First cards
Geographic maps have a long history.
Once upon a time, travelers setting out on a long journey had neither maps nor navigation devices - nothing that would allow them to determine their location. I had to rely on my memory, the Sun, the Moon and the stars. People made sketches of the places they visited - this is how the first maps appeared.
Since ancient times, maps have been one of the most important documents for any state. The rulers of many countries organized expeditions to explore unknown lands and the main goal All travelers were, first of all, drawing up detailed geographical maps with the most important landmarks marked on them: rivers, mountains, villages and cities.
The modern name "Card" comes from the Latin "charte", meaning "letter". Translated, “chartes” means “sheet or roll of papyrus for writing.”
It is difficult to determine when the first cartographic images appeared. Among archaeological finds on all continents you can see primitive drawings of the area made on stones, bone plates, birch bark, wood, the age of which scientists estimate is approximately 15 thousand years.
The simplest cartographic drawings were already known in primitive society, even before the birth of writing (appendix). This is evidenced by primitive cartographic images among peoples who, at the time of their discovery or study, stood at low levels of social development and did not have a written language (Eskimos of North America, Nanai of the Lower Amur, Chukchi and Oduli of Northeast Asia, Micronesians of Oceania, etc. ).
These drawings, executed on wood, bark, etc. and often distinguished by great plausibility, they served to satisfy the needs that arose from the conditions of the general labor of people: to indicate the routes of migrations, hunting places, etc.
Cartographic images carved on rocks in the era of primitive society have been preserved. Particularly remarkable are the Bronze Age rock paintings in the Camonica Valley (northern Italy), including a plan showing cultivated fields, paths, streams and irrigation canals. This plan is one of the oldest cadastral plans.
Before their appearance, the main source of information about the location of a particular object was oral stories. But as people began to travel frequently over ever greater distances, the need for long-term storage of information arose.
The oldest surviving cartographic images include, for example, a city plan on the wall of Çatalhöyük (Turkey), dating back to approximately 6200 BC. BC, a map-like image on a silver vase from Maykop (about 3000 BC), cartographic images on clay tablets from Mesopotamia (about 2300 BC), numerous petroglyph maps of Valcamonica in Italy (1900 –1200 BC), Egyptian map of gold mines (1400 BC), etc. From Babylon, through the Greeks, the Western world inherited the sexagesimal number system, based on the number 60, in which geographic coordinates are expressed today.
Early cartographers themselves collected descriptions various parts the world known by that time, interviewing sailors, soldiers and adventurers and displaying the received data on a single map, and filling in the missing places with their imagination or honestly leaving unpainted blank spots.
The first maps contained a huge number of inaccuracies: at first no one thought about the rigor of measurements, scales, or topographical signs. But even such cards were highly valued. With their help, it was possible to repeat the path taken by the discoverer and avoid the troubles that abounded in wait for travelers.
Since the 6th century. BC e., the main contributions to the technology of creating maps in the Ancient world were made by the Greeks, Romans and Chinese.
Unfortunately, no Greek maps of that time have survived, and the contribution of the Greeks to the development of cartography can only be assessed from textual sources - the works of Homer, Herodotus, Aristotle, Strabo and other ancient Greeks - and subsequent cartographic reconstructions.
Greek contributions to cartography included the use of geometry to create maps, the development of map projections, and the measurement of the Earth.
It is believed that the creator of the first geographical map is the ancient Greek scientist Anaximander. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth as a flat circle surrounded by water.
The ancient Greeks were well aware of the spherical shape of the Earth, as they observed its rounded shadow during periods lunar eclipses, saw ships appear over the horizon and disappear behind it.
The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes (c. 276–194 BC) back in the 3rd century BC. e. quite accurately calculated the size of the globe. Eratosthenes wrote the book Geography, using the terms “geography”, “latitude” and “longitude” for the first time. The book consisted of three parts. The first part outlined the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the climates of the Earth; in the third, the land is divided into parts of the world and sphrageds - prototypes of natural zones, and a description of individual countries is also made. He also compiled a geographical map of the populated part of the Earth.
As noted above, Eratosthenes proved the sphericity of the Earth and measured the radius of the globe, and Hipparchus (about 190–125 BC) invented and used a system of meridians and parallels for cartographic projections.
In the Roman Empire, cartography was put at the service of practice. Road maps were created for military, trade and administrative needs. The most famous of them is the so-called Peitinger table (a copy of a map of the 4th century), which is a scroll of 11 glued sheets of parchment 6 m 75 cm long and 34 cm wide. It shows the road network of the Roman Empire from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges, amounting to about 104,000 km, with rivers, mountains, settlements.
The crowning achievement of the cartographic works of Roman times was the eight-volume work “Guide to Geography” by Claudius Ptolemy (90–168), where he summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe; indicating the coordinates of many geographical points in latitude and longitude; which outlines the basic principles of creating maps and provides the geographical coordinates of 8000 points. And, which during the 14th centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, and merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.
Ptolemy’s “Geography” contained, as already mentioned, all the information about the Earth available at that time. The maps included with it were very accurate. They have a degree grid.
Ptolemy composed detailed map A land the like of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas.
The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa known at that time were depicted quite accurately, which cannot be said about the lesser-known areas of Asia, which were reconstructed based on fragmentary, often contradictory, geographical information and data.
8000 (eight thousand) points of the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean were plotted by coordinates; the position of some of them was determined astronomically, and most were plotted along routes.
The map is extended in an easterly direction. Half of the map is devoted to famous countries. In its southern part there is a huge continent called the Unknown Land.
Cartography developed in China independently of European traditions. The oldest surviving document on the official surveying of the country and the creation of maps dates back to the Zhou Dynasty (1027–221 BC). And the oldest surviving Chinese maps are considered to be maps on bamboo plates, silk and paper, discovered in Fanmatan tombs from the Qin (221–207 BC) and Western Han (206 BC – 25 years) times. . AD) dynasties, as well as in the Mawangdui graves of the Western Han dynasty.
These maps are comparable in image quality and detail to topographic maps. They were significantly more accurate than even later European maps.
The main Chinese contribution to the creation of maps was the invention no later than the 2nd century. BC e. paper on which maps began to be drawn, and the rectangular grid of coordinates first used by the great Chinese astronomer and mathematician Zhang Heng (78–139 AD). Subsequently, Chinese cartographers invariably used a rectangular coordinate grid.
A century later, the Chinese cartographer Pei Xiu (224–271) developed principles for drawing maps based on the use of a rectangular grid, as well as principles for measuring distances based on the laws of geometry.
Invented by the Chinese in the 8th century. printing allowed them to be the first in world history to begin printing maps. The first surviving printed Chinese map dates back to 1155.
Medieval Maps
In the early Middle Ages, cartography fell into decline.
After the collapse in the 4th century. During the Roman Empire, the scientific and cartographic achievements of Ancient Greece and Rome were forgotten in Europe for several centuries. Up to the 10th century. Some revival in the creation of maps was observed only in monasteries, where, to illustrate theological works, small-sized schematic maps of the world were placed - mappae mundi, depicting the Earth as a circle divided into five thermal zones.
The question of the shape of the Earth ceased to be important for the philosophy of that time, many again began to consider the Earth to be flat. The so-called T and O maps became widespread, on which the surface of the Earth was depicted as consisting of a disk-shaped land surrounded by an ocean (letter O).
The land was depicted as divided into three parts: Europe, Asia and Africa. Europe was separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea (the lower part of the T), Africa from Asia by the Nile River (the right part of the T crossbar), and Europe from Asia by the Don River (Tanais) (the left part of the T crossbar).
Cartographers of that time, hiding their geographic ignorance, filled the map with various artistic drawings: deserts and forests were “populated” with wild animals, inhabited places were filled with figures of people, seas were decorated with drawings of ships and sea animals.
Against the background of the decline of geography and cartography in Europe during the early Middle Ages, Arab cartography successfully developed (in general, Greek culture reached the Europeans mainly thanks to the Arabs). The Arabs improved Ptolemy's methods of determining latitude; they learned to use observations of stars instead of the Sun. This increased accuracy. Here in Baghdad, in the 9th century. was translated into Aramaic and then into Arabic"Geography" of Ptolemy.
The flourishing of Arab cartography is associated with the name of the Arab geographer and cartographer Idrisi (1100–c. 1165), who created a map of the part of the world known at that time on a silver plate measuring 3.5 x 1.5 m, as well as on 70 sheets of paper. Interesting feature Idrisi's maps, as well as other maps compiled by the Arabs - the south was depicted at the top of the map.
The spread of the compass in the Mediterranean from the 10th to 11th centuries and the needs of merchant shipping caused the appearance here at the end of the 13th century. the first navigation charts - portolan charts, or compass charts. Catalonia is considered their homeland. The portolan maps depicted the coastline of the Mediterranean and Black Seas in detail, many geographical names were indicated, and compass grids were plotted at a number of points, indicating the position of the cardinal points and intermediate directions.
In addition, some of them depicted the Atlantic coast from Denmark to Morocco and the British Isles. In the second half of the 15th century. Numerous images of compass roses began to be placed on portolan maps. The oldest surviving portolan map is the Pisa map, dating from around the end of the 13th century.
Some revolution in European cartography was caused by the introduction into use of the magnetic compass at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries. A new type of map has appeared - detailed compass maps of the portolan (portolan) coastlines. A detailed image of the coastline on portolans was often combined with the simplest division into cardinal points of T and O maps. The first portolan that has come down to us dates back to 1296. Portolans served purely practical purposes, and as such cared little about taking into account the shape of the Earth.
In the middle of the 14th century, the era of the Great began geographical discoveries.
Because of this, interest in cartography intensified. Important achievements of cartography of the pre-Columbian period - Fra Mauro's map (1459, this map, in a sense, adhered to the concept flat earth) and "Earth Apple" - the first globe compiled by the German geographer Martin Beheim.
After the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, new advances were made in cartography - a whole new continent appeared to be explored and depicted. The outlines of the American continent became clear by the 1530s.
The invention of printing helped greatly in the development of cartography.
The next revolution in cartography was the creation of the first atlases of the globe by Gerhardt Mercator and Abraham Ortelius. At the same time, Mercator had to create cartography as a science: he developed the theory of map projections and a notation system. And the name “atlas” was introduced for a collection of maps by the Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator, who published “Atlas” in I595.
Ortelius's atlas, entitled Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, was printed in 1570; Mercator's atlas was not fully printed until after his death. All navigators of the 16th and early 17th centuries. used this atlas, which consisted of 70 (seventy) large format maps, accompanied by explanatory text.
Each map of his atlas is carefully engraved on copper and provided with a degree grid. On the map of the hemispheres, the continents of the Old and New Worlds were depicted in all details, but their outlines did not yet correspond to reality. One of the cards is dedicated Southern continent(Magelania), which extended from South Pole to 40-50° S, crossed the Tropic of Capricorn twice and was distant from South America Strait of Magellan. Tierra del Fuego and New Guinea were depicted as its peninsulas.
Increasing the accuracy of maps is facilitated by more accurate methods of determining latitudes and longitudes, the discovery of triangulation by Snell in 1615 and the improvement of instruments - geodetic, astronomical and clocks (chronometers). Although some fairly successful attempts to compile large maps (of Germany, Switzerland, etc.) were made at the end of the 14th and 17th centuries, it was only in the 18th century. we see great success in this regard, as well as a significant expansion of more accurate cartographic information in relation to the East. and Sev. Asia, Australia, North. America, etc.
An important technical achievement of the 18th century was the development of methods for measuring heights above sea level and ways of depicting heights on maps. Thus, it became possible to take topographic maps. The first topographic maps were taken in the 18th century in France.
The first map of Russia, called the “Big Drawing,” was compiled, as scientists suggest, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the “Big Drawing” nor its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have reached us. Only the appendix to the map has survived - “The Book of the Big Drawing.” It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activities of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about “cities” and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.
Thus, the geographical map is the greatest creation of mankind. It serves as a wonderful means of understanding and transforming the world around us. Engineers and researchers, geologists and agronomists, scientists and military personnel turn to it, and everyone finds the necessary answers to their questions.
When working with a map, it is possible to simultaneously view a significant surface area or the entire surface of the Earth.
Only a map allows you to see and study the relative positions of continents and city blocks, transport flows between countries and bird flight routes.
Using a map, you can draw conclusions about many processes and patterns of our planet. On some maps you can see the ocean floor, the structure of the earth's crust, ice sheets of the past, and even a glimpse into the future.
Primitive drawings of the area found by archaeologists on stones, birch bark, wood and even on a piece of mammoth tusk, which are about 15 thousand years old, indicate that the origins of the map go back to the distant past.
So, a map is not just the most important source of geographical knowledge, but a special means of information; it cannot be replaced by either text or the living word.
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Topic 1. HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT
Plan
1. Cartography of ancient times.
2. Cartography of the Middle Ages (V-mid 17th century).
3. Cartography of the New Age.
4. Cartography of modern times.
5. Historical process in cartography.
1.1. CARTOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT TIMES
The origins of cartography date back to ancient times. Even in primitive society, long before the advent of writing, schematic drawings (drawings) of the location of hunting areas, fishing areas, indicating the roads to them, etc. appeared. These drawings were depicted on rocks, cave walls, birch bark, bone or clay plates.
Rice. 1.1. Chukotka map on leather
Rice. 1.2. "Relief" maps of the Greenlandic Eskimos
Rice. 1.3. Plan of the hunting ground (3rd century BC)
In ancient Mesopotamia, the development of irrigation agriculture caused the need to describe and depict irrigation systems (the most ancient cartographic images). The expansion of the state necessitated the construction of new cities, fortifications, water supply systems and other things that required the preparation of their plans. The flourishing of the state in Mesopotamia led to the expansion of trade relations and campaigns of conquest, which contributed to the expansion of the geographical horizon and the depiction of new lands on plans and maps. Clay tablets of Babylon, papyrus images ancient egypt- historical evidence of the development of cartographic image methods in ancient world.
Rice. 1.4. Babylonian clay tablet depicting a map of the world (5th century BC)
Rice. 1.5. Egyptian "Map of Gold Mines"
Greek thinkers, who created the first natural science theories about the origin and structure of the world, first imagined the Earth as a round or oval disk floating on the surface of a boundless ocean. But already in the 5th century. BC e. Parmenides put forward a purely speculative assumption about the sphericity of the Earth. Convincing evidence of this hypothesis was given in the writings of the great ancient scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC), who noted that mathematicians who calculated the length of the earth’s circumference considered its value to be equal to 400 thousand stadia (i.e. approximately 60 thousand km, which is one and a half times more than actual exchanges).
The closest to reality determination of the length of the earth's meridian, made in ancient times, belongs to Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) - an outstanding astronomer and geographer, head of the Library of Alexandria. He calculated the length of the meridian to be 252 thousand stadia, which (with the stadia used in his time being 157.5 m) corresponds to 39.7 thousand km, i.e. very close to the actual size of the meridian (40,009 km).
In his work “Geography” (known in fragments), Eratosthenes examined in detail the question of the figure of the Earth, provided data on the size and shape of its inhabited part - the ecumene, and showed the latter on the map.
Figure 1.6 shows the map of Eratosthenes. He created it according to his ideas about the inhabited part of the land around the Mediterranean (Inland) Sea: Southern Europe, North Africa and western Asia. To compile his map, Eratosthenes used the coordinates of a dozen points. The meridians on it are drawn not at equal intervals, but through certain points, for example through Alexandria, Carthage. Parallels are also drawn. Nevertheless, the grid of parallels and meridians allowed Eratosthenes, using known distances, to correctly show the relative positions of continents, mountains, rivers and cities.
Rice. 1.6. Eratosthenes Map
Following Eratosthenes, other scientists of the ancient world included a graphic representation of the Earth in the tasks of geography. Since that time, for almost two millennia, geography and cartography (the latter term came into use only in the middle of the 19th century) developed inseparably, although the ratio of the two components - descriptive and cartographic - was different among different authors.
A major step in the further improvement of images of the Earth was made by the largest astronomer of antiquity, Hipparchus (about 190-126 BC), who proposed building maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points on the earth’s surface by latitude and longitude; to designate them, he began to use the division of the circle, borrowed from the Babylonians, into 360 degrees and then into minutes and seconds.
Rice. 1.7. Map of Hipparchus (detail), 150 BC.
The scientific foundations of cartography were laid by the famous ancient Greek mathematician, astronomer, cartographer and geographer Claudius Ptolemy (I-II centuries AD). His famous “Manual of Geography” was essentially a guide to drawing up geographical maps. It included a map of the world and 26 maps of various parts of the land, a description of the then known map projections, including the conical and pseudoconical projections he developed. His cards were considered the best at that time. So many terrestrial geographical features were plotted on them that one would think that land occupied almost the entire earth's surface. However, detailed detailed images of the Earth's surface were worth their weight in gold among the Greek seafarers. An accurate depiction of the coastline was vital to them. After all, the ships that went on long voyages to unknown shores, risked crashing on rocks and reefs without the correct detailed map.
Rice. 1.8. Map of the world drawn by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century
The maps also contained various informative drawings, and until the 18th century, explanatory texts were also attached, which told about what nationalities lived in the described territory, what language they spoke and what their customs were. Old maps are very interesting for various studies in the field of geography, because... They usually showed sea currents and wind directions quite accurately. The different images on the maps are especially interesting to study. In addition to travel stories, on the maps you can see pictures illustrating ancient myths, and later - biblical stories. For example, many cards depict both divine images and sea monsters, and multi-armed people. The latter, for example, are often found on the maps of travelers who managed to reach India.
One of the most common themes of illustration on medieval maps was the depiction of wind directions. On some cards it is the head of an old man blowing in one direction or another, on others it is a cherub. Often, from the facial expression of the depicted “wind,” one could draw conclusions not only about its direction, but also about its strength and character. As time passed, other images of directions appeared, and the heads of the winds were replaced by the compass rose and compass.
The world map of Claudius Ptolemy (Fig. 1.9) presents geographic coordinates in the form of a geographic grid with at equal intervals, calculated in degrees, where latitudes were measured from the equator, and longitudes - from the westernmost point of the then known world.
Rice. 1.9. World map of Claudius Ptolemy with parallels and meridians
No less than sailors, merchants traveling to overseas countries needed accurate maps. trade affairs. They needed to know exactly where they stood big cities with rich fairs and bazaars. Settlements were shown on them with symbols.
Ancient Greek geographers distinguished only two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. At that time, Europe included the countries located to the north and west of Greece, and Asia included the eastern territories. During the period of Roman rule on the southern coast Mediterranean Sea The name of the third part of the world appeared on the maps - Africa.
In ancient Rome, maps were widely used for military and economic purposes for transport links with remote provinces and countries. By decision of the Senate, under Julius Caesar, measurements of roads were begun, marked every mile by stone pillars indicating distances. The results of these measurements, completed under Augustus, allowed Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (about 63-12 BC) to prepare materials for creating a map of the world known to the Romans, completed after Agrippa's death (not preserved).
Road maps have appeared for use on the road. A copy of one of these maps, found in the 16th century, has survived to this day. by the German historian Peutinger and in literature therefore received the name “Peuitinger Table”.
Rice. 1.10. Part of the Peutinger Table - a Roman road map of the 4th century.
The map depicts the Roman Empire and other countries known at that time from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges inclusive. The continents are washed by the ocean from the north and south. Its content: settlements - cities, fortifications, Roman legion sites, road networks, rivers, mountains, lakes and forests. For populated areas, perspective symbols were used. Breaks on the roads indicate the positions of stations, the distances between which are marked along the roads. The original stripe map seems strange and primitive; the image is deliberately compressed from north to south. This is like a perspective drawing when looking at the flat surface of the Earth from the south. The Mediterranean, Black and other seas are stretched along the map in the form of narrow ribbons. Rivers and roads are forced to follow the same direction. But, taking into account the peculiarity of the construction of the map, it is fair to give it the highest rating - it is remarkable for the detail of the image, the abundance of information and its realism.
The land policy of Rome needed to carry out surveys when organizing new settlements and colonies, when allocating land to veterans (choosing a location, planning settlements, dividing land plots, laying roads, etc.) and in general in the interests of land ownership. The profession of land surveyors emerges, for which instructions and manuals are developed that describe surveying techniques and are accompanied by drawings; These documents have been preserved and from them one can get a clear idea of the land surveying methodology. The duties of land surveyors also included drawing up maps showing settlements, rivers, mountains, roads, land etc. It was prescribed to prepare maps of military-administrative units on bronze in two copies, one of which was intended for the archive in Rome.
1.2. CARTOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES (V-XVII CENTURIES)
After Ptolemy, the development of cartography not only stopped, but even went backwards. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, under the influence of the dominance of the religious worldview, the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth was rejected; therefore, projections become unnecessary, and the maps of that time have the same primitive appearance as they had by Anaximander, differing from his map only in a large number of details and the introduction of new elements (like the “navel of the earth” - Jerusalem, the “Earthly Paradise” in the east, mythical the nations of Gog and Magog are nations that will go to war against the people of God, but will be destroyed by fire from heaven, etc.).
1.2.1. Early Middle Ages
The early Middle Ages (V-XIV centuries) in Europe were characterized by the dominance of the church. This period is characterized by monastic maps, which were compiled by monks in monasteries and were mainly illustrations of the Bible.
At the same time, in the countries of the Arab East and Armenia, cartography achieved certain successes, consisting primarily in the preservation of monuments of ancient times, in the translation of the “Manual of Geography” by C. Ptolemy and others. For a long time, Muslims were content with textual descriptions and road maps, the first news The actual geographical maps of the Arabs date back to the 9th century. But even after this, Muslim cartographers continued for a long time to follow the path set by ancient and medieval European templates. True, the appearance of their maps is often very unusual for the European eye. As an example, consider the Istakhri map of the 10th century (Fig. 1.11).
Rice. 1.11. Map of Istakhri, X century
On the old map on the left, slightly obliquely, a blue oval figure with three red circles is wedged into the yellow field. This is the Mediterranean Sea with its islands. A blue straight line approaches the oval figure from below - this is the Nile. The same line fits on top. This, as you might already guess, is the mouth of the river. Don. Our Northern Azov region is located somewhere here... You can notice that this part was stupidly torn from the European monastic map. But the right side of the picture was probably filled out according to Muslim data. These areas were very well known to them.
To the right of the oval figure are two blue circles with “tails”. These are the Caspian Sea with the Volga and the Aral with the Syr Darya or Amu Darya. WITH right side drawing, another large water basin is wedged into the land. This is the Indian Ocean. Its arc-shaped bay, flaunting close to the Nile, is the Red Sea. The round bay is slightly to the right, with two “antennas” - this is Persian Gulf with the Tigris and Euphrates flowing into it. Another stripe to the right is great river Ind.
Gradually, the Arabs began to gradually accumulate new information about the world around them. Over time, their maps have also improved significantly. This can be seen, for example, from Ibn Said’s map of the 13th century. The Mediterranean and Black Sea zones are shown to be quite recognizable. The Iberian, Apennine and Balkan peninsulas are clearly visible, Asia Minor. But, nevertheless, the main attention is paid to regions that are more interesting for Arabs - Asia, North-East Africa and the Indian Ocean.
Rice. 1.12. Map of Ibn Said, 13th century.
The flourishing of Arab cartography is associated with the name of the Arab geographer and cartographer Idrisi (1100-c. 1165), who created a map of the part of the world known at that time on a silver plate measuring 3.5 x 1.5 m, as well as on 70 sheets of paper. An interesting feature of the Idrisi map, as well as other maps compiled by the Arabs, is that the south was depicted at the top of the map.
Rice. 1.13. Circular map of the world by al-Idrisi, 1154.
Later, already in the twentieth century, Conrad Miller glued together all the sheets from the “satin” part of the collection of maps and rewrote Arabic inscriptions Latin alphabet This map was published in Stuttgart in 1928 (Fig. 1.14). Naturally, working with such a card has become much more convenient.
Rice. 1.14. Fragment of the “rectangular” world map of al-Idrisi 1154 (publication by K. Müller)
1.2.2. Late Middle Ages
The rise in the development of cartography in Europe dates back to the late Middle Ages, when the need arose for geographical maps to develop trade in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. In this regard, in the XIV century. marine compass portolan charts have become widespread
One of the most famous, if not the most famous example of portolans of the Mallorcan cartographic school is the Catalan Atlas. Prepared in Palma de Mallorca around 1375 by the Jew Abraham Creskes with his son Yehuda Creskes (English) Russian. commissioned by the Aragonese king Juan I. The atlas originally consisted of six sheets of parchment, which were subsequently cut in half and stretched onto wooden shields. The first pages deal with issues of cosmography, astronomy and astrology (in particular, the spherical shape of the Earth is noted). Also given practical advice to seafarers.
The last four sheets of the atlas (Fig. 1.15) are an expanded portolan map including information about overseas countries according to Marco Polo and John Mandeville.
Rice. 1.15. Expanded portolan map
Rice. 1.16. Fragment of an unfolded portolan map
Portolan maps depicted the coastline and mooring sites in detail. To plot the ship's course, a special grid of compass lines (points of reference) was drawn on them.
Figure 1.17. Portolan of the Black Sea, 1559
To measure distances, a linear scale was placed on maps. However, compass maps were not suitable for navigation on the oceans, so sailors turned to globes, which from the end of the 15th century. began to be manufactured for navigation purposes.
The first globe was created by the German scientist Martin Beheim. His model of the Earth was published in I492, the year when Christopher Columbus set off to the shores of fabulous India by the western route. The globe depicted Europe, Asia, Africa, which occupy about half of the entire surface of the Earth, and no North and South America, Antarctica, or Australia. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans are represented as a single water basin, and in place of the Indian Ocean are the East Indian Ocean and the Stormy South Sea, separated by a vast archipelago of islands. The outlines of the oceans and continents are far from reality, since the creation of the globe was based on information based on the ideas of ancient geographers and data from Arab and other travelers who visited the countries of the East, India and China.
Rice. 1.18. Globe of M. Behaim
The development of trade, navigation and colonization during the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries (XV-XVI centuries) created a huge demand for geographic Maps, in particular world ones, which required the development of new geographical projections and led to a general improvement in cartography.
Since the 16th century, the creation of maps has become the prerogative of scientists. When solving problems, they began to increasingly use a scientific approach, and in cartography, scientists turned to astronomy and in various ways terrain measurements. By the 17th century, the mythical element had completely disappeared from maps. Among the cartographers of the 16th century, it is necessary to note Gerard Mercator and Abraham Ortelius, thanks to whose efforts in creating maps it was possible to completely get rid of outdated methods. In 1570, Ortelius published the first atlas, which was called “The Theater of the World.” This work became so popular that over the next 50 years its circulation amounted to 31 copies, which by the standards of that time was an incredible figure!
Rice. 1.19. World map from the atlas of Abraham Ortelius 1584
Rice. 1.20. Map of Asia from the atlas of Abraham Ortelius, 1584
G. Mercator was the first person to make clear measurements an integral part of cartography. He developed several geographical projections, including a conformal cylindrical projection for navigation purposes (currently the Mercator projection is used to compile marine navigation and aeronautical maps), prepared a large collection of maps, giving it the name “Atlas”, published after his death in 1595 d. However, in those days it was dangerous to engage in science, and the great scientist was accused of heresy, although he managed to avoid violent death.
Rice. 1.21. World map of G. Mercator
The usual knowledge of Europeans about the northern countries was changed in the 16th century by the Catholic priest Olaf Magnus. As a result of the reform of the church, he was expelled from his native Sweden, and now he really wanted to show the Pope what amazing land The Catholic Church is losing in Sweden. Magnus creates his famous creation “Marina Map”, which will subsequently become the main map for a long time Northern Europe. In addition, Olaf Magnus wrote explanations for his map, the history of the peoples of Northern Europe.
Rice. 1.22. Marina Map (copy 1949)
The invention in the 15th century was of great importance for the development of cartography. engraving and printing cards. The great demand for maps led to the publication of voluminous atlases in many large format volumes. Among them, Wagener's two-volume atlas of marine navigation charts, published for the first time in the Netherlands at the end of the 16th century, stands out. and subsequently reprinted 18 times in several languages.
Rice. 1.23. Map of the coast of Portugal by L. Wagener
At the beginning of the 17th century. Great strides were made in astronomy and geodesy, which served as the basis for the further development of cartography: Galileo’s invention of the astronomical telescope, with the help of which they began to determine the geographical coordinates of points by celestial bodies; in 1616, the Dutch scientist Snell made the first degree measurements based on the triangulation method he invented. By this time, the mensula had already been invented. At the end of the 17th century. The English scientist I. Newton proved that the Earth has the shape not of a ball, but of an ellipsoid of rotation. All this made it possible to carry out precise degree measurements and create maps on a geodetic basis.
1.2.3. Cartography in Russia in the pre-Petrine era
In Rus', almost all land owners had drawings of their properties. These maps, made on birch bark, were rather approximate and short-lived. From them it was impossible to get an idea of the structure of the territories and their geographical features. At the same time, the beginning of the unification of Russian lands and their consolidation into a great and strong power required a “visual aid” in the form of a map for studying the territory of the country. In 1525, the first printed map of Rus' appeared; it was created with the help of the “Scribe Map of Russia” compiled by the traveler Dmitry Gerasimov.
Rice. 1.24. Drawing compiled according to information from “Ambassador Demetrius,” 1525.
With the formation of the Russian centralized state at the end of the 15th century. There was also a need to create a detailed map of the country. Numerous geographical maps, or “drawings” as they were then called, and descriptions for them began to be created for various territories of the country, and subsequently served as the source material for compiling consolidated maps of Russia.
After the unification of the Russian lands, Ivan IV the Terrible in 1552 “ordered the land to be measured and a drawing made for the entire state.” This was the beginning of a global-scale work of collecting information and creating “blueprints.” Information was accumulated on territories covering the interior regions of the Northern Dvina, Kama, Volga, Pechora, Oka with their tributaries, as well as part of the Trans-Ural steppes and lands south of the lower reaches of the Don and in the Caspian region.
Over several decades, a lot of cartographic and descriptive information was collected, and between 1595 and 1600. A “Drawing for the entire Moscow State” appeared, called the “Big Drawing”.
Unfortunately, the “Big Drawing...” itself has not survived, but the description for its second edition, “The Book of the Big Drawing,” has been preserved, which is a detailed geographical description of the state.
The annexation of Siberia required a geographical study of its territory. In connection with this, Siberian explorers were instructed to draw up descriptions and drawings of the new lands they were developing, on the basis of which in 1667, under the Tobolsk governor Peter Godunov, the first consolidated map of all of Siberia was drawn up. By decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the steward and Tobolsk governor Peter Godunov prepared a drawing “for the testimony of all ranks of people who ... towns, and forts, and tracts, and roads, and lands, they know authentically, and what passages from city to city and from settlement to settlement, and to which place... how many days and how many miles do I drive, and where between the settlements of the Tobolsk district to build... military people..., what fortresses and how many people in which fortress to plant dragoons, to which fortress how many walking for days and weeks across the steppe and waters to China...”
Rice. 1.25. Map of Peter Godunov
The map reflected a fairly realistic diagram of the rivers of Siberia and Far East, as well as towns and tribal settlement areas. A copy of Godunov's Map, secretly acquired and printed by the Swedish ambassador in Moscow, became a valuable contribution to European geographical science. Godunov also compiled the “Gazette of the Chinese Land and Deep India,” which was subsequently translated into Greek and became widespread.
This is how an ancient manuscript tells about the first map of Siberia, for a long time considered irretrievably lost. By the way, it was its compilers who introduced a system of symbols - “signs by which to recognize in a drawing cities and forts, and settlements, and rivers, and lakes, and volosts, and winter huts, and nomadic camps.”
Of particular note is the outstanding cartographer of his time, Tobolsk resident Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov, who summarized a large amount of geographical material in maps and at the end of the 16th century. compiled the “Drawing Book of Siberia” - the first Russian geographical atlas of 23 large format maps, giving a comprehensive description natural conditions, economy and ethnography of Siberia.
Rice. 1.26. Drawing of the land of the Nerchinsk city by S. Remezov
Rice. 1.27. Ethnographic map of Siberia. S. Remezova
1.3. CARTOGRAPHY OF NEW TIMES
1.3.1. Development of cartography in Europe (XVIII-XIX centuries)
Further development of capitalist relations in Western Europe, expansion of economic ties, colonization of new territories increased the need for new maps of various scales and purposes. Cartographic work occupied a prominent place in the activities of a number of academies of sciences (Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg).
At the end of the 18th century. Much work on creating a geodetic basis for topographic maps for the territory of France was carried out by astronomer C. Cassini. Thanks to the use of a method for determining points on the earth's surface - triangulation - the accuracy of maps has significantly increased. This method later became widespread in many European countries. In the 19th century In many countries, special military topographical units were organized, which then acquired the status of state cartographic services. As a result of the work of cartographic services, by the middle of the 19th century. In many European countries They published topographical maps of their territories depicting the relief using line drawings.
Increasing requirements for topographic maps, in particular in determining the heights of terrain points and slope angles, led in the second half of the 19th century. to the use of the method of contours for depicting relief. As a result, to end of the 19th century V. many European countries, including Russia, have compiled updated, more accurate and larger-scale topographic maps with detailed relief images. First World War created a great need for maps and was the impetus for the introduction of new survey methods, in particular aerial photography, which later led to a radical improvement in topographic surveys.
In addition to providing the army, topographic maps began to be widely used for civilian purposes when conducting various scientific research and drawing up thematic maps. Thematic maps (climatic, geological, etc.) appeared in the 17th century, but they were few in number. In the 19th century in all major maritime countries (including Russia) great importance the compilation of navigational charts for navigation purposes was acquired, and special hydrographic services were created. Already by the beginning of the 20th century. Navigation charts were compiled for all seas along which regular ship traffic was carried out.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries. many sciences have accumulated a large amount of factual material, which, when displayed on maps, made it possible to identify connections between the phenomena being studied among themselves and with the environment and to establish certain patterns in nature and society. Thus, A. Humboldt in 1817, based on maps with isotherms, established the patterns of temperature distribution on the globe. In the second half of the 19th century. many sciences (geology, meteorology, soil science, oceanography, economic geography, etc.) began to widely use thematic maps in their research. The maps made it possible to identify patterns of location and interconnections of the phenomena under study, as well as their development and prediction. Thus, starting from the 19th century. Cartography is characterized by the widespread development of thematic mapping.
When compiling various maps and atlases in the 19th century. and subsequently, cartographic and descriptive materials from expeditions organized by geographical societies, including the Russian one, were widely used geographical society, organized in 1845
In the 19th century In many countries, for the commercial publication of maps and atlases, large specialized map publishing firms were created, along with small map publishing houses, including the cartographic publishing house of A. Ilyin in St. Petersburg (1859).
1.3.2. Development of Russian cartography in the XVIII-XIX centuries.
Russian cartography under Peter I takes the path scientific development. The main achievements of cartography under Peter 1 were: training personnel for cartographic surveys and drawing up maps; conducting systematic state surveys to create a general map of Russia, organizing expeditions to map the seas; publication of maps.
Great contribution to the development of cartography in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. contributed by the outstanding cartographer of that time, Chief Secretary of the Senate I.K. Kirilov is the head of the country's mapping work. He advocated for the development of Russian cartography, independent of foreign ones, for displaying his country on maps in its entirety, planned to create a large “Atlas of the All-Russian Empire” in three volumes of 120 sheets each, but due to his early death he only managed to print and prepare for printing 37 cards.
After the death of I.K. Kirilov, cartographic work in the country came under the jurisdiction of the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences, where the first complete “Russian Atlas” was prepared and published in 1745.
Rice. 1.28. Atlas of Russia (fragment) 1745
The department published more than 250 geographic maps reflecting the results of government surveys and various studies. Great influence on the development of cartography in the 18th century. provided by the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographical Department since 1757. He did a lot to train cartographic and geodetic personnel, to improve the accuracy of surveying and cartographic work, to update and improve the compilation of maps.
At the end of the 18th century. Based on the materials of the general survey, atlases of individual provinces and a consolidated atlas of 42 provinces with a general map of Russia were compiled and published, and at the beginning of the 19th century. Using the same materials, a multi-sheet map of Russia was compiled on a scale of 1:840,000. An outstanding cartographic work mid-19th V. a three-verst map of European Russia appeared (1:126,000), on which the relief is depicted using the method of strokes. From the second half of the 19th century V. On large-scale topographic maps of Russia, contour lines began to be used instead of strokes to display relief.
In the 19th century in Russia, as in countries Foreign Europe, thematic mapping began to develop more and more widely. Thematic maps were created for various fields of knowledge. The works of V.V. were especially important. Dokuchaev on soil mapping, A.A. Tillo on the compilation of hypsometric maps of European Russia, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky on mapping the economy and population.
Rice. 1.29. Map of zonal distribution of soils in the Northern Hemisphere created by Dokuchaev
Rice. 1.30. Fragment of a hypsometric map of European Russia compiled by
A. A. Tillo in 1889
1.4. CARTOGRAPHY OF MODERN TIMES
1.4.1. The origin and development of Soviet cartography
In 1919, the Higher Geodetic Directorate was formed, which was later transformed into the Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography (GUGK) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, which headed all geodetic, topographic and cartographic work in the country.
The priority measures were: the transition to the metric system of measures, the development of graphics and nomenclature of maps and a new scale series, the adoption of a single projection for all topographic maps, the introduction of a system of flat rectangular coordinates and uniform symbols. Since 1930, aerial photography began to be used to create topographic maps, and somewhat later, methods for creating maps in office conditions using a variety of stereophotogrammetric instruments were introduced.
In the post-war period, a lot of work was carried out to find cartographic projections (F.N. Krassovsky, V.V. Kavraisky, M.D. Solovyov), work was completed on calculating the earth's ellipsoid, named after the leader of the work, the Krasovsky ellipsoid (1940), A number of major geographical atlases of the USSR and the world have been created, including the Great Soviet Atlas of the World. In 1928, the Central Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Photography and Cartography was opened. In accordance with a special government decree, school atlases and wall maps on geography and history began to be published in 1938.
In the post-war years, much work was carried out to update topographic maps, restore the geodetic reference network in the European part of the USSR, and create larger-scale maps for intensively developing areas. By the mid-50s, mapping of the USSR was completed on a scale of 1:100,000, and by the beginning of the 90s - on a scale of 1:25,000. A huge role in the accelerated mapping of the country belongs to the use of aviation, more advanced aerial photography and material processing instruments using stereophotogrammetric instruments.
Significant results were achieved in the field of thematic mapping: geological maps of scales 1:200,000 and 1:1,000,000, soil map of scale were created
1:1,000,000, hypsometric map of the USSR at a scale of 1:2,500,000, etc. Great place in the development of cartography of the post-war period, complex mapping took place, which consisted in the creation of a series of wall thematic maps of the USSR on a scale of 1: 4,000,000 for high school, as well as unique atlases, among which stand out: Geographical atlas for teachers high school(first edition in 1954), three-volume Marine Atlas (1953-1958), Physiographic Atlas of the World (1964), Atlas of the Antarctic (1966-1969), three-volume atlas of the oceans (1974-1981), etc. , scientific reference atlases of individual union republics, regions, territories and the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The publication of school maps (including contour maps) and atlases received further development in the post-war period.
The successes achieved by Soviet cartography are largely due to the outstanding Soviet cartographer K.A. Salishchev, founder of Soviet economic cartography N.N. Baransky and their students.
1.4.2. Development of cartography in modern times abroad
After the First World War, work intensified on an international million-dollar map of the world and the creation of national atlases in a number of countries. After the Second World War, certain changes occurred in the organization of cartographic and geodetic work. If before the Second World War, cartographic and geodetic work was mainly carried out by military departments in their interests, then later many types of work were transferred to the jurisdiction of civilian institutions. In many foreign countries Thematic and comprehensive mapping, the study of the resources of the World Ocean and its mapping, and the creation of conservation maps are becoming increasingly important environment, publication of national and regional atlases. International relations in cartography are developing, which led to the creation in 1961 of the International Cartographic Association, the chairman of which for a number of years was K.A. Salishchev. Prior to this, scientific connections in the field of cartography were carried out within the framework of international geographical congresses, and since 1927 also of the International Geographical Union.
The current stage of cartography development is characterized by great demand and a correspondingly large amount of work on the creation of electronic (digital) maps. One of the important stages of creating digital maps is the digitization of cartographic information. During digitization, various software, such as: Macrostation, AutoCAD, MapInfo, Geographic Information System (GIS) ARC/INFO, GIS Object Land, Panorama and others. Modern GIS have extensive capabilities, which allows you to perform a wide range of operations with graphic objects.
Currently, the creation of digital maps is dictated by the need to create and maintain the State Land Cadastre and the implementation of the Automated System of the State Land Cadastre throughout the state.
1.5. HISTORICAL PROCESS IN CARTOGRAPHY
The historical process in cartography covers the history of the creation of specific works: maps, globes, atlases, as well as the stages of development of cartographic tools, methods and technologies, ideas and concepts. Below are the main milestones in the development of tools for surveying and measurements on the ground, methods and technologies for mapping, which marked turning points in the history of cartography.
Table 1.1
Development of tools for measurements and surveys on the ground
Major milestones of technical progress |
Historical periods |
| Visual observations and eye assessments | Since ancient times |
| Use of surveying instruments to measure lengths and angles | From the 10th century BC. |
| The emergence of astronomical instruments for determining latitudes and longitudes | From the 3rd century. BC. |
| Introduction of optical astronomical and geodetic instruments | From the beginning of the 12th century. |
| Invention of aerial cameras and other remote sensing means, application of aerospace surveys | From the second half of the 19th century. |
| Creation of electronic geodetic equipment | From the middle of the 20th century. |
| Application of global positioning systems | Since the end of the 20th century. |
The main trend in the development of devices and instruments for surveying and mapping on the ground has always been aimed at expanding spatial coverage, increasing accuracy and efficiency. Visual observations and simple measurements on small areas areas gradually gave way to high-precision geodetic methods and remote sensing with global coverage. It should be noted that the pace of technological progress has increased rapidly in the last two centuries; surveying and field mapping tools are undergoing dramatic changes in historically short periods of time - 30-50 years.
Similar trends are observed in the development of map-making methods - from primitive cartographic drawings on stone and papyrus to modern technologies for constructing maps in computer networks (Table 1.2). And in this case, rapid and dramatic changes that radically change mapping occur in last decades XX century
Development of map-making methods and map publishing technologies
Table 1.2
Key milestones in the development of methods and technologies |
Historical |
Drawing on stone, wood, papyrus, fabric |
Since ancient times |
Making handwritten maps on paper |
From the 3rd century. BC. |
Engraving maps on stone, metal, introducing map printing |
From the middle of the 15th century. |
Application of photochemical and photocopying processes |
From the second half of the 19th century. |
Photogrammetric mapping technologies |
Since the beginning of the 20th century. |
Digital and electronic methods and technologies for mapping, formation of databases and data banks, geoinformation mapping |
From the middle of the 20th century. |
Mapping in computer networks, virtual mapping |
Since the end of the 20th century. |
The main trends in the development of technologies for mapping and publishing maps are associated with the improvement of methods for creating, reproducing and distributing cartographic works among users. At the present stage, fast (operational) mapping technologies have acquired particular importance. Ultimately, the economic efficiency of cartographic science and production depends on how quickly the created works reach the user and are applied to solve specific problems.
Technical and technological progress directly influenced the development of methods for using maps (Table 1.3).
Table 1.3
Development of methods for using maps
Main directions of using cards |
Historical periods |
Using maps for orientation and movement on the ground |
Since ancient times |
Using maps for travel and navigation |
|
Maps as a means of strengthening statehood and military-political security |
|
Maps as a means of accumulating and summarizing knowledge |
|
Maps as a tool for modeling and understanding the world around us |
From the first half of the 20th century. |
Maps as a means of communication |
From the second half of the 20th century. |
Mapping as the basis for the systematic organization of spatial information and management decision-making |
Since the end of the 20th century. |
This line has always had a fairly clear orientation towards satisfying the practical and scientific needs of society, transforming cartography from a simple means of orientation into a planning and design tool.
Thus, one can see that with the development of tools, methods and technologies, cartography is increasingly expanding its spatial coverage (today it has already entered outer space), improving the quality, accuracy and - most importantly - the efficiency of creating cartographic works. It gradually covers wider layers of users, penetrates into many spheres of political, economic, cultural life of society, and this means an increase in the value of cartographic data as information resources.
Studying historical process leads to important conclusions about the prospects for the development of cartography. It becomes obvious that over many centuries, the methods of creating maps and their appearance have changed dramatically, but the purpose and functions have remained almost the same. One notable example is the remarkable Roman road map known as the Peutinger Table. The image on it is strongly deformed in distances and directions, but quite accurate in topological terms. This principle of showing communication routes has been preserved to this day; Suffice it to recall the metro maps, which do not reflect true distances and directions, but accurately convey the topology of underground roads.
A drawing, a photograph, a printed print, an electronic image - this is always the most accessible to man the language of visual images, the most convenient and familiar model of reality for him. Therefore, throughout the history of mankind, the map remains one of the most effective means cognition of the surrounding world and transmission of spatial information.
Test questions and assignments for self-preparation of students
1. Tell us about the origins of cartography in ancient times.
2. Who provided the first scientific evidence of the sphericity of the Earth?
3. Who first determined the size of the Earth?
4. Who suggested applying a degree grid when creating maps?
5. Who first used the terms “geographical latitude” and “geographical longitude”?
6. Tell us about the features of the development of cartography in the Middle Ages (V - mid-XVII centuries).
7. What is special about monastery cards?
8. For what purposes were potolans used?
9. Who is the author of the first globe?
10. Tell us about the contribution of G. Mercator to the development of cartography.
11. Tell us about Galileo’s contribution to the development of cartography.
12. Tell us about Snell’s contribution to the development of cartography.
13. Tell us about Newton’s contribution to the development of cartography.
14. What is the merit of P. Godunov and S. Remezov in the development of cartography.
15. Tell us about the development of Russian cartography in the 18th-19th centuries.
16. Tell us about the origin and development of Soviet cartography.
17. Tell us about the development of cartography in recent times abroad.
18. Tell us about the prospects for the development of cartography.
1. Berlyant A.M. Cartography: textbook for universities / A.M. Berlyant. - M.: Aspect Press, 2002.-336 p. pp. 26 - 29.
2. Berlyant A.M. Cartology: textbook for universities / A.M. Berlyant, A.V. Vostokova, V.I. Kravtsova. - M.: Aspect Press, 2003. - 477 p. pp. 29 - 32.
3. Zhmoydak R.A. Cartography: Course of lectures / R.A. Zhmoydyak, L.V. Atoyan. : Minsk 2006. pp. 8 - 19.
4. Website of teacher Eshtokin A.N.
The ancient Greek scientist Anaximander was considered the first creator of a geographical map. Back in the 6th century. BC e. the first map of the world known to him was drawn. On it he depicted the Earth in the shape of a flat circle, which is surrounded on all sides by water.
When Eratosthenes measured the diameter of the Earth, cartographers had the opportunity to calculate the distance between objects located on the same meridian, that is, strictly in the direction from north to south. To do this, it was enough to determine the geographical latitude of the required objects. Around the same time, Hipparchus proposed dividing the world map into equal parts along parallels and meridians.
In the II century. n. e. Claudius Ptolemy combined the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth in eight volumes of the “Manual of Geography,” which for many centuries enjoyed enormous popularity among scientists, travelers and merchants. This work contained geographical maps that were highly accurate and had a degree grid.
The detailed map of the Earth depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya, the Western (Atlantic) Ocean, the African (Mediterranean) and Indian Seas. The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa known at that time were mapped quite accurately. Less known eastern regions Asia were recreated on the basis of fragmentary information from Arab merchants who visited the countries Central Asia, India and China.
About 8,000 objects were plotted on the map according to their coordinates. In some cases, the coordinates were obtained thanks to fairly accurate astronomical measurements. The position of other objects was determined using known travel routes.
The resulting map turned out to be elongated in an easterly direction. Known countries took up half the map. In its southern part a huge continent was depicted, called Tepa Ipsopiya (Unknown Land).
The Age of Great Geographical Discovery significantly changed humanity's understanding of the Earth. There was a need for more accurate geographical maps. In 1570, Abraham Ortelius published the first collection of such maps in Antwerp. Each map of his atlas was painstakingly engraved on a copper sheet and provided with a degree grid.
The first globe was created by the German cartographer Martin Beheim. His model of the Earth was published in 1492, when Christopher Columbus was still looking for a western route to the shores of fabulous India. This model of the Earth depicted Europe, Asia, and Africa, which occupied about half of the entire earth's surface. Naturally, the globe did not include North and South America, Antarctica, or Australia. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans were depicted as a single body of water. The outlines of the oceans and continents were far from reality.
It is impossible to determine when a person made the first map. It is only known that many millennia BC, man already knew the area around him well and knew how to depict it on sand or tree bark. These cartographic images served to indicate migration routes, hunting places, etc.
Many more hundreds of years passed. People, in addition to hunting and fishing, began to engage in cattle breeding and agriculture. This new, higher level of culture was reflected in the drawings and plans. They become more detailed, more expressive, and more accurately convey the character of the area.
A very valuable ancient drawing of a hunting ground in the North Caucasus has survived to this day. This engraving was made on silver around 3 thousand years BC. e., i.e. This cultural monument of the inhabitants of the ancient Caucasus was found by scientists during excavations of one of the mounds on the bank of the river. Kuban near the city of Maykop.
In the ancient world, the compilation of geographical maps reached great development. The Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth and its dimensions, introduced cartographic projections, meridians and parallels into science.
One of the most famous scientists of the ancient world, geographer and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy, who lived in Alexandria (at the mouth of the Nile River) in the 2nd century, compiled a detailed map of the Earth, which no one had ever created before.
This map depicts three parts of the world - Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), as well as Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean and other seas. The map already has a degree grid. Ptolemy introduced this grid to more correctly depict the spherical shape of the Earth on the map. The rivers, lakes, peninsulas of Europe and North Africa known at that time are shown quite accurately on Ptolemy’s map.
If you compare Ptolemy’s map with a modern one, it is easy to notice that areas located far from the Mediterranean Sea region, that is, known to Ptolemy only by rumor, received fantastic outlines.
What is especially striking is that Asia is not depicted in its entirety. Ptolemy did not know where it ended in the north and east. He also did not know about the existence of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. Africa continues on the map to the South Pole and turns into some kind of land connecting to Asia in the east. Ptolemy did not know that Africa ends in the south and is washed by the ocean. He also did not know about the existence of independent continents - America, Antarctica and Australia. Ptolemy depicted the Indian Ocean as a closed sea, into which it was impossible to sail on ships from Europe. And yet, in the ancient world and in subsequent centuries, until the 15th century, no one made a better map of the world than Ptolemy.
The Romans widely used maps for administrative and military purposes; they compiled road maps.
During the Middle Ages, the achievements of ancient science were forgotten for a long time. The Church entered into a fierce struggle with scientific ideas about the structure and origin of the world.
In schools, fables were taught about the creation of the world by God in six days, about the global flood, about heaven and hell. The idea that the Earth was spherical was considered “heretical” by churchmen and was strictly persecuted. The idea of the Earth took on a completely fantastic form. In the VI century. The Byzantine merchant - monk Cosmas Indicoplov depicted the Earth in the shape of a rectangle.
The main type of maps is becoming rough, far from reality and lacking a scientific basis, “monastery maps”. They indicate the decline of cartography in medieval Europe. During this period, many small closed states arose in Europe. With a subsistence economy, these feudal states did not need connections with the outside world.
By the end of the Middle Ages, trade and navigation began to develop in European cities, and art and science began to flourish.
In the XIII-XIV centuries. In Europe, a compass and marine navigation charts, the so-called portolans, appeared.
These maps depicted the coastline in detail and very accurately, while the interior parts of the continents remained empty or were filled with pictures from the life of the peoples inhabiting them.
The era of great geographical discoveries created the conditions for the rise of cartographic science: sailors needed a good, truthful geographical map. In the 16th century more correct maps appeared, built in new cartographic projections.
Geographic maps include a lot of scientific material. If you compare different maps of the same area and study them, you can get a very detailed picture of that area.
Therefore, geographical maps are a huge source of knowledge. But a map can become a real source of knowledge only when you have a certain amount of geographical knowledge.
Anyone with knowledge of geography and the ability to read a map can accurately understand the terrain depicted on it, rivers, mountain lakes, high or low hills, cities and villages, railways.