Western Slavic languages

West Slavic languages ​​are a group within the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Distributed in Central and Eastern Europe(in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Germany [Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian languages ​​- in the vicinity of the cities of Bautzen (Budiszyn), Cottbus and Dresden]. Speakers of Western languages ​​also live in America (USA, Canada ), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.). Total number over 60 million speakers.

West Slavic languages ​​include:

• § Lehitic subgroup
• § Kashubian
• § Polabian †
• § Polish
• § Silesian (in Poland, the Silesian language is officially considered a dialect of Polish or transitional dialects between the Polish and Czech languages. According to 2002 data in Poland, 60,000 people called the Silesian language their native language. The language does not have its own literary tradition, although it was singled out as special by the Slavists of the 19th century)
• § Slovinsky †
• § Lusatian subgroup (Serbo-Lusatian)
• § Upper Sorbian
• § Lower Sorbian
• § Czech-Slovak subgroup
• § Slovak
• § Czech
• § knanite †

The most common West Slavic languages ​​are Polish (35 million), Czech (9.5 million) and Slovak (4.5 million). A small population of Kashubians lives in Poland. Polabian is now a dead language. It is reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names available in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of live speech of the 17th-18th centuries.

In Z. I. 3 subgroups are distinguished: Lechitic, Czech-Slovak, Serbian, differences between which appeared in the late Proto-Slavic era. From the Lechitic subgroup, which included Polish, Polabian, Kashubian, and earlier other tribal languages, the Polish language with the Kashubian dialect, which retained a certain genetic independence, was preserved.

Z. I. differ from East Slavic and South Slavic languages a number of features that developed during the Proto-Slavic period:

preservation of the consonant group kv", gv" before the vowels i, "e, "a (‹м) in accordance with cv, zv in South Slavic and West Slavic languages: Polish. kwiat, gwiazda; Czech kvмt, hvмzda; Slovak kvet, hviezda; lower-puddle kwмt, gwмzda; top-puddle kwмt, hwмzda (cf. Russian “color”, “star”, etc.).

Preservation of unsimplified consonant groups tl, dl in accordance with l in the languages ​​of other Slavic groups: Polish. plutі, mydіo; Czech pletl, medlo; Slovak plietol, mydlo; lower-puddle pleti, mydio; top-puddle pleti, mydio; (cf. Russian “plait”, “soap”).

Consonants c, dz (or z) in place of the Proto-Slavic *tj, *dj, *ktj, *kti, which in other Slavic languages ​​correspond to the consonants i, ћ, љt, dj, ћd, zh: Polish. њwieca, sadzаж; Czech svнce, sбzet; Slovak svieca, sбdzaќ; lower-puddle swmca, sajџaj; top-puddle swмca, sadџeж (cf. Russian “candle”, “to plant”).

The presence of the consonant љ in those cases that correspond to s or њ in the languages ​​of other Slavic groups (with analogous formations ch): Polish. wszak, musze (Danish-prepositional clause from mucha); Czech vљak, mouљe; Slovak vљak, muљe; lower-puddle vљako, muљe; top-puddle vљak, muљe [cf. rus. “everyone”, “fly”; Ukrainian “everyone”, “musi” (= fly)].

Absence of l epenthetic after labials in the non-initial position of a word (from the combination labial + j): Polish. ziemia, cupiony; Czech zemм, koupм; Slovak zem, kъpene; lower-luzh.zemja, kupju; top-puddle zemja, kupju (cf. Russian “land”, “purchase”).

In the history of the development of Z. I. changes common to the entire group occurred:

contraction of groups of vowels into one long with the loss of intervocalic j and assimilation of vowels in inflections and roots: Czech. good

In Z. I. a fixed stress was established either on the first (Czech, Slovak, Lusatian languages) or on the penultimate syllable (Polish, some Czech dialects). The Kashubian dialect has different accents.

For most of Z. I. and dialects are characterized by the same change in strong reduced ъ and ь > e: Czech. sen

The main differences between individual vowels that arose during the historical period of their development: the different fate of nasal vowels, the sound m (yat), long and short vowels; the Proto-Slavic consonant g in Czech, Slovak and Sorbian languages ​​changed into h (glottal, fricative), the differences also concern the category of hardness/softness of consonants. In the system of nominal declension of all Z. i. All-Slavic processes took place: regrouping of declension types based on grammatical gender, loss of some previous types (mainly consonant stems), mutual influence of case inflections within the paradigm, reorganization of stems, emergence of new endings. Unlike East Slavic languages, the influence of the feminine gender is more limited. The Czech language has retained the most archaic declension system. All Z. I. (except for Lusatian ones) have lost the forms of the dual number. The category of animation (Czech, Slovak) and the specific category of personality (Polish, Upper Sorbian) developed and received morphological expression. Short forms of adjectives have disappeared (Slovak, Upper Sorbian) or have been preserved to a limited extent (Czech, Polish).

The verb is characterized by the transition of unproductive conjugation classes to productive ones (cf. Czech siesti > sednouti), the loss (except for the Sorbian languages) of simple past tenses (aorist and imperfect), in some languages, and the plusquaperfect (Czech, partly Polish). The most significant changes in the conjugation of present forms of the verb have been experienced by the Slovak language, where all verbs in the present tense have the same ending system.

Syntactic features are partly due to the influence of Latin and German. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, modal verbs, reflexive forms of verbs in an indefinite-personal and generalized-personal meaning such as Czech are more often used. Jak se jde? `How to get there?', etc.

The vocabulary reflected Latin and German influence, in Slovak - Czech and Hungarian. Influence of the Russian language, significant in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially intensified after World War II.

In the early feudal period as a written language The Western Slavs used Latin. The oldest literary language of the Slavs is Old Church Slavonic, which emerged in the 9th century. The first Czech monuments proper date back to the end of the 13th century, Polish ones - to the beginning of the 14th century, Slovak ones - to the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, Lusatian ones - to the 16th century. Modern Z. i. use Latin script.

The most common West Slavic languages ​​are Polish (35 million), Czech (9.5 million) and Slovak (4.5 million). A small population of Kashubians lives in Poland. Polabian is now a dead language. It is reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names available in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of live speech of the 17th-18th centuries.

The Lusatian languages ​​are preserved in the form of small islands in Germany. There are about 150 thousand Lusatian residents. They have their own schools, their own press, and there is a Slavic department at the University of Berlin.

Lehitic subgroup

Kaszumbian language (alternative names: Pomeranian language, Pomeranian language; Kashubian kaszлbsczi jгzлk, ptmрsczi jгzлk, kaszлbskф mтwa, kaszлbskт-siowiсskф mтwa) is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic subgroup, widespread to the west and south of Gdańsk. Currently, approximately 50 thousand people speak Kashubian in everyday life, and approximately 150 thousand people are familiar with it.

The closest language to Kashubian is Polish, with which Kashubian shares most of its core vocabulary. Kashubian has also experienced significant influence from Polish on its grammar and word formation. The main differences from Polish are borrowings from Old Prussian and German (from the latter - approximately 5% of the vocabulary), as well as the omission of vowels in syllables without stress and other stress rules, which in Kashubian itself, however, are also heterogeneous. While in the south the stress always falls on the first syllable, in the north the stress can vary.

Pomlian language (jкzyk polski, polszczyzna) is the language of the Poles and is the native language of approximately 40 million people in many countries around the world, including approximately 38 million people in the Republic of Poland. About 5-10 million more people speak Polish as a second and foreign language.

The dialects of the Polish language include:

• § Wielkopolska dialect, covers the territory of Greater Poland, Krajna and Borow Tucholski. This dialect is based on the tribal dialect of the Polyans.
• § Lesser Poland dialect, occupies the territory of the Lesser Poland, Subcarpathian, Świętokrzyskie and Lublin voivodeships. It was based on the Vistula dialect.
• § The Masovian dialect occupies the eastern and central part Poland. It was formed on the basis of the dialect of the Mazovshan tribe.
• § The Silesian dialect, widespread in Upper Silesia, is a continuation of the development of the dialect of the Slenzan tribe.

Polambian language is an extinct West Slavic language. The native language of the Polabian Slavs, assimilated by the Germans at the beginning of the 19th century.

The Polabian language was closest to Polish and together with it, Kashubian and the extinct Slovinian.

The name of the language comes from the Slavic name of the Elbe River (Polish: Јaba, Czech: Labe, etc.). Other names: Old-Solabian, Vendian. Accordingly, the Slavic tribe that spoke it was called Polabian Slavs, Drevyans (Drevans) or Vends (Vends is the German name for all the Slavs of Germany). The language was widespread before the first half of the XVIII century on the left bank of the Elbe in the Principality of Lunenburg (now the Lüchow-Dannenberg district of Lower Saxony), where monuments of this language were recorded, and earlier also in the north of modern Germany (Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Schleswig, Rügen Island).

In the south, the area of ​​the Polabian language bordered on the Lusatian languages, which were widespread in the southern part of the modern eastern Germany.

In the 17th century, the Polabian language became socially unprestigious, the “Vendas” hid or did not advertise their origin and switched to the German language, including being subjected to forced Germanization. By 1725 there is information about a family of native speakers, in which the younger generation no longer knew Polabian. The last entry was made around 1750. In 1790, the compiler of the first consolidated Polabian dictionary, Johann Jugler, looked for people who could understand at least a little Polish, but he could no longer find anyone.

Slovinsky (Slovinc) language is a West Slavic idiom of the Lechitic subgroup, extinct in the 20th century. It is considered by some authors as an independent language, by others as a dialect of Kashubian or (not distinguishing Kashubian in turn) Polish. The term “Pomeranian (Pomeranian) language” is used, combining Kashubian and Slovinian. It was spoken by the Slovinians, first ethnographically described by A.F. Hilferding in 1856 and living northwest of the Kashubians, between Lake Łebski and Lake Gardno.

In the 17th - 19th centuries, the Slovinian language/dialect was used even in church sermons, but after the unification of Germany in 1871 it began to be finally replaced by the German language. By the beginning of the 20th century, no more than a few hundred speakers remained, and all of them spoke German.

After 1945, the Slovinians were Protestants (since the 16th century), speaking mainly in German, - were considered by the Polish government as Germans and were mostly expelled to Germany or then left Poland by at will, settling in Germany (many in the Hamburg area). There they finally assimilated. Some old people who remained in Poland remembered Slovinian words back in the 1950s.

Lumzhitsky languages, Serbolumzhitsky languages: (obsolete name - Serbian) - the languages ​​of the Lusatians, one of the national minorities in Germany.

They belong to the Slavic group of languages. The total number of speakers is about 60,000 people, of which about 40,000 live in Saxony and about 20,000 in Brandenburg. In the region where the Lusatian language is spoken, tables with the names of cities and streets are often bilingual.

There are two written languages, which in turn consist of several dialects: Upper Sorbian (in Upper Lusatia) and Low Sorbian (in Lower Lusatia).

The number of speakers of Lusatian languages ​​in everyday life is significantly lower than the above figures. In contrast to the fairly stable Upper Sorbian language, the Lower Sorbian language is on the verge of extinction.

Slovak language West Slavic ethnic

Czech-Slovak subgroup

Chemsh language (self-name - eeљtina, eeske jazyk) - total number of speakers - 12 million. Latin (Czech alphabet)

The Czech language is divided into several dialects, the speakers of which generally understand each other. Currently, under the influence of the literary language, the boundaries between dialects are blurred. Czech dialects are divided into 4 groups:

• § Czech dialects (with colloquial Czech as koine)
• § Central Moravian group of dialects (Ganatsky);
• § East Moravian group of dialects (Moravian-Slovak);
• § Silesian dialects.

The border lands formerly inhabited by Sudeten Germans cannot be classified as one dialect due to the heterogeneity of the population.

As in many related, but developed for a long time Regardless of languages, similar-sounding Czech and Russian words often have different and even opposite meanings (for example, иerstve - fresh; pozor - attention; mmsto - city; hrad - castle; ovoce - fruit; rodina - family; and others, the so-called false friends of the translator).

Slovak language (Slovak slovenіina, slovenskе jazyk) - total number of speakers - 6 million. The Slovak language is very close to the Czech language.

The standardization of the Slovak language began at the end of the 18th century. Then Anton Bernolak's book “Dissertatio philologico-critica de litteris Slavorum” with the appendix “Orthographia” (1787) was published. This literary language was based on Western Slovak dialects. The modern literary Slovak language, which is based on Central Slovak linguistic features, arose in mid-19th century thanks to the efforts of the Slovak patriots Ludovit Stur, Michal Miloslav Goji, Josef Miloslav Gurban and others. The first version of Stur’s codification was formulated in the books “Nauka reii slovenskej” (Science of the Slovak language) and “Nbreija slovenskuo alebo potreba pнsатja v tomto nbrein” ( Slovak dialect or the need to write in this dialect) and came primarily from the speech of the intelligentsia of the central Slovak city of Liptovsky Mikulas and was characterized by a strong phonological principle of spelling, the absence of a soft “l” (“s”) and a long vowel “y”, with the exception of the word “ dcеra” (daughter) and other linguistic features that exist in the modern version of the Slovak language. In 1851, at a meeting of Slovak intellectuals, a reformed version of the Stuhr codification was adopted, the author of which was linguist Milan Gattala (we are talking about the so-called “Godjov-Gattala reform”). This variant is the basis of today's literary Slovak language. Important moments in the history of further standardization of the Slovak language are the publication of spelling books in 1931 and 1953. and the development of terminology in the interwar and especially postwar period.

During the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Hungarian authorities persecuted the literary Slovak language while promoting the less widespread Eastern Slovak dialect.

Jewish-Slavic dialects (Qna'anith) is the conventional name for several dialects and registers of Slavic languages ​​spoken by Jews who lived in Slavic countries in the Middle Ages. All known Judeo-Slavic dialects were supplanted by Yiddish or surrounding Slavic languages ​​by the end of the Middle Ages.

The best known is the Judeo-Czech variant of the Old Czech language, which was spoken by Bohemian and Moravian Jews before the massive influx of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazim from Germany and the subsequent resettlement of both to the east and northeast within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, nothing is known about its differences from the language of the surrounding population. Most likely, as in the case of other medieval Hebrew languages ​​of Europe, the differences were minimal and were limited to the inclusion of Hebrew and Aramaic words and the use of the Hebrew alphabet.

The name Knaanite (English Knaanic) is associated with the designation of Slavic countries by the term Qna`an (Hebrew lrtp, anciently denoting Palestine - Canaan), found in Jewish texts (for example, Benjamin of Tudela in the 12th century calls Kievan Rus"Land of Canaan") The reason for this identification is unknown.

Polabian	Polish	Kashubian	Upper Lusatian	Lower Lusatian		Ukrainian	Belorussian
						man, man
prenja zaima, jisin
						vogon, vogon	fire, fire
							veter, wind

SLAVIC LANGUAGES, a group of languages ​​belonging to the Indo-European family, spoken by more than 440 million people in Eastern Europe and North and Central Asia. The thirteen currently existing Slavic languages ​​are divided into three groups: 1) the East Slavic group includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages; 2) West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian (spoken in a small area in northern Poland) and two Lusatian (or Serbian) languages ​​- Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, spoken in small areas in eastern Germany; 3) the South Slavic group includes: Serbo-Croatian (spoken in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Slovenian, Macedonian and Bulgarian. In addition, there are three dead languages ​​- Slovinian, which disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century, Polabian, which died out in the 18th century, as well as Old Church Slavonic - the language of the first Slavic translations Holy Scripture, which is based on one of the ancient South Slavic dialects and was used in worship in Slavic Orthodox Church, but has never been an everyday spoken language ( cm. OLD SLAVONIC LANGUAGE).

Modern Slavic languages ​​have many words in common with other Indo-European languages. Many Slavic words are similar to the corresponding English ones, for example: sister –sister,three – three,nose – nose,night – night and etc. In other cases, the common origin of the words is less obvious. Russian word see cognate with Latin videre, Russian word five cognate with German fünf, Latin quinque(cf. musical term quintet), Greek penta, which is present, for example, in a borrowed word pentagon(lit. "pentagon") .

An important role in the system of Slavic consonantism is played by palatalization - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages ​​can be either hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). In the field of phonetics, there are also some significant differences between the Slavic languages. In Polish and Kashubian, for example, two nasal vowels have been preserved - ą And ERROR, disappeared in other Slavic languages. Slavic languages ​​vary greatly in stress. In Czech, Slovak and Sorbian the stress usually falls on the first syllable of a word; in Polish – to the penultimate; in Serbo-Croatian, any syllable except the last one can be stressed; in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, stress can fall on any syllable of a word.

All Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, have several types of declension of nouns and adjectives, which vary in six or seven cases, in number and in three genders. The presence of seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative or prepositional and vocative) indicates the archaic nature of the Slavic languages ​​and their closeness to the Indo-European language, which supposedly had eight cases. An important feature of Slavic languages ​​is the category of verbal aspect: every verb belongs to either the perfective or imperfective form and denotes, respectively, either a completed, or a continuing or repeating action.

The territory inhabited by Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe in the 5th–8th centuries. AD expanded rapidly, and by the 8th century. The common Slavic language spread from the north of Russia to the south of Greece and from the Elbe and the Adriatic Sea to the Volga. Up to the 8th or 9th century. it was basically a single language, but gradually the differences between territorial dialects became more noticeable. By the 10th century. There were already predecessors to modern Slavic languages.

Non-Slavic Russia

When starting a conversation about Russian, or more precisely about the Russian language, we should first of all remember that Russia is a non-Slavic country.

The territories inhabited by ancient near-Slavic peoples include only Smolensk, Kursk, Bryansk - the territories of the ancient Krivichi, Slavicized by the Western Slavs of the Balts.

The remaining lands are Finnish, where no Slavs have ever lived: Chud, Muroma, Mordovians, Perm, Vyatichi and others.

The main toponyms of historical Muscovy themselves are all Finnish: Moscow, Murom, Ryazan (Erzya), Vologda, Kostroma, Suzdal, Tula, etc.

These territories were conquered over several centuries by Rurik colonists who sailed from Laba or Elbe, but the number of colonists who built Novgorod near Ladoga - as a continuation of the then existing Polabian Old Town - now Oldenburg - was extremely small in these parts.

In the rare fortress towns founded by the Obodrite-Rusyns and Normans: Danes and Swedes, a handful of colonial rulers lived with their retinue - the network of these fortress-colonies was called “Rus”.

And 90-95% of the region’s population were non-Slavic natives, subordinate to these more civilized occupiers.

The language of the colonies was Slavic Koine - that is, a language used for communication between peoples with different dialects and languages.

Gradually, over many centuries, the local native population adopted this koine; in the Novgorod land, as Academician Yanov writes, this process took at least 250 years - judging by the language birch bark letters, which from Sami gradually becomes an Indo-European, Slavic analytical language, with inflections added to the word, and only then normal Slavic synthetic.

By the way, Nestor writes about this in “The Tale of Bygone Years”: that the Ladoga Sami gradually learned the Slavic language of Rurik and after that began to be called “Slovenians” - that is, those who understand the word, as opposed to the “Germans”, dumb - that is, those who do not understand the language.

“The term “Slavs” has no relation to the term “Slovenians”, since it comes from the original “sklavens”.

The second after the Ladoga Sami began to adopt the Slavic Koine were the northern Finnish peoples - the Muroma, Ves or Vepsians, Chud, but for them the process took much longer, and among the more southern Finns directly from Mordovian Moscow and its surroundings, the adoption of the Slavic Koine dragged on until the time of Peter the Great, and some -where their original native languages ​​were preserved - like the Erzya language of Ryazan or the Finnish dialect of the Vyatichi.

The characteristic “Okanye” of the population of Central Russia today is mistakenly considered “Old Slavonic,” although this is a purely Finnish dialect, which precisely reflects the incompleteness of the Slavicization of the region.

“By the way, bast shoes are also a purely Finnish attribute: the Slavs never wore bast shoes, but only wore leather shoes, while all Finnish peoples wear bast shoes.”

During the Golden Horde, Muscovy for three centuries went to the ethnically related peoples of the Finno-Ugric peoples, who were gathered under their rule by the Horde kings.

During this period, the language of the region was greatly influenced by the Turkic language, as part of the generally enormous influence of Asia.

The book by Afanasy Nikitin, from the late 15th century, “On Walking Beyond Three Seas,” is indicative.

“In the name of Allah, the Gracious and Merciful and Jesus the Spirit of God. Allah is great..."

In the original:

“Bismillah Rahman Rahim. Isa Ruh Wallo. Allah Akbar. Allah kerim."

At that time, the religion common to Muscovy and the Horde was a hybrid of Islam and Arian Christianity; Jesus and Mohammed were equally revered, and the division of faith occurred in 1589, when Moscow accepted the Greek canon, and Kazan adopted pure Islam.

In medieval Muscovy, several languages ​​existed simultaneously.

Near-Slavic Koine is like the language of the princely nobility.

The native languages ​​are Finnish.

Turkic languages ​​as religious languages ​​during their stay in the Horde and after Ivan the Terrible seized power in the Horde until 1589.

And finally, the Bulgarian language is the language of Orthodox texts and religious cults.

This whole mixture ultimately became the basis for the current Russian language, which coincides in vocabulary only 30-40% with other Slavic languages, in which (including Belarusian and Ukrainian) this coincidence is disproportionately higher and amounts to 70-80%.

Today, Russian linguists basically reduce the origins of the modern Russian language to only two components: this is the national language of Russia, not at all Slavic, but Slavic-Finnish Koine with great Turkic and Mongolian influence - and Bulgarian Old Bulgarian, also known as “Church Slavonic”.

The third language of Russia can be called the modern literary Russian language, which is a completely artificial armchair invention, a kind of “Esperanto” based on the two source languages ​​indicated above; I am writing this article in Esperanto.

Is Russia Slavic?

There are three points that all Russian linguists strenuously hide, although, as people say, you can’t hide a bag in a bag.

1. Until the 18th century, the language of Muscovy was not considered Russian by anyone in the world, but was specifically called the language of the Muscovites, Muscovite.


2. Until this time, only the Ukrainian language was called the Russian language.


3. The language of Muscovy - the Muscovite language - was not recognized until that time by European linguists, including Slavic countries, even as a Slavic language, but belonged to the Finnish dialects.

Of course, today everything is not so: for the sake of imperial interests of conquering Slavic countries, Russia had a huge influence on its linguistic science, setting it the task of giving the Russian language “Slavic status”.

Moreover, if west of Russia lived the Germanic peoples, then in exactly the same way she would prove that the Russian language is from the family Germanic languages: for such would be the order of the Empire.

And the linguistic reforms of the Russian language, begun by Lomonosov, were precisely aimed at emphasizing its weak Slavic features.

However, as the Polish Slavist Jerzy Leszczynski wrote about the Western Balts related to the Slavs 150 years ago, “the Prussian language has much more reason to be considered Slavic than Great Russian, which has much less in common with the Polish and other Slavic languages ​​than even the Western Baltic Prussian language."

Let me remind you that Russia began to be called “Russia” for the first time officially only under Peter I, who considered the previous name - Muscovy - dark and obscurantist.

Peter not only began to forcibly shave his beards, forbade all women of Muscovy to wear veils in the Asian style and banned harems, towers where women were kept locked up, but during his trips to Europe he demanded from cartographers that from now on on maps his country would be called not Muscovy or Muscovitia, as before, but by Russia.

And so that the Muscovites themselves would be considered Slavs for the first time in history, which was a general strategy to “cut a window to Europe” - coupled with Peter’s request to move the eastern border of Europe from the border between Muscovy and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania now to the Urals, thereby including geographically Muscovy for the first time in history into Europe.

Before this, Polish and Czech linguists and the creators of Slavic grammars clearly distinguished the Russian language - Ukrainian and Muscovite, and did not classify this Muscovite language itself as a member of the family of Slavic languages.

For the language of Muscovy was poor in Slavic vocabulary.

As Russian linguist I.S. writes. Ulukhanov at work " Colloquial speech Ancient Rus'", "Russian Speech", No. 5, 1972, the circle of Slavicisms, regularly repeated in the living speech of the people of Muscovy, expanded very slowly.

Recordings of live oral speech made by foreigners in Muscovy in the 16th-17th centuries include only some Slavic words against the backdrop of the bulk of local Finnish and Turkic vocabulary.

In the “Parisian Dictionary of Muscovites” (1586) among TOTAL DICTIONARY we find the Muscovite people, as I.S. writes. Ulukhanov, only the words “lord” and “zlat”.

There are already more of them in the diary-dictionary of the Englishman Richard James 1618-1619 - 16 WHOLE WORDS : “good”, “blessing”, “scold”, “Sunday”, “resurrect”, “enemy”, “time”, “boat”, “weakness”, “cave”, “help”, “holiday”, “ prapor", "fragmentation", "sweet", "temple".

In the book “Grammar of the Muscovite language” by the German scientist and traveler W. Ludolph from 1696 SLAVIC WORDS 41!

Moreover, some with a huge Finnish “okan” in the prefixes - like “to reason.”

The rest of the oral vocabulary of Muscovites in these phrase books is Finnish and Turkic.

Linguists of that era had no reason to classify the Muscovite language as a “Slavic language”, since the Slavicisms themselves were not in oral speech, and it is the oral speech of the people that is the criterion here.

And therefore, the spoken language of Muscovy was not considered either Slavic or even near-Russian: the peasants of Muscovy spoke their Finnish dialects.

A typical example: the Mordvin Ivan Susanin of the Kostroma district did not know the Russian language, and his relatives, submitting a petition to the queen, paid an interpreter for translation from Finnish Kostroma into the Russian “sovereign” language.

It’s funny that today absolutely Mordovian Kostroma is considered in Russia to be the “standard” of “Russianness” and “Slavism”; there is even a rock band that sings Mordovian songs from Kostroma in Russian, passing them off as supposedly “Slavic”, although two centuries ago no one I didn’t speak Slavic in Kostroma.

And the fact that the Moscow Church broadcast in the Bulgarian language, in which the state papers of Muscovy were written, did not mean anything, since all of Europe at that time spoke Latin in churches and conducted office work in Latin, and this had nothing to do with the fact What kind of peoples live here?

Let me remind you that after the Union of Lublin in 1569, when the Belarusians created with the Poles union state- Republic, in Polish - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania retained Belarusian, that is, Rusyn, as its state language, and Poland introduced Latin as its state language.

But this does not mean at all that the national language of the Poles is Latin.

In the same way, Russian was not the popular language in Muscovy-Russia at that time - until Russian villages learned it.

Here is another example: today and from ancient times in the villages of the Smolensk, Kursk and Bryansk regions, which were once part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, they speak not Russian at all, but Belarusian.

They don’t speak literary Russian there, just as no one “okats” - reflecting the Finnish accent, as in the Ryazan or Moscow regions, but they speak completely the language spoken by the villagers of the Vitebsk or Minsk regions.

Any linguist should draw one conclusion: the Belarusian population lives in these Russian regions, because they speak the Belarusian language.

But for some reason this population is ethnically attributed to the “nearby” eastern neighbors, who at the time of Ludolf knew only 41 Slavic words there.

I.S. Ulukhanov writes that speaking about the existence of two languages ​​among the Muscovites - Slavic or Church Bulgarian and his own Muscovite, V. Ludolf reported in the “Grammar of the Muscovite Language”:

“The more learned someone wants to appear, the more he mixes Slavic expressions into his speech or in his writings, although some laugh at those who abuse the Slavic language in ordinary speech.”

Marvelous!

What is this “Slavic language” of Moscow, which people laugh at for using Slavic words instead of their own Finnish and Turkic words?

This did not happen in Belarus-VKL - here no one laughs at people who use Slavic words in their speech.

On the contrary, no one will understand someone who constructs phrases using Finnish or Turkic vocabulary instead of Slavic.

This “bilingualism” did not exist anywhere among the Slavs, except in Muscovy alone.

“By the way: The statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were written in the purest Slavic language - the state language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, a purely Slavic state, where the Litvins were the Slavs - the current Belarusians.”

This problem of “bilingualism” due to the lack of a folk Slavic basis in Russia has always haunted the creators of the literary Russian language - as in general the main problem Russian language.

It went through the “stages of development of the term”, being called first Muscovite, then Russian under Lomonosov - until 1795, then during the occupation by Russia in 1794, formally consolidated in 1795, Belarus and Western and Central Ukraine had to change it to the “Great Russian dialect of the Russian language "

This is exactly how the Russian language figured in the 1840s in the title of Dahl’s dictionary “Explanatory Dictionary of the Great Russian Dictionary of the Russian Language,” where the Russian language itself was generally understood as Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian, although today all Russian linguists have unscientifically distorted the name of Dahl’s dictionary to “Explanatory Dictionary living Russian language,” although he never wrote a dictionary with that name.

In 1778, a brochure by the writer and linguist Fyodor Grigorievich Karin “Letter on the Transformers of the Russian Language” was published in Moscow.

He wrote: “The terrible difference between our language, throughout his work he calls it the “Moscow dialect,” and Slavic often prevents us from expressing ourselves in it with that freedom that alone enlivens eloquence and which is acquired nothing other than daily conversation. ... Just as a skillful gardener renews an old tree with a young graft, clearing the withered vines and thorns growing at its roots, so the great writers acted in transforming our language, which in itself was poor, and when counterfeited with the Slavic it has already become ugly.”

"Poor" and "ugly" - this, of course, is at odds with his future assessment as “great and powerful.”

The justification here is the fact that Pushkin was not yet born for the young green language just created by Lomonosov’s experiments.

Again, I draw your attention: this problem has never existed among Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Bulgarians, Ukrainians, Serbs and other Slavs - where the language of the villagers organically becomes the language of the country and the people.

This is a purely Russian unique problem - how to combine the Finnish language of the villagers with the Slavic language of the state, for example, in Belarus it is absurd: to argue about the possible “dominance of Slavicisms in writing", implying, as in Russia, the dominance of the Bulgarian vocabulary, when the Belarusian vocabulary itself is the same completely Slavic vocabulary and the same Slavicisms - that is, there is no very subject for such a dispute, because the Slavicisms of the Bulgarian language cannot in any way “spoil” the already founded Only in Slavicisms is the Belarusian language - you can’t spoil butter with butter.

As a result, Russian linguists heroically break the “umbilical cord” of the centuries-old connection between the culture of Moscow and the Bulgarian language, which they unanimously find “alien,” “pretentious in Russian conditions,” “inhibiting the formation of the literary Russian language.”

And they reject the Bulgarian language, boldly falling into the fold of the popular language of the “Moscow dialect,” which consists of 60-70% non-Slavic vocabulary.

The great figures who are making this linguistic revolution in Russia are F.G. Karin in his work names Feofan Prokopovich, M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokova.

So, at the very end of the 18th century, Russia abandoned following the Bulgarian language, which for centuries, like a rope, kept it in the Slavic field and converted it “to Slavism,” and began to consider itself linguistically free and sovereign, recognizing as its language not Bulgarian, but that the folk language of the Slavicized Finns, which by no means had, like Bulgarian, obvious Slavic features.

Alphabet

A general misconception: in Russia everyone believes that they write in “Cyrillic”, although no one in Russia writes in it.

They write in a completely different alphabet, very little related to the Cyrillic alphabet - this is the “civil alphabet” introduced by Peter I.

It is not a Cyrillic alphabet, since it was not created by Cyril and Methodius.

This is the imperial Russian alphabet, which Russia during the Tsarist and Soviet periods tried to spread among all its neighbors, even the Turks and Finns.

He is trying to do this today: not so long ago, the Duma banned Karelia and Tatarstan from returning to the Latin alphabet, calling it “separatist intrigues,” although it is the Latin alphabet that more successfully reflects the linguistic realities of the Finnish and Tatar languages.

In general, this looks completely absurd: it turns out that Cyril and Methodius created writing not for the Bulgarians and Czechs so that they could read Byzantine Bibles, but for the Tatars who profess Islam.

But why do Muslims need the Orthodox alphabet?

The second misconception is that the Cyrillic alphabet is considered a “Slavic alphabet”.

This is actually just a slightly modified Greek alphabet, and the Greeks are not Slavs.

And more than half of the Slavic peoples write in Latin, not Cyrillic.

Finally, this is the alphabet of Church Slavonic - that is, Bulgarian - books, this is the Bulgarian alphabet, and not at all our own Russian, Belarusian or Ukrainian.

Referring to religious Orthodox traditions here is simply ridiculous, because in the Middle Ages all of Catholic Europe used Latin in religion - is this a reason for all these countries to abandon their national languages ​​and return to Latin?

Of course not.

By the way, the Belarusian alphabet today should be Latin, not Cyrillic, more precisely: the alphabet of Peter I, since the Belarusian literary language over the centuries was formed as a language based on the Latin alphabet, and all the founders of Belarusian literature wrote in the Latin alphabet.

Let me remind you that after the Russian occupation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1795, the tsar banned the Belarusian language by decree in 1839, in 1863 he banned religious literature already in the Ukrainian language, in 1876 - all types of literature in the Ukrainian language, except for fiction.

In Ukraine, the literary language was formed on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet, but in Belarus - on the basis of the Latin alphabet, and in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, Belarusian periodicals were published in the Latin alphabet - “Bielarus”, “Bielaruskaja krynica”, “Nasza Niwa” and so on.

Slavic languages- a group of related languages ​​of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is more than 400 million people. They are distinguished by a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, a system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages ​​and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level literary languages and dialects.

The long-term independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences of a material, functional and typological nature.

Slavic languages ​​are usually divided into 3 groups according to the degree of their proximity to each other:

• East Slavic,
• South Slavic
• West Slavic.

The distribution of Slavic languages ​​within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialectal division and stylistic structure within each Slavic language are not the same.

Branches of Slavic languages:

East Slavic branch Belarusian (ISO 639-1: be; ISO 639-3: bel) Old Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: orv) Old Novgorod dialect † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -) Western Russian † (ISO 639-1: — ;ISO 639-3: —) Russian (ISO 639-1: ru; ISO 639-3: rus) Ukrainian (ISO 639-1: uk; ISO 639-3: ukr) Rusyn (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: rue)

West Slavic branch Lehitic subgroup Pomeranian (Pomeranian) languages Kashubian(ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: csb) Slovinsky† (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -) Polabian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: pox) Polish (ISO 639-1: pl; ISO 639-3: pol) Silesian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: szl) Lusatian subgroup Upper Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hsb) Lower Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: dsb) Czech-Slovak subgroup Slovak (ISO 639-1: sk; ISO 639-3: slk) Czech (ISO 639-1: cs; ISO 639-3: ces) knaanite † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: czk)

South Slavic branch Eastern group Bulgarian (ISO 639-1: bg; ISO 639-3: bul) Macedonian (ISO 639-1: mk; ISO 639-3: mkd) Old Church Slavonic † (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu) Church Slavonic (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu) Western group Serbo-Croatian group/Serbo-Croatian language (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hbs): Bosnian (ISO 639-1: bs; ISO 639-3: bos) Serbian (ISO 639-1: sr; ISO 639-3: srp) Slavic Serbian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -) Croatian (ISO 639-1: hr; ISO 639-3: hrv) Kajkavian (ISO 639-3: kjv) Montenegrin (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -) Slovenian (ISO 639-1: sl; ISO 639-3: slv)

In addition to these languages, languages ​​are polyvalent, i.e., speaking (like all modern national literary languages) both in the function of written, artistic, business speech, and in the function of oral, everyday, colloquial and stage speech, the Slavs also have “small” literary languages, almost always with brightly dialectal colors. These languages, with limited use, usually function alongside national literary languages ​​and serve either relatively small ethnic groups, or even individual literary genres. There are such languages ​​in Western Europe: in Spain, Italy, France and in German-speaking countries. The Slavs know the Rusyn language (in Yugoslavia), the Kajkavian and Chakavian languages ​​(in Yugoslavia and Austria), the Kashubian language (in Poland), the Lyash language (in Czechoslovakia), etc.

In the Middle Ages, the Polabian Slavs, who spoke the Polabian language, lived on a fairly vast territory in the Elbe River basin, called Laby in Slavic. This language is a severed branch from the Slavic language “tree” as a result of the forced Germanization of the population that spoke it. He disappeared in the 18th century. Nevertheless, separate records of Polabian words, texts, translations of prayers, etc. have reached us, from which it is possible to restore not only the language, but also the life of the disappeared Polabians. And at the International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1968, the famous West German Slavist R. Olesh read a report in the Polish language, thus creating not only literary written (he read from typescript) and oral forms, but also scientific linguistic terminology. This indicates that almost every Slavic dialect (dialect) can, in principle, be the basis of a literary language. However, not only Slavic, but also another family of languages, as shown by numerous examples of newly written languages ​​in our country.

Methods for classifying Slavic languages

The first printed information about Slavic languages ​​was usually presented in a list, i.e. transfer. This is what the Czech J. Blagoslav did in his grammatical work on the Czech language in 1571 (published only in 1857), in which he notes Czech, then “Slovene” (probably Slovak), where he also included the language of the Croats, then follows Polish language; He also mentions the southern (possibly Church Slavonic), “Mazowieckian” (actually a Polish dialect), and “Moscow” (i.e. Russian). Y. Krizhanich, comparing in the 17th century. some Slavic languages, spoke about the closeness of some of them to each other, but did not dare to classify them. “List classifications” of Slavic languages, i.e. an attempt to distinguish them by enumeration and thereby distinguish them from other Indo-European languages ​​is also characteristic of the 18th century, although they are occasionally found in the 19th century. So, in 1787-1789. By decree of Empress Catherine, a two-volume book “Comparative dictionaries of all languages ​​and dialects” was published in St. Petersburg - an attempt to collect information about all the languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the world known by that time and provide parallel lists of words for them. It is important for us that among “all languages ​​and dialects” there were 13 listed here as a list of Slavic languages ​​(“adverbs”): the words there are given “1 - in Slavic, 2 - Slavic-Hungarian, 3 - Illyrian, 4 - Bohemian, 5 - Serbian, 6 - Vendian, 7 - Sorabski, 8 - Polabski, 9 - Kashubian, 10 - Polish, 11 - Little Russian, 12 - Suzdal" + 13 "in Russian"; “Slavic-Hungarian” is Slovak, “Wendski” is one of the Serbian Sorbian languages, “Suzdal” is social jargon! F. Miklosic in “Morphology of Slavic Languages” (1852) presents the languages ​​in this order: a) Old Church Slavonic, b) New Slavonic (Slovenian), c) Bulgarian, d) Serbian (and Croatian), e) Little Russian, or Ukrainian (and Belarusian ), f) Great Russian, g) Czech (and Slovak), h) Polish, i) Upper Sorbian, j) Lower Sorbian; but without Polabian and Kashubian.

Classification by J. Dobrovsky.

Attempts to classify Slavic languages ​​on a scientific basis date back to the beginning of the 19th century. and are associated with the name of the founder of Slavic philology J. Dobrovsky. For the first time, Dobrovsky gave a list of Slavic languages ​​and dialects in 1791-1792. in the book “History of the Czech Language and Literature,” published in German. There has been no classification yet. He singled out the “full” Slavic language and listed its dialects, including Russian, “Polish with Silesian”, “Illyrian” with Bulgarian, “Rac-Serbian”, Bosnian, “Slavonian” (dialects of the historical region of Slavonia in Croatia), “Dalmatian and Dubrovnik”, Croatian with Kajkavian, with “Vindian” (Slovenian), “Czech with Moravian, Silesian and Slovakian”, Lusatian. In the second edition of this book (1818) and especially in his main work on the Old Church Slavonic language according to its dialects (“Institutiones linguae slavicae dialecti veteris”, 1822), Dobrovsky for the first time presents a scientific classification of Slavic languages, dividing them into two groups (each with 5 languages ):

• A (eastern): Russian, Church Slavonic (Slavica vetus), “Illyrian”, or Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, or “Vindic” (“in Carniola, Styria and Carinthia”);
• B (Western): Slovak, Czech, “Vendic Upper Sorbian” (= Upper Sorbian) and “Vendic Lower Sorbian” (= Lower Sorbian), Polish.

J. Dobrovsky relied on 10 signs of phonetic, word-formation and lexical properties, cf.:

In the future, features 3 (l-epentheticum), 4 (combinations , ) and 6 (combinations , ) will be regularly used by researchers, right up to the present day, when comparing the three subgroups of Slavic languages. Other features will remain unclaimed, for example, the prefix roz-, which is also characteristic of East Slavic languages, in particular Ukrainian (rozum ‘um’). In addition, the classification lacks several languages ​​- Ukrainian, Kashubian, Bulgarian.

Views on classification after J. Dobrovsky.

Soon after Dobrovsky, the largest Slavist of the 19th century began to classify Slavic languages. P. Y. Safarik. In the book “History of Slavic Languages ​​and Literatures” (1826) and especially in the famous “Slavic Antiquities” (1837) and “Slavic Ethnography” (1842), he, following Dobrovsky, presented a two-component classification of “Slavic dialects”:

• 1) southeastern group: Russian, Bulgarian, “Illyrian” (Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian);
• 2) northwestern group: “Lechitic” (Polish, Kashubian), Czech (Czech, Moravian, Slovak), Polabian (+ Upper and Lower Sorbian).

Of Dobrovsky's 10 signs, Safarik used only two phonetic ones - No. 3 and No. 4, and considered the rest unimportant. But he added the following feature: the loss of [d] and [t] before [n] in the south-eastern and preservation - in the western ones, such as ϖ ν?τι - vadnouti ‘wither’. It is significant that the creator of the “family tree” hypothesis, A. Schleicher, applied it to the Slavic languages. Thus, outlining the development of the northeastern branch of the Indo-European languages ​​(1865), he proposed the following scheme for the differentiation of Slavic languages:

Here the western group is contrasted with the combined southern and eastern ones. Slovak, Kashubian, and Belarusian languages ​​are absent, but Ukrainian is reflected along with Great Russian. Two-component classifications suffered from large generalizations, omission of certain languages ​​and, in addition, were based on a minimal number of linguistic distinctive features. Let us present a summary table of the most important two-component classifications of Slavic languages ​​of the 19th century to see how far the three-component classification that replaced them has gone:

Reading the table above horizontally and vertically, it is not difficult to establish which languages ​​are reflected in a particular classification and how; A dash (sign -) can signal that the author did not know about the existence of a particular language or considered it an adverb (dialect) of a larger language, etc.

Three-component classification model and its disadvantages.

The two-component classification is being replaced by a three-component one. Doubts about the two-component classification proposed by J. Dobrovsky were expressed by A. Kh. Vostokov, pointing out that the Russian language, according to a number of its characteristics, occupies an independent position between the southern and Western languages. We can say that the idea of ​​a three-component division of Slavic languages, later supported by M. A. Maksimovich (works of 1836, 1838, 1845), N. Nadezhdin (1836), the Czech F. Palatsky (1836), and others, goes back to Vostokov. Maksimovich developed Vostokov's thought, highlighting the western, southern (or Transdanubian) and eastern branches. Palatsky, focusing on the geographical principle, divided the Slavic languages ​​into southwestern (= south Slavic), northwestern (= West Slavic) and eastern Slavic. This classification model was strengthened throughout much of the 19th century. Played a special role in her approval I. I. Sreznevsky (1843).

Based on historical-ethnographic (common historical destinies of individual groups of Slavic peoples, common material and spiritual culture, etc.) and linguistic criteria, he proposed to distribute the Slavic “adverbs” as follows:

• 1) eastern dialects: Great Russian, Ukrainian;
• 2) southwestern dialects (= South Slavic): Old Church Slavonic, Bulgarian, Serbian and Croatian, “Khorutanian” (= Slovenian);
• 3) northwestern dialects (= West Slavic): Polish, Polabian, Lusatian, Czech and Slovak.

Classification by I. I. Sreznevsky is still in use today. True, some changes have been made to it, for example, in terms: instead of “adverbs” - languages; in the names of the subgroups - East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic, respectively; The East Slavic language includes the Belarusian language, and the West Slavic language includes Kashubian.

However, this classification is also subject to criticism. The fact is that the material of each Slavic language or dialect is quite diverse and does not always fit into the framework of classifications, which, as a rule, are based on taking into account only a few - usually phonetic - features, according to which languages ​​are included in one or another subgroup. Numerous linguistic features that bring together languages ​​traditionally classified as different subgroups remain outside the classification principles. Such signs are often simply not taken into account.

The isogloss method and its role in the classification of dialects and languages.

Only in the twentieth century. the procedure for identifying linguistic parallels using the isogloss method began to take shape. This method is formulated as establishing on a linguistic (dialectological) map the distribution lines of a particular linguistic phenomenon in order to determine the degree of proximity between dialects and dialects within individual languages ​​and between languages ​​- within individual linguistic subgroups or groups. The isogloss method, applied to linguistic material at all levels (i.e. phonetic, grammatical, lexical), allows one to more clearly determine the place and relationship of related languages ​​to each other, which can lead to a revision of some provisions of the traditional classification. O. N. Trubachev (1974) rightly wrote about this at one time, pointing out the insufficiency of the three-component classification, which poorly takes into account the original dialectal fragmentation of the Proto-Slavic language:

• “1) The West Slavic, East Slavic and South Slavic language groups were secondarily consolidated from components of very different linguistic origins,
• 2) the original Slavia was not a linguistic monolith, but its opposite, i.e.<…>a complex set of isoglosses"

According to some experts, within the East Slavic subgroup, Russian and Ukrainian are more distant from each other, while Belarusian occupies an intermediate position between them (there is, however, also an opinion about the great proximity of the Belarusian and Russian languages). Be that as it may, some features bring Belarusian closer to the Russian language (for example, akanye), others - with Ukrainian (for example, the presence of a long-past tense in both languages). It has long been noted that the Ukrainian language has a number of features that unite it with the South Slavic languages ​​(especially their western part), for example, inflection of verbs of the 1st line. pl. part of the present tense -mo: write-mo ‘we are writing’, pratsuie-mo ‘we are working’, etc. - Wed South Slavic Serbian-Croatian write-mo, for the sake of-mo, sloven. piše-mo, dela-mo, etc.

Methods based on phonetic and word-formation material

Attempts to establish, on the basis of certain signs, in which direction the development of the speech array took place after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language, have not stopped to this day. The newest hypothesis on this issue belongs to the Belarusian Slavist F. D. Klimchuk (2007). He analyzes the phonetic development in modern Slavic languages ​​and dialects of a number of elements in ancient words selected specifically for these purposes - ten, black grouse, wild, quiet and smoke. Here's what these words look like phonetically:

In accordance with this, the Slavic dialect continuum is divided into two zones - northern and southern. To prove this, it is necessary to formulate the conditions and trace the form in which the identified phonetic elements were implemented in specific Slavic languages ​​and dialects. It's about O

• a) implementation of consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before the etymological [e], [i];
• b) about the distinction between vowels [i] and y [ы] or their merging into one sound.

In the northern zone, the consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] in the indicated position are soft, in the southern zone they are hard (that is, velarized or non-velarized, often called semi-soft). The vowels [i] and y [ы] in the northern zone retained their quality; in the southern zone they merged into one sound. In the languages ​​of Proto-Slavic, Old Church Slavonic and book Old Russian of the early period, the vowels [i] and y [ы] differed from each other, representing two independent sounds. The consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before the etymological [e], [i] in these languages ​​were pronounced “semi-softly”. In other words, they were hard, but not velarized. The Proto-Slavic model of the implementation of consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before [e], [i] was preserved only in some regions and microregions of Slavia - in many dialects of the Carpathians and the upper reaches of the river. San, sometimes in Polesie, as well as in the northern and southern parts of Russia. In a significant part of the dialects of Slavic languages northern zone soft consonants [d], [t] turned into , respectively. This phenomenon is called tsekany-dzekanya.

Studying the distribution of more than 70 suffixes of nouns across the Slavic territory, as well as conducting a group analysis of geographical and ichthyological (names of fish and everything connected with them) vocabulary, A. S. Gerd and V. M. Mokienko (1974) identified on this basis four Slavic areas, opposed to each other:

• 1) Western-Eastern Slavic - South Slavic;
• 2) West-East Slavic + Slovenian - South Slavic (except Slovenian);
• 3) East Slavic - Western South Slavic;
• 4) North Slavic and Western South Slavic - East South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian).

Quantitative method based on phonetic-morphological features.

In the 20th century another approach is being taken to studying the ways of the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and establishing the degree of proximity of the Slavic languages ​​in relation to each other. This approach is called quantitative or statistical. The first to apply it to Slavic material was the Pole J. Chekanovsky in 1929. Based on the list provided to him by T. Ler-Splavinsky of several dozen phonetic and morphological features characteristic of various regions of Slavia, Chekanovsky compiled a special table indicating the presence/absence of such features in a particular language, after which, using special statistical techniques, it establishes an index of proximity between languages.

The Serbian Sorbian languages ​​occupy a central place in the area of ​​the West Slavic languages. The Polabian language is closer to Czech and Slovak than to Polish. Chekanovsky also comes to the conclusion that there were deep connections between the Lechitic languages ​​and Northern Great Russian dialects. Moreover, the author believes that the future East Slavic massif, under the influence of Avar raids, broke away from the northern one, which united both Western and Eastern Slavs.

Before the arrival of the Hungarians in the Pannonian Lowland (late 9th century), the Western and Southern Slavs formed a wide belt stretching from north to south (to the Balkans). The expansion of the Hungarians separated the Western and Southern Slavs. Traces of past connections in the form common features are noted in the language of Czechs and Slovaks, on the one hand, and in Slovenian dialects, on the other. And in the South Slavic massif itself, a division occurred into a western branch (Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian) and an eastern branch (Old Slavic, Bulgarian, and later Macedonian). Chekanovsky believed that his conclusions should shake the existing opinion about the straightforwardness of the division of the Proto-Slavic into three massifs.

Method of lexical-statistical modeling.

Qualitatively new turn marks the appearance in 1994 of A. F. Zhuravlev’s monograph “Lexico-statistical modeling of the system of Slavic linguistic kinship” (based on a doctoral dissertation defended in 1992). The author for the first time turns to Proto-Slavic lexical material, which is hundreds of times larger in quantity than the phonetic-morphological features traditionally used to determine linguistic kinship. There is a significant difference between these two categories of features: if phonetic-morphological features evolve primarily by replacing some elements with others, then the development of the dictionary occurs mainly through the accumulation (cumulation) of more and more new words. In addition, the author rightly considers vocabulary to be more stable over time than phonetics and morphology, and this refers to the vocabulary of its most ancient layer. Zhuravlev makes a complete selection from the first 15 issues of the “Etymological Dictionary of Slavic Languages” edited by O. N. Trubachev (up to the word * lokaсь 'puddle, pothole in the road') - a total of 7557 positions (headwords), while he avoids post-Slavic, book and some other categories of words that were absent in Proto-Slavic times. Interesting statistics of Proto-Slavic vocabulary preserved in the analyzed Slavic languages ​​and dialects were revealed:

It should be noted that the presented data was to a certain extent influenced by such factors as the completeness or incompleteness of the collected vocabulary for a particular language (as, for example, for Polabian - a disappeared language and known only from records and written monuments).

Taking into account the derived indices of genetic proximity, the Russian language, for example, is characterized by the following connections:

• a) within the East Slavic subgroup: northern and southern Great Russian dialects are lexically closer to Belarusian than to Ukrainian;
• b) outside the East Slavic subgroup, the statistical similarity of the Proto-Slavic lexical heritage of the Northern Great Russian dialect is closer to the Serbo-Croatian language,
• c) while the South Great Russian dialect is addressed to Polish,
• d) the Russian language as a whole at the level of Proto-Slavic vocabulary is closer to Polish
• e) and to Serbo-Croatian.

The difference between the results obtained by phonostatistical and lexical-statistical methods is found, for example, in the qualification of languages ​​with the highest degree of similarity: in the first case, at the language level, these are Czech and Slovak, and in the second, Serbo-Sorbian. Zhuravlev is inclined to believe that such a discrepancy is caused primarily by the difference in the supporting material - phonetics and vocabulary, and by the inconsistency and unequal pace of their historical development. At the same time, both approaches allow us to conclude that the West Slavic group as a whole demonstrates its inhomogeneity, i.e. heterogeneous character. In this regard, the idea is expressed that the practice of the initial division of Proto-Slavic into the western and eastern massifs and further into the eastern and southern or western and southern should give way to other, more complex and multidimensional relationships.

Traditional classification with some new data

As we see, the totality of some features divides the Slavic linguistic array in one direction, and the totality of others - in another. Moreover, within the designated zones themselves, linguistic and dialectal isoglosses can be distributed in different directions, depriving the subgroups (western, southern and eastern) of the known genetic classification of more or less clear boundaries, - on the contrary, outlining them either as intersecting with each other or as included in each other, then in the form of isolated situations that find themselves separated from the main array, etc. All this suggests that both the Proto-Slavic speech array and the arrays formed after its collapse were characterized by a constant quality - initial dialect fragmentation, the absence of clear boundaries between local speech arrays, their mobility, etc.

Considering the achievements of the isogloss method, quantitative analysis the proximity of languages ​​and dialects, as well as taking into account situations of linguistic continuity, etc., the traditional three-component classification of Slavic languages ​​can currently be schematically represented as follows:

East Slavic:

South Slavic:

West Slavic:

Thus, the problem of classifying Slavic languages ​​has not been completely resolved. It is believed that its solution will depend on the compilation of the Common Slavic Linguistic Atlas (OLA), the issue of which was raised at the First International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1929. Since 1961, a Commission on OLA has been working under the International Committee of Slavists, which includes specialists on linguistic geography and dialectology of all Slavic and a number of non-Slavic countries. The material is collected in 850 Slavic (usually rural) locations, including some resettlement territories. For this purpose, a questionnaire was compiled, including 3,454 questions - on phonetics, grammar, vocabulary and word formation. The distribution of features is studied and they are plotted on a map (the principle applies: one feature - one map), while paying attention to isoglosses and their bundles, i.e. clusters.

Since 1965, Institute of Russian Language named after. V.V. Vinogradov RAS in Moscow regularly publishes collections of research and materials under the general title “Common Slavic Linguistic Atlas. Materials and Research,” and in 1988 the first issue of the atlas appeared, dedicated to the reflexes of Yat (* e) on modern Slavic territory. Words with reflexes of the indicated vowel are given in transcription. For the first time, it is possible to see, for example, a word and its transmission in transcription in all its phonetic subtleties on the vast territory inhabited by the modern Slavs.

As an example, let's take the Proto-Slavic word *celovekъ 'person' and see in what pronunciation forms it actually appears in different Slavic areas (the prime " means that the syllable following it is stressed): clovjek - clouk - clajk - c'lo"vek - c'lo"vik - šlo"vik - co"vek - c'ojek - cojak - cvek - coek - clov'ek - cala"v'ek - colo"v'ik - c'ila"v'ek - cuek - c'elo"v'ek - c'olo"v'ek - š'ila"v'ek - cu?ov'ek, etc., etc.

What does such a linguogeographical distribution of this word show? And the fact is that in reality the word undergoes serious phonetic changes in the process of historical development. What remains of the phonetic elements that made up the Proto-Slavic word *celovekъ? Only one element turned out to be stable - the final one - k, while the first element appears either in a hard or soft form, or generally turns into a whistling ([с], ) or a hissing ([ š ], [ š']) ; [e] is preserved somewhere, but somewhere it turns into [i], [o], [a] or disappears altogether. The fate of subsequent vowels and consonants is also tortuous. This method shows us how the same word really lives in different Slavic areas. From this we can draw a conclusion about how complex phonetic and other processes occur and how difficult it is for scientists to follow them and classify their results for specific purposes. Nevertheless, the now classic three-member genetic classification of Slavic languages ​​is still actively used by researchers.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher education

"CRIMEAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.I. Vernadsky" (Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education "KFU named after V.I. Vernadsky")

TAURIDE ACADEMY

Faculty of Slavic Philology and Journalism

on the topic: Modern Slavic languages

in the discipline: “Introduction to Slavic philology”

Completed by: Bobrova Marina Sergeevna

Scientific supervisor: Malyarchuk-Proshina Ulyana Olegovna

Simferopol - 2015

Introduction

1. Modern Slavic languages. General information

1.1 West Slavic group

1.2 South Slavic group

1.3 East Slavic group

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

2.2 Czech language

2.3 Slovak language

2.4 Serbian Sorbian language

2.5 Polabian language

3. South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

3.2 Slovenian language

3.3 Bulgarian language

3.4 Macedonian language

4. East Slavic group of languages0

4.1 Russian language

4.2 Ukrainian language

4.3 Belarusian language

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

SlaviclanguageAnd--a group of related languages ​​of the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages). Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is over 290 million people. They are distinguished by a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the root word, affixes, word structure, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, a system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained both by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages ​​and by their long and intensive contacts at the level of literary languages ​​and dialects. There are, however, differences of a material, functional and typological nature due to long-term independent development Slavic tribes and nationalities in different ethnic, geographical and historical-cultural conditions, their contacts with related and unrelated ethnic groups.

Slavic languages, according to the degree of their proximity to each other, are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and Western Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with a Kashubian dialect that has retained a certain genetic independence , Upper and Lower Sorbians). Small ones are also known local groups Slavs with their literary languages. Not all Slavic languages ​​have reached us. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The Polabian language disappeared. The distribution of Slavic languages ​​within each group has its own characteristics (see East Slavic languages, West Slavic languages, South Slavic languages). Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its stylistic, genre and other varieties and its own territorial dialects.

1 . Modern Slavic languages. ABOUTgeneral information

1. 1 West Slavic group

The West Slavic group includes Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Sorbian languages ​​(Upper and Lower). Polish is spoken by about 35 million people living in Poland, and about 2 million Poles abroad (including about 100 thousand in Czechoslovakia - in Cieszyn Silesia and Orava). The Kashubians live in Poland on the coast of the Vistula current, mainly in the Morskaya and Kartuzy regions. Their number reaches 200 thousand. The closely related Czech and Slovak languages ​​are represented on the territory of Czechoslovakia: In the western regions there are about 10 million. people use Czech; in the east, about 5 million speak Slovak. About 1 million people live outside Czechoslovakia. Czechs and Slovaks.

The Serbian Sorbian language is widespread in western Germany along the upper reaches of the river. Spree. The Upper Lusatians are part of the state of Saxony; The lower Lusatians live in Brandeburg. Lusatians are a national minority of the former GDR; before the Second World War there were about 180 thousand; Currently, their number is estimated at 150 thousand.

Thus, about 50 million people use West Slavic languages, which is approximately 17% of the total number of Slavs and about 10% of the total population of Europe.

In the territory of eastern Germany, West Slavic languages ​​underwent German assimilation in the 12th-16th centuries and disappeared. Data from modern toponymy indicate an ancient Slavic population of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony and some other areas. Back in the 18th century. Slavic speech was preserved on the Elbe, in the Lyukhovsky district on the river. Etse. The language of the Polabian Slavs is reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, small recordings of live speech made in the 17th-18th centuries, and small dictionaries of that time. In Slavic studies it is called the “Polabian language”.

1.2 South Slavic group

The South Slavic group includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian languages. They are distributed throughout most of the Balkan Peninsula. The southern Slavs are separated from the eastern Slavs by the territory of Romania, and from the western Slavs by Hungary and Austria.

Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages ​​are represented on the territory of Yugoslavia. The Slovenian language is spoken by about 1.5 million Slovenians living in Slovenia. 500 thousand Slovenians live outside Yugoslavia. The Kajkavian dialect is a transitional language from Slovenian to Serbo-Croatian.

The Serbo-Croatian language is spoken by over 18 million people, uniting Serbs and Croats, as well as Montenegrins and Bosnians. They use a single literary Serbo-Croatian language. The Serbo-Croatian language is separated from the Bulgarian language by a wide belt of transitional and mixed dialects stretching from the mouth of the river. Timok through Pirot Vranje, all the way to Prizren.

Macedonian is spoken by populations south of Skopje in Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria. In the west, the territory of distribution of this language is limited by the Ohrid and Presnyansky lakes, in the east - the river. Struma. The total number of Macedonians is difficult to establish, but it is unlikely to exceed 1.5 million in total. The Macedonian language received literary treatment only after the Second World War.

Bulgarian is spoken by about 9 million people living in Bulgaria. In addition to the Macedonians living in Greece, it should be noted that one hundred people live outside of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia: Slovenes in Trieste, Italy, Austria, Serbs and Croats (about 120 thousand) in Hungary and Romania, Bulgarians in Moldova and Ukraine. The total number of South Slavs is about 31 million people.

1.3 East Slavic group

East Slavic languages ​​are used as the main languages ​​throughout the East European Plain north of the Black and Caspian Seas and the Caucasus Range, east of the Prut and Dniester rivers. The Russian language, which is a means of interethnic communication for many Slavs (over 60 million), has become especially widespread.

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

Poles use Latin script. To convey some sounds, diacritics for Latin letters and combinations of letters are used.

There are eight vowel sounds in the literary language. Nasal vowels are not always pronounced the same way; in some positions the nasal sound is lost.

The area of ​​distribution of the Polish language is divided into five dialect groups: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesian, Masovian and Kashubian. The most extensive territories are occupied by the dialects of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mavsosha.

The division into dialects is based on two features of Polish phonetics: 1) mazurenization, 2) features of interword phonetics. Masuria dominates in Mavsoshia, Lesser Poland and the northern part of Selesia.

The most significant features characterize the Kashubian dialect, which is widespread to the west of the lower Vistula. The number of speakers of this dialect reaches 200 thousand people. Some scholars believe that the Kashubian dialect should be perceived as an independent language and classified as a West Slavic subgroup.

Features of the dialect:

1. Place of stress different from Polish. In the southern part of the Kashubian region the stress falls on the initial syllable, in the north the stress is free and widespread.

2. Pronunciation of hard words s,dz.

3. Pronunciation of vowels i (y), and like е.

4. The presence of a soft consonant before the group - ar-.

5. Loss of nasality after soft consonants and before all consonants except d, n, s, z, r, t.

6. Partial preservation of vowel differences in length and shortness.

2.2 Czech

Czech graphics use the Latin alphabet. To convey Czech sounds, some changes and innovations have been made based on the use of superscripts.

Czech writing is dominated by the morphological principle, but there are a number of historical writings.

The distribution area of ​​the Czech language is characterized by dialect diversity. The most important dialect groups are: Czech (Bohemia and Western Moravia), Middle Moravian and Polish (Silesia and north-eastern Moravia). This classification is based mainly on differences in the pronunciation of long vowels. Within the noted dialect groups, smaller dialect units are distinguished (in the Czech group there are: Central Bohemian, North Bohemian, West Bohemian and North-East Bohemian dialects; dialect diversity is especially great in Moravia). It should be noted that many dialects of eastern Moravia are close to the Slovak language

2 . 3 Slovak language

Distributed in the eastern regions of Czechoslovakia. It is closest to the Czech language, with which it shares common grammatical structure and a significant part of the main vocabulary (the names of natural phenomena, animals, plants, parts of the year and day, many household items, etc. are identical).

The Slovak language consists of three dialects: Western Slovak, many of whose features are close to the neighboring Moravian dialects of the Czech language, Central Slovak - the dialectal basis of the modern literary language, Eastern Slovak, some dialects of which indicate Polish or Ukrainian influence.

2. 4 Serbolous Sorbian languagesTo

The Lusatian Serbs are descendants of the Western Slavs, who in the past occupied the territories between the Odra and the Elbe and underwent Germanization. They speak rather sharply different dialects: Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian, which is why there are two corresponding literary languages. In addition, it should be noted the presence of the East Lusatian (Muzhakovsky) dialect.

Writing in both Lusatian languages ​​arose in the 16th century.

Lusatian graphics are Latin.

2.5 Polabian language

From the language of the tribes that once occupied the territory between the Oder and the Elbe, only information has been preserved about the language of the Drevlyan tribe, who lived on the left bank of the Elbe in the vicinity of Luneburg (Hannovrer). The last speakers of the Polabian language died out at the end of the 18th century, and our information about it is based on records and dictionaries of that language made by German lovers of folk art.

The entire region of the Polabian Slavs is usually divided into Veletian, Obodritian and Drevlyanian dialect groups, but there is no exact information about the first two.

3 . South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

The Serbo-Croatian language is used by three nations - Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins, as well as Bosniaks, residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Currently, the differences between the Serbian and Croatian versions of the literary language are only in vocabulary and pronunciation. The graphic form of these options differs; Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet, and Croats use the Latin alphabet. The Serbo-Croatian language is characterized by significant dialect diversity. It is customary to distinguish three major dialects: Shtokavian, Chakavian and Kajkavian. They received these names based on the relatively insignificant feature of the interrogative pronoun that The Shtokavian dialect occupies most of the territory of the Serbo-Croatian language. The Chakavian dialect currently occupies a relatively small territory of the Serbo-Croatian language: the coast of Dalmatia, the western part of Croatia, part of Istria and the coastal islands of Krk, Rab, Brac, Korcula, etc. The Kajkavian dialect is located in the northwestern part of the Serbo-Croatian territory in Croatia (the center of Croatia is Zagreb is located in the territory of this adverb).

3.2 Slovenian language

The Slovenian literary language uses Croatian script.

The territory of the Slovenian language is distinguished by extreme dialect diversity. This is explained by the fragmentation of the people and partly by the nature of the terrain. Up to six dialect groups are distinguished: 1) Khorutan (extreme north-west); 2) seaside (west of Slovenia); 3) Vekhnekrainskaya (northwest of Ljubljana in the valley of the Sava River); 4) Nizhnekrainskaya (southeast of Ljubljana); 5) Styrian (in the northeast between Drava and Sava); 6) Pannonian (extreme northeast) with a Zamurian (beyond the Mura River) dialect, which has a long literary tradition.

3. 3 Bulgarian language

Bulgarians use the Cyrillic alphabet, which is derived from the Russian civil alphabet. The Bulgarian alphabet differs from the Russian alphabet in the absence of letters s And uh.

A characteristic feature that allows Bulgarian dialects to be grouped is the pronunciation of replacements for the old ? . In this regard, pan-Bulgarian dialects are divided into Western and Eastern. The border separating these two dialects comes from the mouth of the river. Vit through Pleven, Tatar-Pasardzhik, Melnik to Thessaloniki. Northeastern dialects are also distinguished.

3. 4 Macedonian language

The youngest and Slavic literary languages. Its development began in 1943, when, during the liberation struggle against Hitlerism, a decision was made to transform Yugoslavia into a federal state on the basis of national equality of all its peoples, including the Macedonians. The basis of the new literary language was the central dialects (Bitol, Prilep, Veles, Kichevo), where the influence of the Serbian and Bulgarian languages ​​was relatively weaker. In 1945, a unified spelling was adopted, which was brought closer to graphics in 1946. The first school grammar was published.

In addition to the central one, there are also northern and southern dialects. A northern dialect extending north from Skopje and Kumanovo, as well as occupying Dolni Polog, characterized by features similar to the Serbian language. The southern dialect is diverse.

4. East Slavic group of languages

4.1 Russian language

Russians use graphics that go back to the Cyrillic alphabet. At the direction of Peter I (1672-1725), the Slayan alphabet was replaced by the so-called “civil” alphabet. The letters were given a more rounded and simpler shape, convenient for both writing and printing; a number of unnecessary letters have been eliminated. The civil alphabet, with some modifications, is used by all Slavic peoples who do not use the Latin alphabet. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological, although we often find elements of phonetic and traditional spelling.

The Russian language is divided into two main dialects - Northern Great Russian and Southern Great Russian, between which Central Great Russian dialects stretch in a narrow strip from the gray-west to the southeast, forming a passage between the two dialects. Transitional dialects for the most part have a northern basis, on which later (after the 16th century) southern Russian features were layered.

The Northern Great Russian dialect is characterized by three main features common to all its dialects: okanye, vowel distinction A And O not only under stress but also in unstressed positions, by the presence G explosive and - T(hard) at the end of the 3rd person present tense of verbs. There are also clicking and clinking sounds (not distinguishing ts And h).

The South Great Russian dialect is characterized by akanye, the presence of r fricative and -t" (soft) in the 3rd person verbs. Yakanye is characteristic.

4.2 Ukrainian language

Ukrainian graphics are basically the same as in the Russian language. The peculiarity of e is, first of all, the absence of letters e, b, s, e. For transmission e in Ukrainian the combination is used yo And yo. In the meaning of a separating solid ъ an apostrophe is used.

The territory of the Ukrainian language is divided into three dialects: northern (north of the line Sudzha - Sumy - Kanev - Bila Tserkva - Zhitormir - Vladimir-Volynsky), southwestern and southeastern (the border between them goes from Skvira through Uman, Ananyev to the lower currents of the Dniester). The southeastern dialect formed the basis of the Ukrainian literary language. Its features basically coincide with the system of the literary language.

4.3 Belarusian language

The Belarusian alphabet differs from the Russian alphabet in the following features: vowel th always indicated by the letter i; letter ъ is absent and the dividing meaning is conveyed by an apostrophe; to convey non-syllabic y, a superscript is used; missing letter sch, since in Belarusian there is no such sound, but there is a combination shch. The Belarusian spelling is based on the phonetic principle.

The territory of the Belarusian language is divided into two dialects: southwestern and northeastern. The approximate border between them goes along the line Vilnos - Minsk - Rogachev - Gomel. The principle of division is the character of Akanya and some other phonetic features. The southwestern dialect is characterized primarily by non-dissimilative akan and yakan. It should be noted that on the border with Ukrainian language There is a wide range of transitional Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects.

Slavic language phonetic morphological

Conclusion

Emergence Slavic writing in the second half of the 9th century. (863) was of great importance for the development Slavic culture. A very advanced graphic system was created for one of the types of Slavic speech, work began on translating some parts of the Bible and creating other liturgical texts. Old Church Slavonic became the common language due to Western influence and the transition to Catholicism. Therefore, the further use of the Old Church Slavonic language is associated primarily with the Slavic south and east. The use of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.

The Proto-Slavic language has gone through a long history. It was during the period of the existence of the Proto-Slavic language that all the main characteristic features of the Slavic languages ​​took shape. Among these phenomena, the main phonetic and morphological changes should be noted.

Literature

1. Kondrashov N.A. Slavic languages: Textbook. A manual for students of philology. specialist, ped, inst. - 3rd edition, revised. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

2. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary edited by V.N. Yartseva

3. Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.

4. Nachtigal R. Slavic languages. M., 1963

5. Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, M., 1951.

6. Trubachev O.N. Ethnogenesis and culture of the ancient Slavs: linguistic studies. M., 1991.

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