprise - product quality.

In an era of hypercompetition, all businesses must be consumer-centric. This can be achieved through the widest possible contacts of all employees with consumers and the development of electronic services via the Internet. This orientation will allow the company to move from market segmentation to consumer individualization. This implies the importance of managing relationships with consumers based on a balanced portfolio.

Thus, simultaneously using various principles of P. Drucker, as well as the laws of economics and management, you can quickly achieve a positive synergistic effect. All this requires a radical change in the paradigm of management thinking, humanization of personnel management, rejection of technocracy and simplification in solving personnel problems.

Basic principles of management. The principle of consistency and complexity. Principles of management based on the identification of various schools. Centralized and decentralized forms of management.

Management principles

Introduction

Ideas about the role and place of management of an organization, the content of management activities, methods and principles of its implementation have repeatedly undergone significant changes since management began to be considered as a special type of activity carried out in an organization. Views on management evolved as social relations developed, business changed, production technology improved, and new means of communication and information processing appeared.

The practice of management changed, and the doctrine of management also changed. However, management thought did not play the role of passively following management practice. Moreover, it was the new ideas in the field of management put forward and formulated by the leading minds of management thought, as well as new approaches to the implementation of management, that marked the milestones from which broad changes in management practice took place. In my work, I will consider only those approaches and teachings about management that are widely known and accepted in most countries of the world.

The main components of any organization are tasks, people and management. For the successful existence of an organization, it is necessary to maintain a certain balance between these three processes. And the key role in maintaining this balance belongs to management.

The management system is based on developed and proven methods and principles. What are management principles and is it possible to do without them in modern production? Indeed, in the past, without knowing about any principles, people successfully conducted their economic activities. It should be noted here that in their activities people have always been guided by certain principles, perhaps simplified ones.

In the relatively recent past, there was no complex system of economic relations due to the development of specialization and cooperation of labor and scientific and technological progress. In modern conditions, without relying on thoroughly substantiated and practice-tested management principles, it is impossible to ensure the effective development of the enterprise and the economy as a whole.

The basic principles determine the philosophy and strategy of managing the enterprise and its units. To a certain extent, they are intended to serve as advertising for the enterprise. Based on the developed principles, the goals of the enterprise are adjusted, priorities are clarified, its policies are formulated, and methods are developed. The implementation of the principles, goals, priorities and policies of enterprises is carried out using appropriate working methods, instructions, regulations and standards.

Social production relations determine the role and place of each worker in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption. The final result – the result of the activities of a huge team – depends on the quality and efficiency of the work of each of them.

Thus, the principles of management reflect an objective reality that exists outside and independently of human consciousness, in other words, they are objective. At the same time, each of the principles is an idea, that is, a subjective construction, a subjective construction that each leader mentally makes at the level of his knowledge of general and professional culture. Since the principles belong to the subject, they have a subjective character. The more the reflection of a principle in a person’s consciousness approaches the law, the more accurate the knowledge, the more effective the leader’s activities in the field of management.

1. Basic principles of management

Management principles are among the most important categories of management. They are understood as the main fundamental ideas, ideas about management activities, arising directly from the laws and patterns of management.

Classification of management principles

In the literature there is no single approach to the classification of management principles, there is no consensus on the content of the basic principles of management. Some of the proclaimed principles are, in essence, rules of conduct for managers or governing bodies; some follow from the basic principles, that is, they are derivatives.

Management principles are very diverse. The classification of principles should be based on the reflection by each of the selected principles of various aspects of management relations. The principles must correspond to both partial and general goals of increasing production efficiency and socio-economic development. Management principles serve not only the construction of speculative schemes. They quite strictly determine the nature of connections in the system, the structure of management bodies, the adoption and implementation of management decisions.

The basic principles of management may include:

1) scientific character;

2) consistency and complexity;

3) unity of command and collegiality;

4) democratic centralism;

5) a combination of sectoral and territorial approaches to management.

Scientific principle

This principle requires the construction of a management system and its activities on a strictly scientific basis. Like any principle reflecting development, it must have internal inconsistency, since

Internal inconsistency forms internal logic, creates an internal impulse for development. One of the contradictions of the scientific principle is the contradiction between theory and practice. It requires the use of aggressive scientific ideas (the results of scientific knowledge - from phenomenon to essence, from an essence of the first kind, less deep, to an essence of the second kind, deeper, etc., endlessly). However, the need to organize the management process in specific conditions, to solve specific problems, requires a time limit on the cognition process. This contradiction is resolved through active research into scientific problems of managing multi-purpose, complex teams, and maximizing the use of computer technology. Another important contradiction in the scientific principle is the unity and contradiction of the objective and the subjective. This contradiction is universal in nature and also applies to all other principles of management. The objective in the principle of science follows from the objective nature of the laws of management on which the principles of management are based. Subjectivity in the implementation of management principles is inevitable, since management principles are realized only through the consciousness, will and aspirations of a person. Thus, the implemented principle is inevitably subjective. The deviation of the cognition process from objective logic (subjectivism) arises and manifests itself to a greater extent, the more the consciousness of leaders deviates from the objective logic of the development of nature, society and thinking. The higher the level of general culture and professionalism of the leader, the less opportunities for subjectivity to manifest. The need to adhere to the scientific principle in management requires the involvement of the entire spectrum of modern knowledge, its careful synthesis, and, above all, the complex of human sciences. At the same time, it is necessary to apply advanced methods of system analysis in the field of economic sciences, philosophy, psychology, ethics, aesthetics, technical and technological sciences of ecology and other areas.

The principle of consistency and complexity

This principle requires both comprehensive and systematic approaches to management. Systematicity means the need to use elements of the theory of large systems and system analysis in every management decision. Complexity in management means the need for comprehensive coverage of the entire managed system, taking into account all sides, all directions, all properties. For example, this may be taking into account all the features of the structure of the managed team: age, ethnic, religious, professional, general cultural, etc. Thus, systematicity means attempts to structure problems and solutions vertically, complexity means expanding them horizontally. Therefore, systematicity tends more towards vertical, subordination connections, and complexity - towards horizontal, coordination connections. In this case, the abilities of managers can vary significantly, since this places slightly different requirements on the way of thinking and its analytical and synthetic functions.

The principle of unity of command in management and collegiality in decision-making

Any decision made must be developed collegiately (or collectively). This means the comprehensiveness of its development, taking into account the opinions of many specialists on various issues. A decision made collegially (collectively) is implemented under the personal responsibility of the head of the company (board of directors, shareholders, etc.). Each official is assigned precise responsibility for performing specific and precisely defined work. Thus, in a company, vice presidents for science, production, marketing and other areas bear full responsibility for the corresponding sector of the company’s activities. The problem is that any company may face qualitatively new tasks, the solution of which is not provided for by regulation. In this case, not only the manager must determine to whom the solution of certain tasks and the performance of certain works can be addressed, but also his subordinates must show reasonable initiative.

The principle of democratic centralism

This principle is one of the most important and means the need for a reasonable, rational combination of centralized and decentralized principles in management. At the state level, this is the relationship between the center and the regions; at the enterprise level, this is the relationship of rights and responsibilities between the manager and the team. The inconsistency of the principle of democratic centralism should be considered as the existence, development, and mutual transition of the polar opposites of democracy and centralism. Given insufficiently favorable socio-economic conditions and rigidity of management, centralism prevails. It is necessary in emergency conditions (conduct of hostilities, economic or political crisis, ethnic tension, violation of moral and ethical standards by state leaders). The higher the level of qualifications of workers, the more creative the content of work, the more stable and evolutionary the development of society, the higher the level of democracy in management. The most preferable in managing the socio-economic system is a balance between centralism and democracy. However, in practice, one often prevails over the other. At the level of individual economic entities - enterprises, banks, exchanges, the principle of democratic centralism determines not only the degree of independence of branches, branches, subsidiaries, but also the degree of their responsibility for the actions performed. Further, the principle of democratic centralism determines the degree of independence and responsibility of each official to his leader. Thus, the principle of vertical democratic centralism permeates all power structures of government.

The principle of unity of sectoral and territorial management

The development of society is closely related to the progress of sectoral and territorial management. Industry management is characterized by the need to deepen specializations and increase the concentration of production. Territorial management is based on other goals. Problems of the most rational placement and development of productive forces require taking into account environmental requirements, the efficiency of using labor, employment of the population, the development of social infrastructure, the correspondence of the nature of production to the characteristics of ethnic groups, and the satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of society. And these are all regional problems. Any entrepreneur must draw for himself the appropriate conclusions arising from the principle of unity of sectoral and territorial management. The interests of the company he represents must be closely linked with the interests of the local authorities of the residents of the region where he is going to show his business activity - build a branch of the enterprise, store and sell products, etc. Local authorities and the population must be his active dream guides, knowing , what benefits for the region will follow from the active activities of certain firms.

2. Principles of management based on the identification of various schools

The development of management as a scientific discipline did not represent a series of successive steps forward. Rather, it was several approaches that often overlapped. Objects of control are both technology and people. Consequently, advances in management theory have always been dependent on advances in other management-related fields such as mathematics, engineering, psychology, sociology, and anthropology. As these fields of knowledge have developed, management researchers, theorists and practitioners, have learned more and more about the factors influencing organizational success. This knowledge helped specialists understand why some earlier theories sometimes did not stand up to the test of practice, and find new approaches to management.

At the same time, the world was becoming an arena of rapid change. Scientific and technological innovations became more frequent and significant, and governments began to become more decisive in their attitude towards business. These and other factors made representatives of management thought more deeply aware of the existence of forces external to the organization. New approaches have been developed for this purpose.

To date, there are four important approaches that have made a significant contribution to the development of management theory and practice. The approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools of management actually includes four different approaches. Here management is looked at from three different perspectives. These are the schools of scientific management, administrative management, human relations and behavioral science.

In the first half of the twentieth century, four clearly distinguishable schools of management thought developed. Chronologically they can be listed in the following order:

1. School of Scientific Management;

2. Administrative school;

3. School of Psychology and Human Relations.

The most committed adherents of each of these trends believed at one time that they had found the key to most effectively achieving the goals of the organization. Later research and unsuccessful attempts to apply the schools' theoretical findings into practice proved that many answers to management questions were only partially correct in limited situations. Yet each of these schools has made significant and tangible contributions to the field. Even the most progressive modern organizations still use certain concepts and techniques that arose within these schools. It should also be borne in mind that techniques that were successful in some situations and at a particular time are not always successful in others. And within one organization you can find elements of all approaches.

2.1. School of Scientific Management (1885-1920)

The founder and main developer of the ideas of scientific management is Frederick Winslow Taylor. Unlike many management theorists, Taylor was neither a research scientist nor a business school professor. He was a practitioner: first a worker, and then a manager. Starting as a worker, he moved through several levels of the hierarchy and rose to the level of chief engineer in a steel company.

“Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activities. Taylor set himself the task of increasing labor productivity and saw its solution in the rationalization of labor operations on the basis of the scientific organization of workers' performance of their work activities. Taylor's starting point for labor rationalization was the study of a problem, which was supposed to provide information for constructing a rational set of operations to solve a given problem. Taylor assumed that workers are lazy by nature and do not want to just work. Therefore, he believed that rationalization leading to an increase in profits would be accepted by the worker only when his income also increased.”

Taylor was an industrial engineer, so it was natural for him to look at control as a machine. It should be noted that this approach was universal at that time. He believed that managers should think and workers should work. This led to the emergence of a large number of functional managers and in-depth specialization based on the operational division of labor.

The basic principles of Taylor's scientific management are as follows:

1. Development of optimal methods for carrying out work based on the scientific study of the costs of time, movements, effort, etc.;

2. Absolute adherence to developed standards;

3. Selection, training and placement of workers in those jobs and tasks where they can provide the greatest benefit;

4. Payment based on work results (less results - less pay, better results - more pay);

5. The use of functional managers who exercise control in specialized areas;

6. Maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers to enable the implementation of scientific management.

Scientific management is also closely related to the work of Frank and Lilia Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. “These founders of the school of scientific management believed that by using observation, measurement, logic and analysis, many manual tasks could be improved, making them more efficient.” Scientific management did not neglect the human factor. An important contribution of this school was the systematic use of incentives to motivate workers to increase productivity and output. Allowance was also made for short periods of rest and the inevitable interruptions in production, so that the amount of time allocated to certain tasks was realistic and fairly set. This gave management the opportunity to set production standards that were achievable and to pay extra for those who exceeded the minimum. The key element in this approach was that people who produced more were rewarded more. Writers of scientific management also recognized the importance of selecting people who were physically and intellectually suited to the work they were doing, and they also emphasized the importance of training.

Scientific management also advocated the separation of the managerial functions of deliberation and planning from the actual execution of work. Taylor and his contemporaries essentially recognized that management work was a specialty, and that the organization as a whole would benefit if each group of workers focused on what it did best. This approach was in stark contrast to the old system, in which workers planned their own work.

The concept of scientific management was a major turning point in which management became widely accepted as an independent field of scientific research.

2.2. Administrative school in management (1920 – 1950)

The authors who wrote about scientific management mainly devoted their research to what is called production management. They were engaged in improving efficiency at a level below management. With the emergence of the administrative school, specialists began to constantly develop approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole.

Taylor and Gilbreth began their careers as ordinary workers, which influenced the way they thought about running an organization. In contrast, the authors who are considered the creators of the school of administrative management, better known as the classical school, had direct experience as senior management executives in big business. Consequently, their main concern was efficiency in the broader sense of the word - as applied to the work of the entire organization.

“Adherents of the classical school, like those who wrote about scientific management, were not very concerned about the social aspects of management. Their work was largely based on personal observation rather than scientific methodology." Representatives of the classical school of management tried to look at organizations from a broad perspective, trying to determine the general characteristics and patterns of the organization. And the goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of management. This goal was based on the idea that following these principles would undoubtedly lead the organization to success. By defining the core functions of a business, the classical theorists were confident that they could determine the best way to divide an organization into divisions or work groups. These functions have traditionally been finance, marketing and production. Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that he viewed management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions such as planning and organization.

Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925) worked almost his entire adult life at a French coal and iron ore processing company. Fayol's focus was on management, and he believed that his success as a manager was due to the fact that he organized and carried out his work correctly. Moreover, he believed that with the right organization of work, every manager can achieve success. In some ways, Fayol had a similar approach to Taylor: he sought to find rules for rational action. The peculiarity of Fayol's teaching was that he studied and described a special type of activity - management, which no one had done before in the form Fayol did.

Considering the organization as a single organism, Fayol believed that any business organization is characterized by the presence of certain types of activities, or six functions:

Technical activities (production);

Commercial activities (purchase, sales and exchange);

Financial activities (search and optimal use of capital);

Security activities (protection of people's property);

Accounting (activities of analysis, accounting, statistics);

Management (planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling).

Believing that management activities may differ depending on the size of the organization, the level in the management hierarchy, and so on, Fayol emphasized that at the same time they must necessarily include all five of these functions (planning, organization, management, coordination, control) .

Fayol also developed fourteen principles of management, which he followed in his practice and on which, as he believed, the success of management depended:

1. Division of labor(increases qualifications and level of work performance).

Specialization is the natural order of things. The purpose of the division of labor is to perform more and better work with the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and effort must be directed.

2. Authority and Responsibility(the right to give commands and be responsible for the results).

Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its opposite. Where authority is given, responsibility arises.

3. Discipline(clear and clear mutual understanding between workers and managers, based on respect for the rules and agreements existing in the organization; mainly the result of management capabilities).

Discipline involves obedience and respect for agreements reached between the company and its employees. The establishment of these agreements between the firm and the workers from which disciplinary formalities arise must remain one of the main tasks of industry managers. Discipline also involves fair application of sanctions.

4. Unity of command(order from only one manager and subordination to only one manager).

5. Unity of direction(one leader and a single plan for each set of actions to achieve some common goals).

Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader.

6. Subordination of personal interests to common interests(the interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of the company or organization).

The manager must ensure, through personal example and strict but fair management, that the interests of individuals, groups and departments do not prevail over the interests of the organization as a whole.

7. Staff remuneration(payment should reflect the state of the organization and encourage people to work with efficiency).

To ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must be paid fairly for their service.

8. Centralization(the level of centralization and decentralization should depend on the situation and be chosen in such a way as to give the best results).

Like the division of labor, centralization is the natural order of things. However, the appropriate degree of centralization will vary depending on the specific conditions. Therefore, the question arises about the correct proportion between centralization and decentralization. This is the problem of identifying a measure that will produce the best possible results.

9. Scalar chain(clear construction of chains of commands from the manager to the subordinates).

A scalar chain is a series of individuals in leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position in this chain, down to the lowest level manager. It would be a mistake to abandon a hierarchical system unless absolutely necessary, but it would be an even greater mistake to maintain that hierarchy when it is detrimental to business interests.

10. Order(everyone should know their place in the organization).

11. Justice(workers should be treated fairly and kindly).

This is a combination of kindness and justice.

12. Job stability for staff(cadres must be in a stable situation).

High staff turnover reduces the effectiveness of the organization. A mediocre manager who hangs on to his job is certainly preferable to an outstanding, talented manager who quickly leaves and does not hold on to his job.

13. Initiative(managers should encourage subordinates to come up with ideas).

Initiative means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation. This gives the organization strength and energy.

14. Corporate spirit(a spirit of unity and joint action should be created, and a team form of work should be developed).

Union is strength. It is the result of staff harmony.

Considering the principles he proposed to be universal, Fayol nevertheless believed that the application of these principles in practice should be flexible and depend on the situation in which management is carried out. After Fayol, many researchers studied and theoretically described management activities and management functions. However, all of them were ultimately only followers who developed, supplemented and concretized his teaching.

2.3. School of Psychology and Human Relations (1930 – 1950)

“The school of scientific management and the classical school were born when psychology was still in its infancy. Many at the beginning of the 20th century seriously questioned Freud's then new concept of the subconscious. Moreover, since those interested in psychology were rarely interested in management, the meager knowledge of human consciousness that existed at that time was in no way related to problems of work activity. Consequently, although the authors of scientific management and the classical approach recognized the importance of the human factor, their discussions were limited to such aspects as fair pay, economic incentives and the establishment of formal functional relationships. The human relations movement began in response to the failure to fully recognize the human element as a fundamental element of organizational effectiveness. Because it arose as a reaction to the shortcomings of the classical approach, the human relations school is sometimes called the neoclassical school.”

Shifting the center of gravity in management from tasks to people is the main distinctive characteristic of the school of human relations, which originated in modern management in the 20-30s. The founder of this school is Elton Mayo (1880-1949). He made the main developments regarding this concept while a professor at Harvard Business School. A fundamental step in the development of this concept was Mayo's participation in the so-called Hawthorne experiment. This study was carried out over several years in the 20-30s. at Western Electric Company. It is generally accepted that this was the largest empirical study ever conducted in the field of management.

At the beginning of the experiment, a group of research engineers set the task of determining the influence of lighting, duration of breaks and a number of other factors shaping working conditions on workers’ productivity. A group of six workers was selected, who were placed for observation in a special room and on whom various experiments were carried out. The results of the experiments were striking and inexplicable from the point of view of scientific management. It turned out that labor productivity remained above average and was almost independent of changes in illumination and other factors studied. The scientists participating in the study, led by Mayo, came to the conclusion that high productivity is explained by the special relationships between people, their teamwork. This study also showed that a person’s behavior at work and the results of his work fundamentally depend on the social conditions in which he is at work, what kind of relationships workers have among themselves, as well as what kind of relationships exist between workers and managers. These conclusions were fundamentally different from the provisions of scientific management, because the focus of attention shifted from the tasks, operations or functions performed by the worker to a system of relationships, to a person who was no longer considered as a machine, but as a social being. Unlike Taylor, Mayo did not believe that the worker was inherently lazy. On the contrary, he argued that if the appropriate relationships are created, a person will work with interest and enthusiasm. Mayo said that managers must trust workers and focus on creating positive relationships within the team.

The shift of the center of gravity in management from tasks to people gave rise to the development of various behavioral theories of management, developing or complementing the ideas of the school of social systems. A teacher at Northwestern University in Chicago, Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955), advocated that managers should look at workers not only through the prism of their economic interests, but also social ones, in terms of public recognition of their merits, including them into groups.

The famous management theorist Marie Parker Follett (1868-1933) believed that for successful management, a manager must abandon formal interactions with workers, be a leader recognized by workers, and not rely on official power. Her interpretation of management as “the art of achieving results through the actions of others” emphasized flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers. Follett believed that a manager should start from the situation and manage according to what the situation dictates, and not according to what is prescribed by the management function.

A huge contribution to the development of the behaviorist direction in management was made by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), who developed the theory of needs, which was later widely used in management, known as the “pyramid of needs.” In accordance with Maslow's teachings, a person has a complex structure of hierarchically located needs, and management in accordance with this should be carried out on the basis of identifying the needs of the worker and using appropriate methods of motivation.

“The specific opposition between scientific management and behavioral concepts in the form of their theoretical generalization was reflected in Theory X and Theory Y, developed by Douglas McGregor (1906-1964). According to this theory, there are two types of management, reflecting two types of views on workers." An “X” type organization is characterized by the following prerequisites:

The average person has an inherited dislike of work and tries to avoid work;

Because of their reluctance to work, most people can only be induced through coercion, orders, control and threats of punishment to take the necessary actions and expend the necessary effort necessary for the organization to achieve its goals;

The average person prefers to be controlled, avoids taking responsibility, has relatively low ambitions, and wants to be in a secure situation.

Theory "Y" has the following premises:

Expression of physical and emotional effort at work is as natural for a person as during play or leisure. Reluctance to work is not a hereditary human trait. A person may perceive work as a source of satisfaction or as a punishment depending on the working conditions; external control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of inducing a person to act in order to achieve the organization’s goals. People can exercise self-control and self-motivation to act for the interests of the organization if they have a sense of responsibility and obligation towards the organization;

Responsibility and commitment to the goals of the organization depend on the rewards received for performance. The most important rewards are those associated with satisfying the needs for self-expression and self-actualization;

An ordinary person, brought up in a certain way, is not only ready to take responsibility, but even strives for it.

At the same time, in relation to Theory Y, McGregor emphasized that many people have an inherent willingness to use their experience, knowledge and imagination in solving organizational problems. However, modern industrial society makes little use of the intellectual potential of the average person.

McGregor concluded that "Y" management is much more effective, and made a recommendation to managers that their task is to create conditions under which the worker, while expending effort to achieve the goals of the organization, at the same time best achieves his personal goals .

“Undoubtedly, a huge contribution to the development of management thought was made by the German lawyer and sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920), who developed the theory of bureaucratic structure of an organization and management system in particular.” If Taylor was trying to find an answer to the question of how to make a worker work like a machine, then Weber was looking for an answer to the question of what needs to be done to make an entire organization work like a machine. Weber saw the answer to this question in the development of rules and procedures for behavior in any situation and the rights and responsibilities of each employee. The individual was absent from Weber's concept of organization. Procedures and rules determined all major activities, the careers of workers, and the specific decisions and activities of management.

Weber believed that a bureaucratic system should provide speed, accuracy, order, certainty, continuity and predictability. The main elements of building an organization that ensure these qualities, according to Weber, should be the following:

Division of labor based on functional specialization;

A well-defined hierarchical system of power distribution;

A system of rules and regulations defining the rights and responsibilities of employees;

A system of rules and procedures for behavior in specific situations;

Lack of personality in interpersonal relationships;

Admission to the organization based on the competence and needs of the organization;

Promotion within the organization based on competence and broad knowledge of the organization that comes with seniority;

Strategy for lifelong employment;

A clear career system that ensures upward mobility for qualified workers;

Management of administrative activities consists of developing and establishing thorough written instructions for intra-organizational activities.

3. Centralized and decentralized forms of management

Management principles are general patterns within which connections (relationships) between various structures (elements) of the management system are realized, which are reflected in the formulation of practical management problems.

The main principle of management is the principle of an optimal combination of centralization and decentralization in management. The problem of combining centralization and decentralization in management is the problem of distributing authority to make specific decisions at each level of the management hierarchy, so I would like to consider them in more detail. The optimal option is considered to be an approach where decisions related to the development of policies - goals and strategy of the company as a whole are centralized, and decisions related to operational management are decentralized.

“Decentralization means the transfer of decision-making rights to the lower operational and economic level - production departments enjoying economic independence. This presupposes a high degree of coordination of activities at all levels of management of the company, acting as a single whole.”

The principle of combining centralization and decentralization in management presupposes the need for skillful use of unity of command and collegiality. Unity of command means granting the top manager of a company or division such complete power as is necessary for making decisions and personal responsibility for the assigned work.

Collegiality presupposes the development of a collective decision based on the opinions of managers at different levels and, first of all, the executors of specific decisions - the heads of production departments. Collegiality increases the objectivity of decisions made, their validity and contributes to the successful implementation of such decisions. However, collegial decision-making is much slower than individual decision-making.

A type of collegiality is collective decision-making. Collective decisions are usually made by a majority of votes, for example, at a meeting of shareholders. The role of the leader here comes down to preparing and justifying decisions proposed for discussion and adoption on a collective basis.

Another important principle of management is the principle of combining rights, duties and responsibilities. Managers typically make their connections one level up or down from their level. Each subordinate must perform the tasks assigned to him and periodically report for their implementation. Each position in the management hierarchy is endowed with specific rights granted, and the manager occupying the corresponding position bears full responsibility for the tasks assigned to him and performs certain functions. No manager can delegate the task of implementing a decision without bypassing a direct subordinate. A negative point in the implementation of this principle is that the manager may find himself isolated from the sphere of his responsibility, since his direct subordinates may interfere with his personal and direct contacts with the lower levels of the management structure.

One of the most important principles of modern management is the democratization of management, based on the corporate organization of ownership, when the money of many people invested in shares is placed under a single administrative control.

Thus, management is based on administrative management, which we call intra-company, and production management, based on production technology.

The principles of company management are determined by many factors, in particular, scale, profile and production technology; the nature and variety of products; the degree of use of electronic computing methods of information processing; volume of foreign activity and its forms.

Almost every company has its own management organization, which is constantly being improved by applying such forms and methods that would ensure the highest profits, high competitiveness of products and contribute to penetration into new areas of activity and gaining strong positions in markets.

The most important principles of management activities are the principles of centralization and decentralization, which form the basis of organizational forms of management. The centralized form of management provides for the management of the economic activities of the enterprises included in the company from one center, strict regulation and coordination of their activities, their complete lack of economic independence, to the point that their responsibility for the sale of products ceases after they have shipped their goods to the marketing authority companies. This form of management organization is usually used by small companies that produce one type of product or product of one industry, the technological process of which is closely linked, operating primarily in the extractive industries and focusing on the local or national market.

Centralized management of a small company producing one type of product is organized quite simply. The top management of a company usually consists of the president of the company, who also acts as its manager, and two vice-presidents, one of whom is in charge of production and technology issues, the other is involved in sales of products and everything connected with it. Issues such as legal protection of the company's interests in its business relations with other companies and the state, accounting, are usually entrusted to specialized firms.

Centralized management of a large company producing one type of product is more difficult. The president here carries out only general management of the company, and vice presidents manage certain sectors of activity with the help of corresponding managers. For example, the treasurer, auditor and purchasing manager report to the vice president in charge of financial matters. The manager of scientific and technical work and the chief engineer of the enterprise report to the vice president for production. The vice president of sales also has two managers - one for sales and the other for marketing. The latter’s responsibility includes studying the market, organizing advertising, and using all forms and methods to promote the company’s products in the markets.

Centralized management of a large company that produces several types of products and focuses on both national and foreign markets is even more difficult. In such a company, vice presidents are assigned to assist the president. The vice president in charge of production reports to several managers, each of whom is in charge of the production of products of the range assigned to him. The vice president of sales usually reports to two managers, one for domestic sales and the other for foreign sales. Usually there is also a position of vice president - manager or chief manager for general issues, who acts as an assistant to the president.

The organizational form of company management is considered centralized when:

Functional departments play a more important role than production departments;

There are a significant number of functional services (departments);

Research units are located in the central office of the parent company;

With a powerful production and sales apparatus, the sales network of production departments is subordinate to the central sales department;

The functional departments of the parent company's central office exercise functional control over the product divisions, manufacturing plants, and sales divisions.

Sometimes large companies with a centralized form of management create a management committee under the board of directors or an executive committee. The responsibilities of such a committee include determining the basic principles of company management, developing the main direction of the company's development, considering projects for financing new capital construction, authorizing the appointment of managers, and providing consultations and advice to the top management of the company.

A decentralized form of management involves the creation within the company of production departments that enjoy complete economic independence, that is, endowed with broad powers both in the sphere of production and in the field of sales and are responsible for making profits. The top administration of the company retains the functions of monitoring the operational activities of the departments, coordinating their work and determining the main directions to ensure the efficiency and profitability of the company’s activities, as well as carrying out long-term planning. Typically, production departments are given full responsibility for organizing production and sales activities. Each production department independently finances its activities and enters into partnerships with any third parties on a commercial basis. However, the mere fact of creating production departments does not mean that the company is managed on the basis of decentralization. The degree of decentralization of management is determined by the degree of granting powers or the right to make independent decisions to branch managers. In some companies with a large number of production divisions and senior administrators in charge of them, the president of the company makes decisions on all more or less important issues individually, that is, the management of such a company is essentially centralized.

The transition to a decentralized form of management is carried out primarily by large diversified firms, which have a significant number of production enterprises, produce a wide range of goods, operate in large markets and have direct connections with the end consumers of their products.

"A. Fayol once wrote that centralization is in itself neither a good nor a bad system of administration, which could be accepted or rejected at the discretion of the leaders or according to circumstances; it always exists to one degree or another. The question of centralization and decentralization is a simple matter of measure. It is necessary to find the degree of it that is most favorable for the enterprise.”

In the above principles of Fayol regarding organization building, there is a reference to the need to establish the appropriate scale of management, which is a very important element of the whole concept. Both Fayol and the famous English management consultant Lyndall Urwick favor a strict upper limit on the number of subordinates to one manager. Urwick believes that the ideal number of subordinates for a leader of any size is four. However, there are many factors, such as complexity, the nature of the operations being carried out, that make it necessary to have more than four people under your command.

Determining the scope of management. When determining the scope of management, there are several factors that are important to consider. In addition to the degree of complexity of the work performed, it is necessary to take into account the subjective capabilities of the manager and his ability to cooperate with the team. A manager can reduce the time required for management and control by: delegating authority to perform a clearly defined task; drawing up a clear and concise plan, developing appropriate techniques and approaches; the use of control and verification standards in order to be able to ensure that his subordinates comply with the relevant plan and schedule.

The importance of establishing the scope of management. Correctly establishing the limits of the distribution of powers is of great importance.

It should be taken into account that in the case of an unreasonably increased scale of management, personal contact between the manager and subordinates is lost, the manager may lose control of the group, subgroups may appear, difficulties arise in checking the results of the group’s activities, the quality of professional training of employees decreases, and control over the implementation of tasks assigned to them is weakened. tasks, which negatively affects their morale and work results. On the other hand, in the case of an unreasonably reduced scale of management, too many levels of management arise, administrative costs increase (primarily in the form of salaries to the management apparatus), more time is allocated for decision-making due to the need to go through all levels of management, and the degree of control increases, which can lead to a decrease in initiative and creative activity, and adversely affect morale.

The degree of centralization and decentralization depends on the scale of powers. Delegation of authority is an integral part of decentralization. Without delegation of authority, the management of an organization becomes too centralized. The level of centralization is lower, the more decisions are made directly at the workplace, which are immediately implemented and are of a narrow, special nature. Centralization is characterized by a lack of transfer of authority and known limits of competence, which leads to a decrease in efficiency in decision-making. Excessive centralization impairs the development of initiative among lower-level managers.

Delegation of powers. The main purpose of delegation of authority is to make it possible to decentralize the management of the organization. This must be done when the scale of management is too large and the process itself includes the transfer of authority to subordinate managers to perform special tasks. Only powers are transferred. The senior manager continues to bear all responsibility.

Methods of transfer of authority. The delegation of authority can be made orally or in writing. Methods can be general or special. However, they should not be too narrow or too wide.

Principles of delegation of powers. The most important requirements here are the following:

The transfer of authority should be carried out in accordance with the expected result. The subordinate must have sufficient authority to achieve the required result; the transfer of authority must be carried out along the lines of management so that each subordinate knows who specifically authorized him and to whom he is responsible; Each manager makes decisions within the limits of his authority. Everything that exceeds his competence is transferred to the highest levels of management; only powers are transferred. The senior official remains responsible for the actions of his subordinate.

The art of delegation depends mainly on subjective reasons and includes the following: receptivity to new ideas; willingness to delegate the resolution of minor issues to lower management levels; willingness to trust lower management levels; the desire to exercise only general, and not, for example, hourly control.

Factors influencing the level of decentralization. Among them are the following:

Amount of costs; degree of unification. The desired level of uniformity can be more effectively achieved through increased centralization; enterprise size. In large enterprises, decisions are made by a large number of managers at different levels, which are difficult to coordinate. Where authority is dispersed, decisions are made more quickly; management philosophy. Managers may prefer an authoritarian management structure, where all decisions are made by senior management, or a decentralized system, where managers at all levels have discretion in determining the scope of authority; availability of a suitable leader. In the absence of managers of the required level, it is advisable to concentrate powers in the highest levels of management; use of control techniques. The higher the control capacity, the greater the degree of decentralization that can be achieved; the nature of the organization's activities. If business operations are spread over large geographical areas, then a greater degree of decentralization will be required; influence of the external environment. This refers, for example, to government policies in the field of pricing, income, or some restrictions on the use of labor. These reasons may reduce the degree of decentralization of the organization's management, but their clear formulation can help solve the problem.

Benefits of centralized management. Here you should name:

Better control over the activities of the enterprise; the ability to bring all operations within the organization to a single standard; eliminating possible duplication of certain activities and efforts; more efficient use of personnel, equipment, and production space. Centralization of management may, for example, make it expedient to purchase computer equipment and other expensive but effective equipment.

Disadvantages of centralized management. These include the following:

The growth of bureaucracy, the accumulation of urgent issues to resolve, the increase in documentation, dossiers; delays in decision making, especially in the workplace; decisions are made by those who are unfamiliar with the actual situation in production.

But, as we know, it is not enough to build a proper organizational structure; it is necessary to coordinate the work of all its elements.

Coordinating the activities of an organization means synchronizing the efforts made, their integration into a single whole. In other words, this is the process of distributing activities over time, bringing its individual elements into such a combination that would most effectively and efficiently achieve the goal.

Individual work and organizational tasks. Coordination is most effective in cases where the employee sees the contribution of his own work to achieving the goals of the organization. Therefore, it is very important that every employee of the enterprise is aware of the general development line of the organization, its tasks and goals.

Coordination of activities and means of communication. The problems of developing sufficiently effective coordination of the activities of all departments of the organization are directly related to the level of development of communications and the need to maintain constant information exchange.

When a production manager conveys instructions or other information via communications, he must be confident that his message will be correctly understood and received in a timely manner. The reverse process of information transfer - from subordinate to manager - is also important. At this stage, there are failures; lower echelons do not always know what information management needs to make certain decisions. This is a serious problem because the source of information for decisions at the highest level is the lower levels of the organization.

Reasons for creating commissions. Their creation is usually due to a number of reasons. Firstly, there is a need to have a structural unit where it would be possible to express ideas, exchange experiences, and develop collective recommendations.

Secondly, commissions are created to ensure representation of interest groups. This allows for a more considered, balanced point of view to emerge that is based on broad knowledge and experience. In turn, groups offering their point of view on the development of events show an increased sense of responsibility for the final decisions made.

Thirdly, as a means of distributing information. All commission members receive new information at the same time, which saves the manager’s working time. In addition, this helps to increase the level of coordination of the organization’s activities as a whole.

Fourthly, to consolidate powers, that is, here you can directly, bypassing the authorities, reach the required level of administrative power.

Finally, the possibility arises of using commissions as a means of improving professional training and developing relevant leadership skills.

Possible shortcomings in the work of commissions. Among them we highlight the following:

Relatively slow decision-making process; commission members with high temperament can take a dominant position, suppressing the potential capabilities of others; as a result of disagreements, commission members may make compromise decisions (not always the most effective); commissions reduce the powers of line managers.

The Board of Directors (Board) is a group of persons who play a major role in the activities of the organization. The tasks of the Board of Directors, the functions of the president and the secretary are discussed below.

The Board of Directors develops the policies pursued by the company's management and represents the highest level of management.

4. Human resource management is an important aspect of business

Since I work as a personnel manager in a law firm, it was interesting and informative for me to consider this issue of my work in more detail, based on the above teachings and schools. The study of man at work is the responsibility of industrial psychology. It is associated with choosing the most suitable job for a person, which is achieved in two ways.

Selecting a person for a job involves the following points: inclinations (scientific determination of a person’s inclination to a specific job, from which he receives maximum satisfaction); personal selection (using tools such as questionnaires, interviews, tests to determine the best of many candidates); education.

Selecting a job for a person. This includes

first, the design and layout of equipment (equipment must be designed and positioned to suit the capabilities of the average worker);

secondly, physical working conditions (increasing the efficiency of work, lighting, heating, ventilation, reducing noise levels, etc.);

thirdly, psychological working conditions (accidents, absenteeism, smoking breaks, salary and bonus systems, types of control, etc.).

Attitude is important to leadership. Workers' attitudes toward their jobs, the firm, or management can influence their relationships with management.

Workers' attitudes can reveal much about their behavior in certain circumstances. For example, the company's management may offer workers a new project. However, it may not be met with enthusiasm. Workers may suspect that management has some ulterior motives because they do not trust management. Likewise, many managers are wary of workers' suggestions because they perceive them as lazy.

This is an important management tool, because without knowledge of what specifically motivates workers, how they feel about work, the management of the company, working conditions and wages, managers will not be able to determine the company's policies. Such knowledge is also important for understanding your workers.

One of the main causes of industrial conflicts is the lack of understanding between managers and workers. This happens because both parties are unaware of each other's relationship. Knowing these relationships leads to understanding.

Additionally, the role is determined by the hierarchy of the organization, control systems in the organization, remuneration, and status. One should also take into account the external influences on the role of society and its culture, the latent roles of the person himself, that is, the person’s expectations regarding friends, parents, wife, and children.

In practice, there is often a primary expectation of a central role. For example, if the boss says that he would like the work to be done in a certain way, then there is one of the subordinates who prefers to do it differently. Thus, a hierarchy of tasks arises within a set of roles, which changes depending on the situation. Various problems can arise here.

Firms with a Japanese management style have achieved significant improvements in industrial relations by eliminating separate meal rooms for management and introducing a uniform start time for everyone.

More than two thousand years ago, Aristotle called man a “social animal” and thereby expressed the tendency of people to organize themselves into social groups. We are all, with a few exceptions, “social animals”. We are born into a social group (family) and throughout our lives we are members of various social groups. We are never isolated.

Thus, social group is an important aspect of human behavior, and its importance is not sufficiently emphasized

In 1924–1932, Elton Mayo (1880–1944), founder of the “human relations” school of management theory, and his colleagues conducted a detailed study of the behavior of workers at the Hawthorne plant (near Chicago), owned by the Western Electric Company. Production at the plant was low and Elton Mayo was asked to investigate the reasons for this. Experiments focused on the physical aspects of work (such as lighting), but it was found that improving lighting did not increase output, and in some cases increased production occurred when lighting decreased. Elton Mayo came to the conclusion that the divisions of the plant were too different to give conclusions about them as a single whole. Two long trials with a limited number of workers were required.

First, five women were selected who worked in a separate room from 1927–1929. Operating conditions varied, and production estimates were made after changing conditions. Output was found to rise even as conditions worsened. The main reasons for this were that the workers felt united by a common goal and that management took an interest in their work. From this it was concluded that group morale and a sense of participation could overcome poor working conditions.

Then they did the same with men. There were 12 operators and 2 inspectors. The survey period was six months (November 1931–May 1932). This experiment concluded that the men who worked in the group viewed anyone who disobeyed the group as an outsider and condemned him.

The Hawthorne experiment showed that group behavior can be largely independent of work conditions or pay schemes. Hawthorne's experiments, like other observations, demonstrate the close connection between morality and performance.

Any successful worker participation scheme can help achieve this goal and thereby change a poor work situation. Enriching jobs, making them larger, and changing the structure of responsibility should have a positive impact on the morale and efficiency of the workforce.

The concept of worker participation aims to do more than achieve any level of workers' participation in various bodies. It allows for greater participation at most other levels. An example of this is worker participation in standard setting, quality control, group democratization (including group definition of roles and distribution of rewards between groups), etc. Recent years have shown that these schemes often lead to a general improvement in industrial relations. This improvement can be quantified (reduced labor turnover, absenteeism, better quality, reduced scrap, etc.).

True worker participation is possible only if workers are truly involved in the affairs of the company, its goals, policies and execution, and such involvement is possible only if management accepts the responsibility of communicating to its workers the facts and figures about the situation in the company.

The concept of worker participation at the director level represents a radical change in the traditional relationship between management and workers. However, there are potential problems here. For example, doubts arise about a worker's ability to participate as an equal in directors' meetings due to insufficient education and lack of business acumen. If the unions want to improve the situation, it will be through the development of extensive education programs, but they will face financial difficulties.

Managing the structure of the organization in its technical and social aspects is the task of top management.

The concept of bureaucracy was developed at the beginning of the century by Max Weber as an ideal form of organization. This form, if actually created, would lead to a permanent structure of units that would be rational-legal and replace people in these roles. The characteristics of this model are:

The division of labor (specialization in tasks and activities) may "have vertical and horizontal relationships; a hierarchy consistent with the idea of a vertical division of labor, or a power structure in which power increases with increasing levels; impersonal roles (a concept of roles closely related to the idea of division labor). A role is a function prescribed to be performed. A function is separated from the person performing it, and therefore is called non-personal; rules. Bureaucracy has written and unwritten rules. Unwritten rules are recorded on paper over time; expertise. Specialization requires experts to evaluate the work, occupying a higher position in the hierarchy, which depends on technical and/or educational qualifications.

These characteristics create an elitist approach to organization in which power and authority are concentrated at the top and distributed according to a hierarchy.

In practice, modern forms of bureaucracy are characterized by such points as:

Centralization; size (the larger the company, the more centralized and authoritative it is); control (exceptionally strict financial control); technology (the more expensive and larger-scale a modern technology is, the more it tends toward bureaucracy). Therefore, mass production tends to the greatest extent towards bureaucratic features.

Bureaucracy, due to its rigid structure and technical specialization, is a method of scientific management. Principles of classical organization theory, such as the “step of control” or Fayol's assumptions of “unity of command,” are based on similar assumptions. Weber noted that bureaucracy is rational as long as its system of roles and impersonality legitimize hierarchical power.

Division of labor. Over-specialization of tasks for both blue-collar and clerical workers results in work that becomes boring and tedious, often requiring less attention from the worker. The result is what Durkheim called anomie, and Marx called alienation, that is, when workers' antipathy to their duties leads, if not to revolution, then certainly to a strike or poor industrial relations plus poor quality products.

Hierarchy. The power structure becomes dysfunctional if it loses flexibility. The idea that the boss knows best is just as unacceptable as the idea that things should always be done one way and not another. Until the organization can adapt to changes in the environment, there will be a need for flexible and more rational organizational forms.

Non-personal roles. In practice, the role cannot be non-personal, impersonal. People always bring their own attitudes, values, needs, expectations, etc. to a functional role. Perhaps more importantly, the role is defined by the expectations of other people, superiors and subordinates, it can never be impersonal. The role must also adapt to changing external conditions.

Rules are what most people understand as "bureaucratic hooks." Each procedure must be codified according to a certain standard. The more rules are written, the more often they become the “end” of themselves. Formalism and ritualism predominate. The more rules there are to maintain a hierarchical power structure, the greater the potential for conflict. One form of protest in industry is “working strictly by the rules.”

The examination includes problems of staffing, career blocking, discrimination due to the implementation of formal “paper” qualifications.

When low and middle levels of the hierarchy begin to realize the breakdown of the organization, they raise questions about the entire system and its legitimacy, which leads to problems of power.

So far, bureaucracy is characteristic mainly of large organizations. Once an organization, whether private or public, grows to a large size, it becomes more bureaucratic.

To summarize, we note that the informal organization of business represents the human aspect of business. This is a consequence of placing people in a formal structure. The special abilities of personnel, their likes and dislikes, their attitudes and prejudices, their social connections create hidden flows within the organization, which the manager must take into account if he wants to work effectively. Informal organizations can quite successfully resist the goals of formal ones. Knowledge of this phenomenon should allow the manager to understand the reasons for the failure of his plans and to use the informal organization to the greatest advantage.

In addition, leadership depends on motivation. Understanding the motives of a worker’s actions and using this knowledge in creating an organization, communicating with people, and developing a remuneration system should be manifested in management.

In a hierarchy, greater or lesser levels of power depend on the level of the position. The higher the level, the greater the power.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “authority” and “power”. Power is given by role and is built into the structure of the organization. It is a right that is inseparable from responsibility and accountability. Thus, power is legitimate and is called the “right of the last word.”

On the contrary, force is not necessarily legitimate, since it is not a right, but an ability. It can be defined as the ability to force phenomena and events to occur according to a given scenario. Strength coexists with authority if the latter is present.

The power base includes: the conditions for exercising the role and powers; place in the hierarchy; control over resources (eg, production factors, information); property or entrusted property: charming leadership - “from God”; “highest” education; traditions; granting power by superiors; factors associated with subordinates – expectations, desires and needs; assessments, contract terms; conditioned by genetic inclinations - adoption of authoritarian or democratic discipline; education.

In fact, without the recognition of the leader by subordinates, there may not be any power.

But the authorities also have their own problems.

Forces acting on the manager:

The manager’s own values, determined by society itself. In a less authoritarian society, total power would certainly not be achievable or desirable; power is limited by costs and benefits provided; acceptance of power includes responsibility. Not all managers want to bear any obligations.

Forces acting on subordinates:

Some may disagree with society for ideological reasons; subordinates yield to the manager's power because of their interests, which depend on motivation; people accept the power of others only to a certain extent; power may be assumed simply because some aspects of the situation seem unimportant or have not been accurately assessed; power may be assumed because subordinates are not strong enough to change the situation.

Forces acting on the situation:

Authority may not be accepted during periods of long historical conflict; economic conditions, especially employment prospects, may make the assumption of power more or less calm.

The manager depends, undoubtedly, on the same factors as power. However, power is exercised through control over resources, money, information and knowledge. Force is coercive.

Power and strength can be considered as a straight line from –100 to +100, that is, from the illegal use of force to the legitimate acceptance of power. Managers use a combination of power and authority to achieve organizational goals, depending on the demands of the situation and leadership style. But excessive use of the force method means that subordinates will not support the manager’s actions for a long time and that the organization shows signs of “ill health.”

Below are some of the most important types of management and disciplinary techniques.

Strengthening official power. An official is a leader based more on the position he occupies in the hierarchy than on his personal qualities. Therefore, it is important to enhance position power if an individual is to be an effective leader of his or her group. This forms an important part of behavioral research, that is, play roles. Depersonalization of power relations. If decision-making by superiors becomes an obligation imposed by the organization rather than a personal obligation of the leader, then this contributes to the strengthening of power. It also helps the leader when unpopular decisions have to be made. Decisions made on behalf of the organization are more easily accepted by subordinates than decisions made by a specific manager. Participation of subordinates. Leadership can be authoritarian or democratic (in which the leader expects subordinates to participate in decision-making). Specialization and division of labor, however, limit the scope of decisions made with the participation of subordinates. In addition, if the views of subordinates are unacceptable to the organization and must be changed by senior management, contradictions may arise. Awareness of subordinates. Undesirable behavior by subordinates can only be caused by a lack of information about the goals of the organization. A good leader ensures that his subordinates know the standards of acceptable behavior and the consequences of not meeting those standards. Constantly changing interpretations and enforcement of rules. Top managers must consistently force subordinates to comply with company rules. Chaotic behavior and inconsistency can cause discord, lack of faith, and feelings of insecurity among subordinates. Changing unpopular decisions. Managers should not make decisions that subordinates will not implement. It's better to change these decisions. Use of disciplinary measures. The effectiveness of disciplinary measures depends on how highly subordinates value their connection to the organization. Condescension. Some managers are more lenient than others. A permissive leader can tolerate small deviations from the rules of his subordinates and thereby create a friendly atmosphere and a sense of personal loyalty that helps him establish contact with subordinates to achieve major organizational goals.

Social groups play an important role in the modern business environment. If a manager wishes to perform his functions effectively, he must be able to manage various work groups.

The main skill for effectively managing a social group or work team is leadership. Leadership is the process of achieving the desired cooperation on the part of the group. Mary P. Follett, in her works "The Leader and the Expert" and "Some Discrepancies in the Theory and Practice of Leadership," published in 1927 and 1931, respectively, took this idea further by saying that the power accruing to a leader is the result of the group's ability to accept an individual. as a leader. The long-term effectiveness of a work team, therefore, requires the presence of a manager who ensures the interests, loyalty and participation of all team members. A good leader, according to A. Fayol, must himself have the courage to take responsibility and instill this quality in his subordinates.

For team work, it is not enough for a manager to simply set a task for his subordinates; he must work with them to find out what it is. This requires the manager to have knowledge of the principles of group communication and the forces operating within the group. It must take into account how the group can influence the behavior of individuals.

Effective team work is characterized by the following points: greater coordination of interests (group members subordinate their own interests to group goals): the definition and perception of the goal are combined; high degree of coordination of actions: adaptation to changing conditions; timeliness of decisions and actions; reasonable use of communication channels; productive use of meetings; liberal atmosphere when discussing issues, constructive criticism.

Any organization creates tension that can lead to conflict. Therefore, it is important for a modern manager to be able to manage a conflict situation.

Proponents of the classical school of management largely ignore conflicts that depend on the manager's ability to solve any problems that arise in this area. However, in the 20s, M. Follett, in her work “Constructive Conflict,” proposed the following: instead of eliminating controversial situations, usually by force, a manager should manage this situation in such a way that it leads to the best.

Follett identified three methods for eliminating conflict situations that usually arise between an individual (or a union) and the management of a company, namely suppression, compromise, and integration. Of course, of these, only integration truly offers solutions to problems.

Suppression. With the help of force you can destroy your opponent. Thus, strong management will defeat a weak trade union, or a powerful trade union can disperse an enterprise.

Compromise is the most revered and frequently used form of solution. In a compromise, each side demands what it wants and bargains until the end. This is a temporary agreement, usually designed for a short period and leading to a new repetition of the conflict.

Integration. This approach allows conflict to be viewed as a multifaceted problem with a solution that lies in satisfying the basic demands of the parties to the conflict. Integration requires a common value system among the conflicting parties, so that one party fully understands the other. One common reason conflict persists is that the parties talk about different things too often. Let us assume that A, B, C, D and D are parties to the conflict. The company's management attaches great importance to A and B, a certain importance to C, and considers D and D to be of little importance. A person (or a union), on the other hand, tends to consider D and D the most important elements, and considers A, B and C as unimportant. During integration, controversial issues are separated and analyzed separately; Each aspect is given a certain weight. The needs, desires and hopes of the parties are brought together for consideration and evaluation. This analysis may result in a reassessment of interests.

The barriers to integration are as follows:

It requires education, sensitivity, insight and ingenuity on both sides; Many managers have developed a habit of resolving disputes by predominance, which is difficult to eradicate; cultural prejudices; many managers are not sufficiently trained in the art of collaborative reflection.

However, with conscientious management training, many of these obstacles can be overcome.

The benefits of conflict. Conflicts do not only cause harm. Although disruptive, they can serve to clarify the relationship between the individual and management.

A good manager cannot and should not try to avoid all conflict. The manager must solve problems during the integration process and thereby clarify the goals of both parties. Constructive criticism along with consultation will mean that the manager can benefit as much as the workers.

And now a few words about motivation. Since 1880, when F. Taylor began his systematic research into management techniques, most of his work has dealt with motivation. Taylor made the following three basic assumptions about human behavior at work:

Man is a “rational animal” concerned with maximizing his economic income; people react to economic situations individually; people, like machines, can be subject to standardized fashion.

Taylor believed that all workers wanted was high wages.

Taylor's theories have long been put into practice in the form of incentive payments without any significant changes. However, in the late 20s, E. Mayo's work at Hawthorne's factories largely refuted Taylor's theories and pointed the way to more modern theories. But the basis for the most modern theories are the theories of motivation developed by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908–1970).

Maslow proposed that a person is motivated by the satisfaction of a series of needs arranged in a hierarchy or pyramid of five broad strata. In ascending order these are:

Physiological, or basic, needs (food, warmth, shelter, sex, etc.); security needs (protection, order); social needs (the need to belong to someone, to be in friendly relations, to be part of a group); Esteem needs (self-esteem and the respect of others, e.g. status symbols, prestige, fame); the need for self-realization, that is, the need to fully develop one’s potential (creative results, achievements in raising children, etc.).

Maslow made the assumption that in the simplest case, needs are satisfied one after another, that is, as soon as one need is satisfied, it acts as a motivation to satisfy the next, etc. But if, when satisfying a group of needs, any new basic need arises, a person will reverse his attention to her first.

From a “work motivation” perspective, an employer who believes that man lives by bread alone will be stymied because his workers will be unhappy and unmotivated. According to Maslow, “man lives only by bread alone, where there is no bread at all.”

There are three important points to remember from Maslow's theory:

The hierarchy of needs is very similar to human development from childhood to old age: the baby needs food and warmth, security and love: as he grows, there is a gradual development of self-esteem, and finally a “self-motivated” adult appears. The disappearance of satisfied needs and the emergence of others in the form of motivation is an unconscious process: as soon as you get a job, you will immediately forget all past adversities and start thinking about moving up, status, etc.; if you don't get this, you will feel miserable, as if you don't have a job at all. Maslow notes that the five stages are not something autonomous. There is a certain degree of interaction between them.

Maslow's theory is based on the assumption that as long as the need to satisfy basic needs in the hierarchy is as important as, for example, the need for vitamins, a healthy person will be guided mainly by the need to self-realize his potential. If a person is prevented from satisfying lower level needs, higher level needs cannot arise. However, opposition to need satisfaction occurs for external reasons.

Entrepreneurship plays an important role in satisfying needs.

It significantly contributes to the satisfaction of physical needs (eg, food, clothing), providing financial resources, increasing confidence and security due to its long-term nature.

The employee satisfies his needs for approval and inclusion in activities through communication with his colleagues at work and identifying himself with a work group.

However, the esteem and self-expression needs are particularly relevant to the consideration of employee motivation. Respect is satisfied through awareness and understanding of personal feelings. Self-expression requires the expression of an individual's abilities and skills. These needs manifest themselves in the desire to take on some responsibility and to obtain interesting and creative work.

Recent research on job enrichment shows that when work is done with greater responsibility and variety, it not only increases employee satisfaction, but also improves the quality of job performance.

One of the most famous concepts of motivation, which continues Maslow’s theory, is the views of Professor Frederick Herzberg (USA), which determines motivation by satisfaction or dissatisfaction with work.

This approach is based on data from experiments to find out what people think about their work (what makes them happy or unhappy, satisfied or not); in particular, engineers and accountants were interviewed. Similar studies were carried out repeatedly by other scientists in other countries, including those that called themselves socialist. And everywhere there was a high degree of reliability of the results.

It was assumed that the factors that cause job satisfaction are more diverse than those that cause dissatisfaction. Based on this, satisfaction is not simply the result of the absence of factors leading to dissatisfaction, that is, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites. According to Herzberg, the opposite of job satisfaction is satisfaction with non-work, and the opposite of job dissatisfaction is dissatisfaction with non-work.

Herzberg called the factors influencing the elimination of dissatisfaction hygienic, the factors influencing satisfaction motivators.

The work situation (i.e. the actual work that the worker does and the conditions surrounding him - salary, control, etc.) can be considered as a set of motivators and hygiene factors. The most important thing is not to mix them with each other.

Herzberg's research established that it is possible to distinguish and classify hygiene and motivating factors.

Hygiene factors: company policy, safety, status, industrial relations, salary, working conditions, supervision, management behavior.

Motivating factors: psychological growth (self-realization, according to Maslow), progress, responsibility, work in itself, recognition, success.

From the point of view of hygiene factors and motivators, human needs are divided into two groups.

Animal needs are needs such as the desire to avoid pain, hunger, etc., which forces one to earn money.

Spiritual needs - this group refers to those qualities that are unique to humans and provide psychological growth.

Herzberg also noted that the implementation of these two groups of factors will be beneficial for both the employee and the employer. Hygiene factors improve performance, but motivating factors are necessary to achieve real success.

Douglas McGregor (1906-1964), American management consultant, carried out a number of studies on management theory and motivation. He described the various assumptions that managers make about employee behavior. McGregor compared the philosophy of traditional management with the more modern approach to job satisfaction and identified the "human spirit" as the main motivating force. He called his two assumptions the “X” and “Y” theories.

Theory X (traditional view) articulates the command and control philosophy of traditional management. A manager tells people what needs to be done and often uses rewards or punishments along the way. It operates based on the following assumptions:

The average individual has a strong dislike for work and will avoid it as much as possible; therefore, most people should be forced to work and controlled. They need to be controlled by threat of punishment to force them to make efforts to achieve the goals of the organizations; The average individual prefers to be led, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively weak ambitions, and wants security and peace above all else.

The "Igrek" theory (modern point of view) is a new approach in management based on the latest research. It has the following assumptions:

The expenditure of physical and spiritual energy in work is as natural as in play or rest; external control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of forcing a person to work conscientiously. This can be done using employee self-management and self-control; compliance with goals is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of these rewards are self-satisfaction and self-satisfaction; the average individual wishes, under certain conditions, not only to accept responsibility, but also to strive for it; the ability to demonstrate a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving organizational problems is widespread among individuals; In the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potential of the average individual is far from being fully used and must be maximized.

Although many guideline descriptions have been proposed, none have been fully adopted. Since the development of leadership theory is a highly controversial part of management theory, it is appropriate to consider some of their options.

Trait theory is based on the assumption that all successful leaders have some personal characteristics that enable them to succeed.

Situation theory is based on the assumption that the person who feels best to lead in a given situation will stand out from the group as a leader. According to this theory, candidates for leadership can be placed in various non-standard situations and the one who becomes the leader can be officially appointed to leadership positions.

Mixed leadership theory is a combination of components of both theories. It is perhaps the most useful because it draws on information from a variety of sources to explain the role of management.

Leadership can be defined as the desire of an individual to dominate the area in which he has found himself, combined with the ability to instill confidence in followers so that they do what is asked of them, or more simply, as the ability to persuade people to do what is required. which they would not do voluntarily.

The most generally accepted characteristics of a leader are acceptance of responsibility, confidence, determination, directness, and education.

Based on this, the required skills can be determined. Some of these skills are inseparable from a person's character, some can be acquired. These include: organizational abilities; acceptance of this approach by others at all levels; energy; encouraging initiative; delegation of powers, people management; tact; self-discipline.

Rancis Likert, an American industrial psychologist, contributed to the use of human performance. Likert believed that to achieve maximum profitability, good labor relations and high productivity, every organization must make optimal use of its human assets. The form of organization that allows this to be achieved is the organization of highly effective work groups, connected in parallel with other similar effective groups.

To change an organization, Likert identifies the main characteristics of effective management that must be implemented in practice.

Firstly, motivation to work must correspond to modern principles and methods, and not just the old system of reward and punishment.

Secondly, employees are seen as people with their own needs, desires and values, and their self-esteem should increase.

Third, closely connected, highly effective working groups must be created.

Likert has rich industrial experience and his theory is deeply scientific; many believe that practice refutes it. They point out that management in the 1980s was often identified with companies dominated by strong personalities.

5. Implementation of management principles in modern management

The times we live in are an era of change. Our society is undergoing an extremely difficult, largely contradictory, but historically inevitable and necessary restructuring. In socio-political life this is a transition from totalitarianism to democracy, in economics - from an administrative-command system to a market, in the life of an individual - his transformation from a “cog” into an independent subject of economic activity. Such changes in society, the economy, and our entire way of life are difficult in that they require changes in ourselves. To cope with this challenge, unprecedented in the lives of current generations, we, among other things, need to acquire new knowledge and learn to use it in practice. An important part of this knowledge, as world experience shows, is comprehension of the science and art of management.

In a simplified understanding, management is the ability to achieve goals, use labor, intelligence, and the motives of other people’s behavior. Management - in Russian “management” - is a function, a type of activity for managing people in a wide variety of organizations. Management is also an area of human knowledge that helps to carry out this function. Finally, management as a collective term for managers is a certain category of people, a social stratum of those who carry out management work. The importance of management was especially clearly recognized in the thirties. Even then it became obvious that this activity had turned into a profession, a field of knowledge into an independent discipline, and a social stratum into a very influential social force.

In preparation for entering Western markets, Russian companies are introducing Western principles of corporate governance. An example was the Yukos company, which will begin to conduct business in Russia as no one has ever done it here - openly and honestly.

“The YUKOS Corporate Governance Code is the third adopted by Russian companies. Before him, Sibneft (in July 1998) and Lenenergo (in 2000) had already acquired similar documents. Others are also catching up - the code of RAO UES of Russia is already ready, the codes of LUKoil, Norilsk Nickel and many smaller companies are in the development stage.” But only those companies that will accept international principles of doing business and will be able to implement them in Russia will survive.

Analysts call today's corporate governance system at YUKOS the most advanced. The company managed to create a truly independent board of directors, which, from the point of view of modern Western standards, is one of the key conditions for effective management.

Another advantage of YUKOS's corporate system is that since the spring of this year it was the first of the Russian oil companies to switch to quarterly publication of reports and disclosure of all information. As a result, market recognition resulted in YUKOS stock quotes increasing by 300% within a year. Nevertheless, the Yukos corporate governance system is not ideal. YUKOS failed to fully implement the plans stated in it. Perhaps the next codex will be better.

Without exception, all companies require professional top and middle managers. This year, the demand for them has increased by 50-60% - such an increase has occurred for the first time since the 1998 crisis: The main reason is the change in management teams in companies. Crisis managers are giving way to strategic managers.

True, the demand for Internet project managers has decreased significantly, but web application developers, system administrators, and database administrators are needed no less than last year.

Marketers of various levels and brand managers, as well as project managers, continue to perform well.

As for “human resource specialists” (director of human resources management, specialist in personnel selection and training, etc.), it is unlikely that their situation will improve in the near future (some agencies receive 5-7% of all orders for them).

But the support staff (secretary, personal assistant to the manager) are still trailing behind. On the one hand, they are not key specialists of companies, and on the other hand, their supply exceeds demand.

In general, over the past six months, the number of requests from employers has almost tripled - there is a need to expand companies, and they are looking for managers and qualified managers.

20 most popular professions

Place	Specialist	Average salary as of 08/01/98 ($)	Average salary as of 07/01/01 ($)
1	Sales Manager	700-3000	700-3000
2	Financial Director	2000-5000	3000-4500
3	CEO	5000-7000	4000-7000
4	Director of Sales	1300-4500	1200-4600
5	Marketing director	2000-5300	2000-5300
6	Project manager	1500-3500	1500-3700
7	HR Director	1500-5000	1300-4500
8	Commercial Director	1800-4000	1500-4500
9	Executive Director	2000-4500	1800-4600
10	Brand Manager	1800-3000	1800-3000
11	Financial analyst	1600-2500	1700-2400
12	Marketing Manager	800-2000	900-2000
13	System Administrator	800-2200	1000-2200
14	Logistics	800-1600	800-1800
15	Chief Accountant	1000-3000	900-3000
16	Advertising Director	1700-2500	1500-2500
17	Accountant	500-1000	500-1000
18	Programmer	700-1000	500-1100
19	Lawyer	1500-3000	1000-2500
20	Secretary-assistant	600-1600	400-1300

“Managers cannot use the potential of the team, says Vladimir Stolin, Doctor of Psychology, Professor, General Director of the consulting company Ecopsy.

In modern corporations, teams are formed not based on functional roles, but on the basis of competence in a particular matter. Managers do most of the work themselves, operating on the principle of division of responsibility and often competing with each other. How, for example, do typical meetings work in large companies? Each team member offers his own solution and criticizes the proposals of competing departments, and the manager listens to everyone and makes his own decision. At the same time, there are only two roles in the team: “sellers of ideas” and “buyer of ideas.” This form of work has its advantages: it makes it easier for the manager to make decisions. By listening to opposing opinions, he gets a more objective picture.”

However, this form of work is only effective if the subject of discussion is clear and specific. There are more complex situations when the task itself is not clearly defined. For example, developing an organization strategy in connection with the economic crisis or the emergence of competitors. In this case, a clearer distribution of roles in the team is necessary. Creative team members are needed to generate new ideas. We need people capable of logical thinking to hone these ideas. Skeptics are needed to encourage other team members. But the main role in such a team belongs to the leader, who is able to integrate the result of this collective creativity into a single whole. Very few managers know how to effectively use the team's potential.

The most common situation in my consulting practice is competition between a leader and team members. An inexperienced leader often makes this mistake: he is constantly looking for an opportunity to show that all ideas should come only from him. He has more power, more experience, thinks faster than his subordinates, and only uses them to train his mind.

Another problem that is common in our companies is a negative attitude in the team. Each group member chooses the role of critic and tries to prove the impossibility of solving the problem. This position dooms the team to failure.

The third problem that exists in many teams is the lack of a mechanism for implementing decisions. People gathered, talked, sketched out interesting ideas, but who should implement them and in what time frame is unclear.

The abundance of nonconformists has a very destructive effect on the team. People who have special opinions and do not obey the rules are useful to the group, but in small numbers. On the other hand, a group that is too homogeneous, where everyone plays the same tune, is also unproductive.

Since we have to work with already formed teams, the solution is to help team members learn different roles and consciously “step into” them when necessary. A sufficiently flexible person can learn not only to criticize other people's ideas, but also to generate their own, not only to analyze, but also to synthesize, not only to make decisions, but also to participate in their implementation.

“Our company employs almost thirty thousand people, and it is necessary to establish constant communication between these people so that they know what is happening at Pearson. I think it's more fun to work as a co-owner, which is why almost 96% of our employees own shares in the company. I think it motivates people in a special way.

However, in our time, such activities are associated with great responsibility. I, like everyone who works here, have a responsibility to Pearson shareholders.”

“Last year was successful for the development of the state insurance holding Rosgosstrakh. For the first time in recent years, insurance premiums have increased significantly. There has been an increase in the number of your clients, both among enterprises and citizens.”

The reasons for the growth are simple. We began to mobilize the company’s internal potential, using centralization of management, end-to-end business planning, structure reform and development motivation of managers. The effect turned out to be quite expected, and after these transformations are completed in 2001 - early 2002, we plan to ensure higher growth dynamics due to these factors.

“Having given maximum independence to subsidiaries, the General Director of the management company OJSC Motovilikha Plants, Yuri Buloev, has concentrated in his hands everything that affects the final result. Today he says that he created not a vertical, but a horizontal system of integration, which gives the most complete freedom for the entrepreneurship of each of the subordinate structures. The holding includes 80 subsidiaries, all of which operate profitably.”

These results are the result of activities qualified management team, which from the very beginning of the enterprise’s restructuring went towards independence in its own way. OJSC Motovilikha Plants was divided into many subsidiaries long before the word “holding” became fashionable in business.

Conclusion

For the creative and effective use of management principles, it is necessary to reveal and comprehensively study the objective laws and patterns of management. In turn, since the laws and patterns of management are based on the laws of development of nature, society and thinking, it is necessary to form a perfect system of scientific knowledge of each leader, the broadest cultural and professional outlook.

Management principles, being objective in nature, must have legal formalization, enshrined in a system of normative documents, regulations, agreements, contractual obligations, legislative acts, etc. However, the nature and forms of consolidation of management principles must be flexible enough to avoid unnecessary rigidity of procedures and formulations. This is very important, since changes in specific historical conditions lead to changes in the operation of socio-economic laws and, accordingly, the content of the principles of management themselves.

The interaction of the control and managed subsystems is carried out in accordance with certain principles, that is, rules. In practice, there can be a lot of such principles. Perhaps the most important of these principles can be considered scientific in combination with elements of art. As already noted, management uses data and conclusions from many sciences, since it is almost impossible to manage a complex modern economy “by inspiration.” At the same time, the situation can change so rapidly and unpredictably that there is simply no time to find a scientifically based solution, and then unconventional approaches have to be used. This requires the manager, in addition to deep knowledge, extensive experience, mastery of the art of interpersonal communication, and the ability to find a way out of hopeless situations.

The management process must be purposeful, that is, it must always be carried out for a reason, but be focused on solving specific problems that the organization is currently facing. Any management process must be based on the principle of consistency. In some cases, the sequence of management actions may be cyclical, suggesting their repetition in the same form at certain intervals. The continuity of the implementation of economic processes in an organization requires, accordingly, the continuity of their management, control and coordination of personnel activities. The latter requires an optimal combination of centralized regulation and self-government of individual elements of the organization. Since self-regulation is carried out by people, it is impossible without observing such a principle as taking into account the individual characteristics and psychology of workers, as well as the patterns of interpersonal relationships and group behavior.

In order for the management process to proceed normally, it is necessary to observe such an important principle as ensuring the unity of rights and responsibilities in each of its links. An excess of rights compared to responsibility leads in practice to managerial arbitrariness, and a deficiency paralyzes business activity and employee initiative. Here, it is important to consider the competitiveness of management participants based on personal interest in success, supported by a variety of motivators, such as material incentives, the opportunity for career advancement, self-realization, and obtaining new knowledge and skills. In modern conditions, the management process cannot be truly effective without adhering to such a principle as the widest possible involvement of performers in the process of preparing decisions, since decisions in which one’s own work and ideas are invested will be implemented with greater activity and interest.

There are no barriers to career growth for a Russian employee; he just needs to be a good manager or specialist, and then he is able to achieve any leadership positions. It is extremely important to be imbued with the corporate spirit, to understand the company’s goals, its strategy, and ideology. You need to be able to work in a team, take responsibility and discuss everything in a positive way - your work plans, plans of your department, the entire company, problems of your department, criticism.

Advantages. Russians feel better in production, sales, technology, engineering and high technology than in other areas. The situation with finances is somewhat worse. The strong advantage of our businessmen and managers is their penchant for innovation, a taste for risk, play, new approaches, and a pronounced entrepreneurial spirit. Our employees - specialists and managers - love to learn and move up the career ladder.

Flaws. Managers overly concentrate decisions on themselves and are not inclined to delegate responsibility. Top managers here are strategists and production workers, not market specialists and financiers. Our way of doing business is more subordinated to the task of achieving the final goal, rather than to building a system and creating a technology for doing business. In this sense, the Russian management style is more similar to the American rather than the European one. Russian management is overly politicized; personal connections and informal relationships play too large a role. A serious drawback is the focus on momentary success, on luck at the expense of the partner. This leads to underestimation of perspectives, problems with corporate culture, and conflicts between managers and shareholders.

First of all, we must remember that Russia is a dynamic country, the markets here have not yet been divided, so people with an entrepreneurial spirit are especially successful. It is necessary to take initiative, overcome the slowness and slowness of large corporations in making decisions, and take responsibility. Bonuses and career prospects for staff should be used as widely as possible. This is the best way to engage employees and especially managers. Russia does not need catching up modernization, which everyone is talking about now, but overtaking modernization.

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The range of objects and control operations is very wide. It covers technological processes and units, groups of units, workshops, enterprises, human teams, organizations, etc.

Control objects and types of influence on them.

Objects in which a controlled process occurs will be called control objects. These are various technical devices and complexes, technological or production processes. The state of an object can be characterized by one or more physical quantities, called controlled or controlled variables. For a technical device, such as an electrical generator, the variable being controlled may be the voltage at its output terminals; for a production site or workshop - the volume of industrial products it produces.

As a rule, two types of influences are applied to the control object: control - r(t) and disturbing f(t); the state of the object is characterized by the variable x(t):

f(t) r(t) an object x(t)

management

The change in the controlled variable x(t) is determined by both the control action r(t) and the disturbing or interference f(t). Let us define these influences.

A disturbing action is one that disrupts the required functional connection between the regulated or controlled variables and the control action. If a disturbance characterizes the action of the external environment on an object, then it is called external. If this impact occurs inside an object due to the occurrence of undesirable, but inevitable processes during its normal functioning, then such disturbances are called internal.

Influences applied to the control object in order to change the applied quantity in accordance with the required law, as well as to compensate for the influence of disturbances on the nature of the change in the controlled quantity, are called controls.

The main goal of automatic control of any object or process is to continuously maintain, with a given accuracy, the required functional relationship between controlled variables that characterize the state of the object and control actions in the conditions of interaction of the object with the external environment, i.e. in the presence of both internal and external disturbing influences. The mathematical expression of this functional relationship is called a control algorithm.

Concept of a system element

Any control object is associated with one or more regulators that form control actions supplied to the regulatory body. The control object together with the control device, or regulator, form a control or regulation system. Moreover, if a person does not participate in the control process, then such a system is called an automatic control system.

The system controller is a complex of devices connected to each other in a certain sequence and implementing the simplest operations on signals. In this regard, it turns out to be possible to decompose (divide) the regulator into separate functional elements - the simplest structurally integral cells that perform one specific operation with a signal.

Such operations include:

1) conversion of the controlled quantity into a signal;

2) transformation: a) a signal of one type of energy into a signal of another type of energy; b) continuous signal to discrete signal and vice versa; c) signal by energy value; d) types of functional connections between output and input signals;

3) signal storage;

4) generation of program signals;

5) comparison of control and program signals and generation of a mismatch signal;

6) performing logical operations;

7) signal distribution over various transmission channels;

8) use of signals to influence the control object.

The listed operations with signals performed by elements of automatic control systems are used in the future as the basis for systematizing the entire variety of automation elements used in systems of different nature, purpose and principle of operation, i.e. generated by a variety of automatic control and monitoring systems.

To carry out automatic control or build a control system, you need two types of knowledge: firstly, specific knowledge of a given process, its technology and, secondly, knowledge of the principles and methods of control common to a wide variety of objects and processes. Specific specialized knowledge makes it possible to establish what and, most importantly, how to change in the system in order to obtain the required result.

When automating the control of technical processes, the need arises for various groups of control operations. One of these groups includes the operation of starting (turning on), stopping (turning off) a given operation and moving from one operation to another (switching).

For the correct and high-quality conduct of the process, some of its coordinates - controlled ones - must be maintained within certain boundaries or changed according to a certain law.

Another group of control operations is associated with monitoring coordinates in order to establish acceptable boundaries. This group of operations consists of measuring coordinate values and presenting the measurement results in a form convenient for the human operator.

The third group of control operations - operations to maintain a given law of coordinate changes - is studied in the theory of automatic control.

Any object with mass is dynamic, since under the influence of external forces and moments (finite magnitude) on the part of the object, a corresponding reaction occurs in its position (or state) which cannot be changed instantly. Variables x, u and f (where x is the set of controlled coordinates of the process, u is the influence or control applied to the object, and f is the disturbance acting on the input of the object) in dynamic objects are usually interconnected by differential, integral or difference equations containing time t as the independent variable.

Changes in coordinates in a normal, desired process are determined by a set of rules, regulations or mathematical dependencies, called the system’s functioning algorithm. The operating algorithm shows how the value x(t) should change according to the requirements of technology, economics or other considerations. In the theory of automatic control, operating algorithms are considered given.

Dynamic properties and the form of static characteristics introduce distortions: the actual process will differ from the desired one (which, for example, under the same influences would take place in an inertia-free linear object). Therefore, the required control change law u, or control algorithm, will not be similar to the operating algorithm; it will depend on the operating algorithm, dynamic properties and characteristics of the object. The control algorithm shows how control u must change in order to ensure a given operating algorithm. The functioning algorithm in an automatic system is implemented using control devices.

The control algorithms used in technology are based on some general fundamental principles of control that determine how the control algorithm is linked to the specified and actual functioning, or to the reasons that caused deviations. Three fundamental principles are used: open-loop control, feedback and compensation.

Open-loop control principle

The essence of the principle is that the control algorithm is built only on the basis of a given operating algorithm and is not controlled by the actual value of the controlled quantity.

Deviation control principle

(feedback principle).

This principle is one of the earliest and most widespread management principles. In accordance with it, the impact on the regulatory body of the object is developed as a function of the deviation of the controlled quantity from the prescribed value.

Feedback can be found in many processes in nature. Examples include the vestibular apparatus, which detects deviations of the body from the vertical and ensures the maintenance of balance, systems for regulating body temperature, breathing rhythm, etc. In public institutions, management feedback is established through execution control. The feedback principle is a very universal fundamental control principle operating in technology, nature and society.

Disturbance control principle(compensation principle).

Since the deviation of the controlled quantity depends not only on the control, but also on the disturbing influence, then, in principle, it is possible to formulate the control law so that there is no deviation in the steady state.

The principle of regulating a steam engine based on the moment of resistance on its shaft was proposed in 1930 by the French engineer I. Poncelet, but this proposal could not be implemented in practice, since the dynamic properties of the steam engine (the presence of astatism) did not allow the direct use of the compensation principle. But in a number of other technical devices the principle of compensation has been used for a long time. It is noteworthy that its use in statics was not in doubt, but G.V. Shchipanov’s attempt in 1940 to propose the principle of perturbation invariance to eliminate deviations in dynamics caused sharp discussion and accusations of the unrealizability of the proposal. V.S. Kulebakin in 1948 and B.N. Petrov in 1955 showed how systems should be built so that the principle of invariance could be implemented in them. In 1966, the principle of invariance proposed by G.V. Shchipanov was registered as a discovery with priority - April 1939. Thus, the mistake of his opponents was corrected, which was that the feasibility of the invariance principle in general was denied.

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