Traditionally, Benito Mussolini is recognized as the face of fascism and its author. He believed that fascism was not created by any conservative teaching, but was born in the minds of the masses in need of movement and a change in archaic state principles that did not correspond to modern times. He saw the Fascist Party of Italy, which belonged to him, not as an ordinary opposition party, but as a party to all parties, as a kind of living movement containing a living spirit. He noted that having created his movement, he did not have a specific conceptual teaching in his hands, and all of its canons could be reduced to a specific set of aphorisms, emotions and aspirations, which were later transformed into theory.
The defining factors of Italian fascism were the people and the state. Its peculiarity was the complete dominance of the state over the people, and fascism needed a strong state, which, in its opinion, should be like an integral organism, not divided according to either economic or ideological criteria. The state must completely deny the presence of individuals, groups of individuals who could form political parties, economic unions, social or cultural associations.
Mussolini argued for the need to create only a totalitarian state in which neither human nor spiritual values ​​exist, or they have relatively little importance. The formation of a fascist state will receive its logical conclusion in the form of a powerful leader, a leader for the state and nation, which Mussolini became. As a state leader, he was the chairman of the government, heading the ministers, and was also a leader in the Great Fascist Council. The Italian Parliament existed until 1936 years, although parliamentary deputies were not elected, but appointed by the fascist council.
The fascist state vitally needed broad public support within the framework of the totalitarian system of government established in the state. The state, according to Mussolini, should be based on multimillion-dollar support from the population, who recognize his power, constantly feel the state's power, and are ready to serve him. Under such conditions, the priority tasks of the state were the ability to clearly organize the nation, by directing the activities of individuals towards one, clearly defined goal, as well as bringing the foreign policy status of the state to the status of an empire. The strength of the state and the peculiarities of Italian fascism lie in the complete militarization of the economy, capable of independently, without the participation of third states, ensuring the complete military equipment of the country. Only large-scale military training will ensure the promotion of the ideals of a totalitarian state to neighboring ones, through expansion.
Mussolini was extremely concerned about himself and often liked to exaggerate his merits and pretend to be a superman. This is probably why so many of his incredible, ill-conceived plans failed. He was extremely impatient, so if he didn’t get what he wanted on time, he quickly lost interest in the idea and gave up halfway through. By the end of the thirties, the standard of living of the population was falling, the birth rate was also declining, prices for vital products were increasing against the backdrop of stagnant wages. The Italian Duce falls under the influence of Hitler, although before that the Fuhrer was his follower. A huge number of Mussolini’s sayings have been preserved, judging by which he could not stand Hitler’s Nazism, defining it as 100% racism against absolutely everyone: yesterday against Christians, today against Latin civilization, and tomorrow, perhaps, against the entire human civilization. At one point he characterizes Hitler as a disgusting sexual degenerate and a dangerous madman, and his German National Socialism as savage barbarism, and also that European civilization could be destroyed if this country (Germany) of murderers and pederasts is allowed to take over the entire continent. Mussolini failed to follow Hitler's example and begin persecution against the Jews; the people who opposed him prevented him. Many Italians did not like their leader's low-spirited behavior. But, unlike Hitler’s army, the Italian troops sent to the east managed not to stain themselves with brutal war crimes and the blood of civilians. Mussolini's pitiful attempts to invade Yugoslavia and North Africa did not turn into a disaster only thanks to the timely arrival of German troops. But at Stalingrad, the Nazis had no time for Italian like-minded people. IN 1943 The Allies land in Italy and the king removes Mussolini from his post, installing General Badoglio in his post, after which northern Italy is captured by the Germans, and the southern part of the country is in the hands of the allies. Mussolini, who was under arrest, was subject to release by a detachment of German paratroopers, and headed a pro-Nazi government in northern Italy. Later, in April 1945- When the outcome of the war became obvious, he tried to flee the country, but was captured by Italian resistance fighters and 28 April shot, taking with him the features of Italian fascism that had been worked out for so long and so diligently promoted.

Fascism represents socially political movement, which was common in some European countries in the first half of the 20th century.

The essence of fascism

Fascism is a unique form of totalitarianism, the basis of which is racial intolerance, the undeniable authority of the leader, total terror, xenophobia towards “alien” national groups, the existence of a single mass totalitarian party, with the help of which the ideology of the regime is supported.

In the history of world politics, fascism has become a real phenomenon; its origin and spread defy any logical explanation. The values ​​of fascism represent the absolute antithesis of everything existing standards democracy.

It should be noted that the emergence of fascism was not spontaneous. The motives of such a regime were absorbed by more than one German generation. Cultural figures of the 19th century O. Spengler, F. Nietzsche, G. Hegel, I. Fichte made a significant contribution to the formation of fascism.

Some of them were inspired by the idea of ​​​​searching for a superman, others tried to recreate the greatness of the Roman Empire in Germany. Philosophers and writers actually created fertile ground for fascism and prepared the nation for it.

Fascism in Italy

Italy is deservedly considered the cradle of the fascist regime. The reason for the emergence of such a flow, which over time grew into the form state power, were the results of the First World War.

Initially speaking on the side of the Triple Alliance, after a turning point in hostilities, Italy went over to the side of the Entente, but was not considered a full-fledged winner and was infringed on its rights to reparations. The behavior of the Italians at the front caused ridicule from both members of the Entente and the Triple Alliance.

The national pride of the people of Italy was hurt, and B. Mussolini hastened to rehabilitate it just in time with his organization “Union of Struggle.” The leader of Italian fascism did not pursue the goal of enslaving peoples, instilling in the Italians about their superiority, he wanted to recreate the Roman Empire.

In October 1922, B. Mussolini and his army seized power in Italy, and two years later officially consolidated it through an absolute victory in the elections. Italian fascism was a synthesis of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism on the equality of classes, and the positions of J. Fichte on the superiority of nations, and therefore was more liberal in nature compared to German fascism.

Fascism in Germany

One of the branches of fascism, Nazism, was characteristic of Germany. If the fascist movement was formed in Italy, then in Germany it reached its dawn.

The German fascists were guided by the principles of the superiority of the Aryan nation and the need to enslave or physically destroy representatives of other ethnic groups, who, according to the Germans, were significantly lagging behind in their development. The main mission of the German fascists, led by Fuhrer Adolf Hitler, was to establish world domination and a “new order” in the world.

The obligation to pay reparations to the victors of the First World War significantly undermined the German state budget; residents of the state lived in constant poverty without any social protection. This was the reason that the fascist program was very favorably accepted by the people.

Within a few years after Hitler's election victory, Nazism gained unprecedented popularity among the population. The ideology of fascism was supported by young people, whose representatives would over time fanatically apply it in practice on the fronts of the Second World War.

08.04.2014

World economic crisis 1929 - 1933 exacerbated all the inherent contradictions of capitalism. Social tension in society has increased, the level of class confrontation has reached a critical limit, fraught with conflicts that have unpredictable consequences. As a result, in certain circles of monopoly capital, among upper strata The agrarian aristocracy, as well as in the middle strata of society and part of the working class, became disillusioned with the ability of bourgeois-parliamentary institutions to provide a way out of the crisis. In most countries, political forces are being formed that are oriented towards transferring power to conservative-reactionary regimes.
One of the models of these regimes is fascism - a system of violent political domination, characterized by the complete subordination of society, its economic, social and spiritual life to state power, organized into an integral military-bureaucratic apparatus, headed by a leader. Fascist regimes, who had full power, existed in Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal. In Germany and Italy, an all-encompassing totalitarian state-political system of domination by fascist parties was created. This system ensured class peace in its countries through merciless terror and ideological “duping” of the masses. In Spain and Portugal a special "Iberian" model of fascism. It was characterized by an authoritarian form of government, traditionalism in ideology, and the absence of a doctrine of racial superiority.
Fascism (from Italian fascio - bundle, ligament, association, see also fascia) is a totalitarian political movement that arose in the 20th century; philosophical and political concept and form government system, based on the priority of state interests over all others.

Fascism in Spain, Italy and Germany - Hitler

Fascism in Italy

Fascism in power- an open terrorist dictatorship aimed at suppressing democratic freedoms and social movements. Ideology of fascism- militant chauvinism, racism, anti-communism, violence, cult of the leader, total state power, universal control over the individual, militarization of all spheres of society, aggression. A bundle of twigs (fascia) was a symbol of the system of power in Ancient Rome. From there, the ideology of German fascism was largely drawn, and even the name: the first empire was proclaimed to be the medieval Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the second was the German Empire of 1871–1918, the third was to be the renewed, revived new national one after the defeat in the First World War and revolution. Germany, which was supposed to exist for a thousand years (Third Reich, Thousand-Year Reich).

Fascism is considered in modern political science as a combination of three key elements:

Economic system - the economic essence of fascism lies in the exaggerated role of the state in the presence of a market economy (i.e. the state does not own all the main means of production, but only controls the main levers of influence on the economy);
politics is a dictatorship, usually based on the personality of a charismatic leader, the “leader of the nation”;
ideology - fascism manifests itself in the propaganda of national exclusivity, the “superiority” of one ethnic group over all others.

Therefore, the definition of fascism can only be given taking into account all these three levels.

In other words, fascism is a controlled market economy, dictatorship and nationalism as the official ideology of the state.

Fascism in Italy

Fascism originated in Italy at the end of the First World War 1914–1918 German Nazism(National Socialism) is only one of the many varieties of fascism. Between the First and Second World Wars, almost every European country had its own fascist parties, groups and movements: for example, the Falangists in Spain, the Legion of the Archangel Michael in Romania, supporters of Ferenc Szálasi in Hungary, the British Union of Fascists in Great Britain, etc. In their foreign policy, all fascist regimes pursued a colonial, aggressive, expansionist line. For example, Mussolini fought in Abyssinia, the Hungarian fascists dreamed of capturing the entire Danube River basin, the Phalangists set their sights on the African continent and even neighboring Portugal. In most cases, fascist regimes were installed in power gradually, often even democratically, as in Germany. These regimes were often preceded by some kind of shock: defeat in war, humiliation as a result of unequal international treaties, economic crisis.
Before the Second World War, fascists believed that they had common philosophical principles: leader, one-party system, social Darwinism, elitism, with each government adhering to its own national model of fascism - for example, the Portuguese clerical-corporate new state under Salazar, the Spanish Falangists, the Hungarian Nilashists. In 1945, the surviving fascist regimes dissociated themselves from Nazism in order not to be equated with the Hitlerite version of fascism, condemned by the world community.
Italian fascism - authoritarian, nationalist policy pursued in Italy from 1922 to 1943 by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) - the son of a blacksmith, a former socialist, later a dictator, the official title is Duce (Italian “leader”).
Etymologically the term " fascism" comes from the Italian "fascio" (league), as well as from the Latin "fascia" (bundle) - it is an ancient symbol of the Roman administration. Mussolini adopted the fasces as a symbol of the Fascist Party in 1919 with the creation of the "fasci di combattimento" (combat leagues).
In political science Italian fascism seen as a syncretic model of ideology and form of government from which other varieties of fascism developed.
The main ideas of Italian fascism were outlined in the book “The Doctrine of Fascism”, as well as in the works of Giovanni Gentile, the founder of the theory of “actualistic idealism”, which became the basis for the fascists. The doctrine proclaimed peace of action in the field of humanity and rejected “eternal peace” as something fantastic. The fascists argued that man and humanity could not live without war.
« The doctrine of fascism» B. Mussolini was first published in 1932 in volume 14 of the Italian encyclopedia Enciclopedia Italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti as an introduction to the article "Fascismo" (Fascism). In his work, Mussolini wrote that he was disillusioned with the doctrines of the past, including socialism, of which he had been an active proponent for many years. He believed that new ideas should be sought, since political doctrines come and go, but peoples remain. Mussolini was convinced that if the 19th century was the century of individualism, then the 20th century would be the century of collectivism and, therefore, the state.
In search of his recipe for national happiness, he made the following points:

The fascist concept of the state is all-encompassing. Outside of it, human and spiritual values ​​do not exist. Fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state includes all values ​​- interprets, develops and carries out all human activity.

Fascism recognizes the reasons why socialism and the trade union movement arose and developed, and therefore it places corresponding emphasis on a corporate system in which divergent interests are coordinated and harmonized within a single state.

Fascism is absolutely the opposite of liberalism in both politics and economics.

The fascist state controls the economy as well as other areas of life - through corporate, social and educational institutions, through the political, economic and spiritual forces of the nation, organized into appropriate associations functioning within the state.

Mussolini does not accept the racial definition of the nation that forms the state: “A nation is not a race, or a specific geographical locality, but a group lasting in history...”; “race is a feeling, not a reality; 95% feeling."

On June 18, 2010, the Kirovsky District Court of Ufa ruled that the book was extremist. The court justified the decision by the fact that the federal law “On Combating Extremist Activities” clearly includes the works of the leaders of the Fascist Party of Italy among extremist materials. The result of the decision was the inclusion of the book in the “Federal List of Extremist Materials.”
Currently, fascist ideas are being developed by various neo-fascist and nationalist organizations - for example, the Jobbik party in Hungary. Opposition to fascist ideologies, organizations and governments is known as anti-fascism.

Features of German fascism.

In 1933, fascism in the form of National Socialism came to power in Germany and the process of totalitarianization and unification of the entire life of the country immediately began. Racism was elevated to the level of state policy.
In Germany, the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party), whose leader was A. Hitler, arose at the same time as the fascist movement in Italy - in 1919. Its path to power was longer. Initially, the influence of this party was limited to Bavaria, and its attempt to seize power in this German land by force in 1923 ended in failure, Hitler even had to spend more than a year in prison.
Only the global economic crisis of 1929-1932, which hit Germany especially hard, changed the situation. In conditions when there was no leader in the country capable, like F.D. Roosevelt, to find ways to mitigate the social consequences of the crisis on the basis of democracy, began the rapid growth of the influence of two totalitarian and mutually hostile political forces: the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the NSDAP. Each of them defended its own way out of the crisis. However, the National Socialists, combining social, national and racist slogans, managed to secure wider support for the unemployed and workers who were afraid of losing their jobs, the impoverished petty bourgeoisie.
On January 30, 1933, A. Hitler, as the leader of the party with the largest faction in the Reichstag (parliament), became the Reich Chancellor (head of government).
After the arson of the Reichstag on February 27, 1933, for which the communists were blamed, the KPD was outlawed and its parliamentary mandates were annulled. This provided the NSDAP and the center parties supporting it with an absolute majority, sufficient to grant the government emergency powers. As a result, all parties except the NSDAP were banned, the opposition press was closed, and “bad” Germans who did not share fascist ideology were sent to concentration camps. The Weimar Constitution was abolished, and in 1934 A. Hitler became the Fuhrer (leader) of Germany.
Social program of National Socialism - organization public works, road construction, which made it possible to eliminate unemployment, overcome class confrontation, and lower taxes for small owners, was completed. At the same time, the source of funds was the program of “Aryanization” of the economy - expropriation of property, including banks and enterprises, of non-Aryans, especially Jews (they made up 1/15 of the bourgeoisie in Germany). This property passed to the state, and was partially transferred to German bankers and industrialists. Their gain, however, was only temporary. In 1934, the country's economy was placed under the control of territorial and production associations managed by the Ministry of Economy. The range of 80% of the products that became state orders, their prices, the number of hired workers who lost the right to strike, and the level of wages were determined by the state. The maximum level of dividends on invested capital for entrepreneurs was set at 6-8%; greater income could be obtained only for special services to the Reich.
The main goal of the totalitarian regimes of A. Hitler and B. Mussolini was to prepare Germany and Italy for war, which was supposed to ensure the implementation of the program for acquiring living space and conquering “inferior races.” The militaristic regime of Japan became an ally of European totalitarian regimes, combining many features of traditional authoritarianism with militant nationalism, the desire for conquest and domination.
With the material and ideological support of the totalitarian regimes of Mussolini and Hitler, fascist parties were formed in many countries of the world with their own assault troops, which were supposed to become the fifth column and lead the governments of their countries after their conquest by Germany and Italy. Fascist groups even emerged in countries such as the USA and Great Britain. In France, supporters of fascism tried to seize power in 1934. However, in the countries of the first wave of modernization, fascist ideology could not take root. Its inherent emphasis on the unity of the nation and the special role of the state did not meet the conditions of societies with traditions of ideological and political pluralism and a limited role of the state.

Fascism in Spain

The provisional government created after the 1931 elections was made up of left-wing republicans and representatives of the middle class. It proclaimed the Second Republic and began social reforms. But in the elections of 1933 a coalition of moderates and Catholics won. Having come to power, they nullified the results of earlier reforms. This sparked a rebellion in the mining areas of Asturias, which was brutally suppressed by the army under the command of General Francisco Franco. In the elections in February 1936 he wins by a margin of 1%. Popular Front, which united from moderate republicans to communists and anarcho-syndicalists. The government continued to implement reforms that were supposed to prepare the transition to a socialist republic.
Concerned about the leftist threat, the rightists, led by the top of the army, began to prepare a conspiracy. Terrorist units of the fascist party provoked riots, to which leftist forces responded with violence. The assassination of monarchist leader José Calvo Sotelo on July 13, 1936 was the reason for the start of the rebellion. The rebels seized power in Burgos, Salamanca, the provincial cities of Leon and Old Castile. Work detachments suppressed rebel actions in Madrid, Barcelona and the industrial cities of the North. In the south, in Cadiz, the rebels brutally suppressed the Republican protests. The civil war began.
At the very beginning, the rebels failed to capture and transfer Franco’s army from Morocco: the crews of the warships rebelled and refused to transport the rebels. The military turned to Germany and Italy for help, which provided aviation to transport troops from Africa. At the same time, France, under pressure from Great Britain, abandoned promises to support the republic for fear of the outbreak of a world war. The Republicans had to turn to the Soviet Union for help.
During August, Franco's army reached from Seville to Madrid, where it met fierce resistance. At the same time, General Jose Enrique Varela united the rebel forces in Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Cadiz. On September 21, the rebels met in Salamanca to choose a commander-in-chief and on September 28, Franco was confirmed by him. This allowed him to establish sole rule and begin political purges in occupied areas. The Republicans, on the other hand, lacked unity in goals and strategy.
On October 7, Franco, with his army and German Condor troops, launched a new offensive against Madrid. Republican troops under the command of General José Miaja, with the support of the International Brigades, successfully held back their advance. On November 6, the government evacuated to Valencia, and the communists led the defense of the city. By the end of November, Franco abandoned attempts to take Madrid and changed tactics - he tried to surround the capital. But the Republicans stopped his troops at the battles of Boadilla (December 1936), Jarama (February 1937) and Guadalajara (March 1937). But by the summer of 1937, the rebels occupied all of northern Spain. During the offensive, on April 26, 1937, the Francoists subjected the Basque city of Guernica to a monstrous bombardment, completely destroying it. After the capture of Asturias by the end of October 1937, the industry of the Spanish north began to work for the rebels. Throughout the summer and fall, Republican forces under the command of Vincente Rojo launched a series of counterattacks in an effort to prevent the Francoists from launching another attack on Madrid. As a result of such a counteroffensive, on January 8, 1938, the Republicans occupied Teruel.
On February 21, 1938, after many days of shelling and bombing, the Francoists occupied Teruel. This defeat demoralized the Republicans, who lacked weapons and ammunition. In April 1938, rebels descended the river valley. Ebro to the Mediterranean Sea and cut off Catalonia from Madrid and Valencia. In July, Franco launched an attack on Valencia, where the Republican government was located. In response, Rojo launched an offensive on the Ebro in order to unblock Catalonia and divert troops from. The battle lasted more than three months: at first the Republicans advanced almost 40 km, but by mid-November they were forced to retreat. capitulated on January 26, 1939. On March 4, 1939, Colonel Casado, who was defending Madrid, rebelled and offered Franco a truce, which he rejected. Republican troops began to surrender, and on March 28 Franco entered Madrid.
Franco's dictatorship was established throughout the country. About 400 thousand Republicans left the country, more than a million ended up in prisons and labor camps. Spain's losses amounted to 400 thousand killed in the war and 200 thousand executed after its end.
In the Second world war Spain, weakened by the civil war, did not enter. At first, Franco supported Germany and Italy and sent the forty thousand “blue division” to Eastern front. After 1943, Franco moved away from supporting the Axis countries and began selling strategic raw materials to the Allies. But this did not prevent the post-war isolation of the country. Only in 1950 were UN member states allowed to restore diplomatic relations with Spain, and only in 1955 was Spain admitted to the UN.
Franco's domestic policy led to political passivity of citizens. The first organized groups arose in the 60s on a national basis. These were separatists from Catalonia and the Basque Country (terrorist organization ETA - Basque Fatherland and Freedom). In the 60s, the regime made some political concessions; in 1966, a law was passed introducing liberal amendments to the Spanish Constitution. By the end of the 60s, the Catholic Church began to less actively support the Francoist regime. At the same time, economic ties between Spain and Western countries began to improve: tourists from North America and Western Europe began to relax in Spanish resorts, and Spaniards went to work in European countries. But at the political level, Spain was denied accession to the EEC and NATO.
As Franco grew older, he began to loosen his control over government affairs. In 1969, he announced Alfonso XIII's grandson, Prince Juan Carlos, as his successor. In 1973, Franco handed over the post of prime minister, which he had held since 1939, to Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco. Six months later, in December 1973, Blanco was killed by ETA terrorists. Carlos Arias Navarro became Prime Minister, the first civilian to hold this post since 1939. In November 1975, Franco died, and Juan Carlos I of the Bourbon dynasty became the head of state.

Question 51.The political structure of the fascist state in Italy.

Having secured the support of large industrialists, the Vatican and royal family, October 27, 1922 Mussolini gave the order for the so-called “March on Rome.” 25 thousand Blackshirts from four sides began a coordinated march on Rome, and on October 30, armed columns entered Rome without encountering resistance. The king invited Mussolini to the government residence - the Quirinal Palace, and offered him the post of head of government. So Italy became the first country where the fascists came to power.

Reasons for the rise of fascism to power:

Fascism had broad political and material support from the ruling class. The Nazis freely obtained weapons, vehicles, and used the premises of the barracks.

The connivance of the police, guided by the decree of the Minister of Justice on the immunity of persons who “violated the law in the name of the good of the nation.”

The split between the workers' parties ISP and CPI.

In October 1922, the Italian fascists received part of the executive power in the person of Prime Minister Mussolini and several ministerial posts in the coalition government. December The Great Fascist Council was created, which became the highest organ of the fascist party. From that time until 1926, the consolidation of the fascist regime took place, which consisted in the gradual seizure by the fascists of the full legislative and executive powers and culminated in the establishment of a fascist dictatorship, combining the features of totalitarianism and authoritarianism.

Of great importance in the consolidation of the fascist regime were parliamentary elections 1924, which took place on the basis of a new majoritarian electoral law in an atmosphere of terror and falsification. The fascists received the majority of votes. Deputies of opposition parties at meetings of the newly elected parliament exposed the electoral frauds of the fascists. A deputy from the Socialist Party showed particular courage in this regard. Giacomo Matteotti, for what. and fell at the hands of hired killers. The murder of Matteotti in June 1924 led to the so-called "Matteotti crisis", when opposition deputies left the walls of parliament in protest, forming the “Committee of Opposition Parties” (“Aventine Bloc”), which demanded that the king dissolve the fascist parliament and Mussolini’s resignation. In addition to this demand, the Aventine Bloc refused the proposal of the Communist Party to declare itself a people's parliament and take power into its own hands. The communists returned to parliament, the Aventine Bloc remained inactive, and at the beginning of 1925 Mussolini dispersed it. The “Matteotti Crisis” accelerated the liquidation of the Italian liberal state and the establishment of a dictatorship.

During 1925, laws are passed according to which the composition of the government becomes completely fascist. Mussolini is appointed prime minister not by parliament, but by the king, and is exempt from responsibility to parliament. In 1926, after an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Mussolini, emergency laws vest him with dictatorial powers: the government gains the right to legislate bypassing parliament and becomes the central body of legislative and executive power; all non-fascist political parties and trade unions are dissolved; exile without trial is introduced and the death penalty is restored for enemies of the state. The following year, 1927, the Great Fascist Council adopted a law regulating labor relations - “ Trade Charter" which proclaims the creation of a corporate state and declares strikes and other forms of struggle of the proletariat a criminal offense. In 1929, Mussolini signed with the Pope "Lateran Concordat" agreement on mutual recognition of the Vatican and Italy as sovereign states. The Church retains influence in the field of family law and school education, and the Italian government pays the Pope large sums of money (as compensation for abandoning claims to Rome).

In Italy, the cult of the leader (the Duce) is formed and Terror is unleashed. A number of parties (popolari, liberals) announce self-dissolution, others (communists, socialists) go illegal or emigrate. A Special Tribunal and a secret political police are created. Thousands of anti-fascists were sent to prison and sent to camps. Secretary General of the PCI Antonio Gramsci arrested and 10 years later dies in custody; leaving "Prison Notebooks" - a brilliant example of analysis of fascism. But in general, the scale of Mussolini’s terror did not acquire such monstrous proportions as in Nazi Germany.

Between 1930 and 1934, a corporatist system was established in Italy that covered the entire population. In the name of “common national interests”, 22 corporations were created, corresponding to the main sectors of the economy, uniting entrepreneurs, trade unions and all workers in their ranks. Corporations determined working conditions and regulated relations between entrepreneurs and workers: for example, they restored the labor law that had been abolished in 1923. 8-hour working day and introduced a 40-hour working week. The introduction of the corporate system became a specific form of strengthening state control over the entire economic life of Italy and state regulation of labor relations (GRTO).

The media and all types of cultural activities were under the control of the Ministry of Press and Propaganda, and since 1937 - the Ministry of Popular Culture. At universities, an oath of allegiance to the regime was introduced for professors, and then mandatory membership in the fascist party. All activities of the school were focused on educating the “citizen-fascist.”

Mussolini's economic policies was based on the idea of ​​a strong “leader state” capable of accelerated modernization of traditional economic structures by merging monopolies with the state apparatus and creating a mining and metallurgical complex Mussolini sought autarky- self-sufficiency and economic independence of Italy. For this purpose, a sectoral and technical reorganization of the economy was carried out, strict control over production and finance, regulation of consumption, and militarization were introduced. Forced cartelization strengthened large monopolistic groups in basic sectors of the economy. Through direct multilateral intervention in the economy, the Italian fascist-corporate state was able to accelerate the rate of development of the country. In 1938, Mussolini issued racial laws, and at the beginning of 1939, he dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and established in its place the Chamber of Fascism and Corporations, consisting of members of the Fascist Grand Council and the National Council of Corporations.

Italian fascism, as a specific totalitarian dictatorship, had features of both totalitarianism and authoritarianism. His centralized ideological system was based on the foundation of nationalism, complemented by the ideas of Catholicism, traditionalism, and socialism. One of the main ideological principles of the “Greatness of the Nation”, striving for the return of what was lost, implied the restoration of the “Holy Roman Empire”, including the civilizing mission of Italy in Africa and, even more broadly, the historical mission of Italian fascism to “heal” sick Europe, eradicating the vices of democracy in it and Asian Bolshevism. The ideological vocabulary included such simple, vivid and understandable concepts to the “man of the masses” as “People”, “nation”, “family”, “Bepa”, “common enemy”, “leader”. An important role was played by the idea of ​​the Duce (military leader) - the infallible and all-powerful leader of the nation. This idea formed the foundation of leaderism. Under the influence of Nazi Germany, racial ideas penetrated into Italy, which on Italian soil were transformed into the idea of ​​a “pure Italian pace” as Aryan and therefore superior to other, non-Aryan nations. However, Italian racism did not reach such a monstrous scale as in Germany.

The political organization of the Mussolini regime, according to the party program point about a “totalitarian state,” extended state control to all aspects of social life. The strength of the Duce's power was determined by his ability to maintain a balance between such political institutions as the army, bureaucracy, church and the fascist party. The interests of the leader were protected by the state system of terror, which worked to “cleanse” society of those who opposed him.

Foreign policy Italian fascism in the 20s. had not yet acquired outright aggressiveness, a number of Mussolini’s foreign policy steps were distinguished by caution. The attempt to occupy the island of Corfu failed, but in 1924 Italy finally received the port of Fiume. The Anglo-Italian agreement of 1926 redistributed spheres of influence in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in favor of Italy. Diplomatic relations with the USSR were established at the beginning of 1924. Foreign policy of the 30s. characterized by the struggle for national “expansion” and increased aggressiveness. Among specific actions, one can highlight the seizure of Ethiopia (1935), intervention in Spain (1936-1939), withdrawal from the League of Nations and the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937), participation in the Munich Conference (1938), occupation of Albania (1939), signing of the “Pact of Steel” "about a military and political alliance with Nazi Germany.

Benito Mussolini: political portrait, path to leadership.

Mussolini - (1883–1945), Prime Minister of Italy. Born July 29, 1883 in Predappio. Joined the ranks Socialist Party, was the editor-in-chief of its central organ, the newspaper Avanti! Teacher by training primary classes. He worked as an editor and writer, and loved to play the violin. Defended Italian neutrality in World War I. For his call to enter the war on the side of the Entente in November 1914, he was expelled from the Socialist Party and removed from the post of editor. A month later founded his own newspaper "Popolo d'Italia". Mussolini's goals were determined by irrepressible ambition, the desire for self-affirmation and power over people. In the name of this, he could dramatically change political positions. His menacing-sounding revolutionary phrases, coarse language, specific gestures and other techniques had an unfailing effect on an unsophisticated audience. The newspaper "Popolo d'Italia" was the mouthpiece of his ideas. For example, in the article “Down with parliament!” he called for putting an end to it as a “plague ulcer,” shooting a dozen or two deputies, and sending some of the former ministers to hard labor. He sincerely believed that strong personal power was necessary to control the masses, for "the masses are nothing more than a flock of sheep until they are organized." Fascism, according to Mussolini, was supposed to turn this “herd” into an obedient instrument for building a society of general prosperity. Therefore, the masses must love the dictator “and at the same time fear him. The masses love strong men. The mass is a woman."

In September 1915 he was drafted into the army. In March 1919, Mussolini founded an organization in Milan called "Fashi di Combattimento" ("Union of Struggle") which originally included a group of war veterans. The fascist movement grew into a powerful party that found support among industrialists, landowners and army officers. After King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the decree imposing a state of siege prepared by the Facta government in October 1922, the fascists carried out the “March on Rome.” Mussolini took over as prime minister and foreign minister and soon became the de facto ruler of Italy.

Mussolini contributed to the adoption of a law according to which fascist detachments (squads) were turned into police units (1923). Elections under the majoritarian system gave the fascists an overwhelming majority in the Chamber of Deputies. In January 1925, Mussolini began government reform, and in November 1926 “emergency laws” were adopted. As prime minister, Mussolini remained head of government - independent of parliament and responsible only to the king. The highest body of the state became the Great Fascist Council (1928), which determined the list of candidates for the Chamber of Deputies. At the same time, voters were deprived of the right to draw up an alternative list. The press was subject to censorship, and opposition leaders were expelled from the country or subjected to repression.

In 1933, after Hitler came to power, Mussolini proposed a cooperation pact between Italy, Germany, France and Great Britain. During the Nazi putsch in Austria (1934), which Mussolini considered a zone of Italian interests, Italian troops were concentrated along the Brenner Pass line. In January 1935, Mussolini signed an agreement with French Prime Minister Laval that opened the way for Italy to conquer Ethiopia in 1935–1936. In 1936 he supported General Franco and advocated the creation of the Berlin-Rome axis.

Hitler refused to hand over Tunisia to Italy and provided virtually no support for Italian military actions in the Mediterranean aimed at capturing the Suez Canal. The Germans did not take their Italian allies seriously. Mussolini learned of the decision to attack the USSR just one day before the invasion began. Italian divisions as occupying or auxiliary German forces were scattered throughout Greece, the USSR, the Balkans, France, and North Africa.

By the fall of 1942, the king and his entourage, as well as Mussolini’s closest associates, began to make plans for Italy’s exit from the war. Concrete steps in this direction were taken after the Allied invasion of Sicily. Mussolini turned to Hitler for help, but during a meeting with him on July 19, 1943, he did not receive support. On July 24, the Fascist Grand Council met, at which Mussolini’s activities were sharply criticized. The next day, the dictator was dismissed and arrested. In his place, the king appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio.

After Italy concluded a peace treaty with the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, Germany occupied most of Northern and Central Italy. German paratroopers under the command of Otto Skorzeny freed Mussolini and took him to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia. On September 23, the creation of the government of the Italian Social Republic was announced in Salo. When German resistance in Northern Italy was crushed, Mussolini tried to hide in Switzerland. He was captured by partisans, shot, and then hanged near Dongo on April 28, 1945.

Fascism in Europe: comparative characteristics.

In the 30s it finally took shape the appearance of Italian fascism as a totalitarian system:

1) the government received the right to issue decrees having the force of law (becomes the central body of both the executive and legislative branch);

2) the parliament was not dissolved, but essentially did not act, and in 1939 it was replaced by the Great Fascist Council;

3) after the assassination attempt on Mussolini - emergency laws that prohibited all democratic freedoms (all political parties except the fascist one, opposition newspapers, free trade unions and strikes);

4) a secret police was created, a special tribunal was created, and the death penalty was introduced;

5) the functions of local authorities were transferred to prefects appointed from above;

6) in the hands of El Duce - the post of head of government, chief internal police, head of the fascist party and a number of other ministerial posts;

7) fascist trade unions, children's and youth organizations of a paramilitary nature, and sports societies were created. Every second Italian, regardless of gender and age, was a member of some association under the control of the fascist party;

8) the media and all types of cultural activities were under the control of the Ministry of Popular Culture.

The monarchy was preserved, with the passive position of the king. Mussolini declared himself a faithful servant of the king and the monarchy.

He himself called his regime totalitarian, in which the state controls all aspects of the life of the state. The new morality consisted in the complete subordination of the interests of the individual to the fascist state; the nation, leader and family were put at the head of propaganda. War was portrayed as the pinnacle of life for a nation and an individual; during war, best qualities of a person – his fighting ability, obedience, morality.

Fascism according to Mussolini - constant revolution, whose goal is to renew Italy.

1929– agreements were concluded between the Italian state and the Pope 3 Lateran agreements, which determined the international legal status of the Vatican, the relationship between church and state and regulated the financial relations of the parties.

Italy recognized the Vatican as an independent state, paid it a large sum, pledged to support Catholicism and perform its rituals, the church was given greater rights in matters of family and school. In exchange, the Vatican renounced its claims to Rome, recognized the fascist regime and did not condemn it. This was very important for Mussolini and strengthened his position.

As a result of the economic crisis of 1929-1934, government regulation became broad and comprehensive. In conditions of crisis, Italian fascism began to implement its main social experiment - corporate system(building a corporate state in which class harmony and social peace reign).

IN 1930-34 corporations were created in all branches of industry, trade, agriculture, the service industry, they included everyone who was employed in this area. The corporate system became one of the levers of fascist state regulation of the economy.

Support for the regime was facilitated by its social politics. Pre-existing system social insurance and pension provision was expanded and supplemented by the introduction of new insurance (sickness, disability and unemployment, maternity protection, benefits stimulating an increase in the birth rate).

To some extent, fascism contributed to the modernization of the Italian economy, but Italy never reached the number of the strongest industrially. developed countries. Reality did not correspond to the ambitions of the fascist regime - the restoration of the Great Roman Empire and the transformation Mediterranean Sea into the Italian inland sea.

Mussolini, without a doubt, was a charismatic personality, possessed a keen political sense, a tenacious grip, a gift for oration, and knew how to impress the audience as a charming and energetic leader, a native of the people.

Unlike Germany:

1) there was no such strict regime – mass extermination of people, concentration camps and gas ovens. BUT! arrests and persecution of anti-fascists, long prison sentences;

2) Italians were declared one of the Aryan races , the “purity” of which must be protected in every possible way. Persecution of persons of non-Aryan, primarily Jewish, origin began. There was no wholesale extermination of the Jewish population, but their civil rights were limited (to marry them, teach and hold scientific positions, serve in government institutions, their children had to be educated separately from other students, in special classes, they were not subject to conscription into the army and were restricted in their rights to real estate);

2) some economic freedoms were maintained;

3) cooperation with traditional social and political institutions(cadre army, monarchy, church, tribal aristocracy).

4) the party did not completely replace the state, but performed the most important organizational and ideological function (“the party acts on the orders of the leader and is in the service of the fascist state”).