home For men Chemistry Unified State Examination of the relationship of inorganic substances. Genetic relationship between classes of inorganic substances

Chemistry Unified State Examination of the relationship of inorganic substances. Genetic relationship between classes of inorganic substances

The classification of inorganic substances is based on chemical composition– the simplest and most constant characteristic over time. Chemical composition of a substance shows which elements are present in it and in what numerical ratio for their atoms.

Elements They are conventionally divided into elements with metallic and non-metallic properties. The first of them are always included in cations multi-element substances (metal properties), the second - in the composition anions (non-metallic properties). In accordance with the Periodic Law, in periods and groups between these elements there are amphoteric elements that simultaneously exhibit, to one degree or another, metallic and non-metallic (amphoteric, dual) properties. Group VIIIA elements continue to be considered separately (noble gases), although clearly non-metallic properties were discovered for Kr, Xe and Rn (the elements He, Ne, Ar are chemically inert).

The classification of simple and complex inorganic substances is given in table. 6.

Below are definitions of classes of inorganic substances, their most important chemical properties and methods of preparation.

Inorganic substances- connections formed by all chemical elements(except most organic carbon compounds). Divided by chemical composition:

Simple substances formed by atoms of the same element. Divided by chemical properties:

Metals– simple substances of elements with metallic properties (low electronegativity). Typical metals:

Metals have a high reducing power compared to typical non-metals. In the electrochemical series of voltages, they are significantly to the left of hydrogen, displacing hydrogen from water (magnesium - when boiling):

The simple substances of the elements Cu, Ag and Ni are also classified as metals, since their oxides CuO, Ag 2 O, NiO and hydroxides Cu(OH) 2, Ni(OH) 2 have predominant basic properties.

Nonmetals– simple substances of elements with non-metallic properties (high electronegativity). Typical non-metals: F 2, Cl 2, Br 2, I 2, O 2, S, N 2, P, C, Si.

Nonmetals have a high oxidizing capacity compared to typical metals.

Amphigenes– amphoteric simple substances formed by elements with amphoteric (dual) properties (electronegativity intermediate between metals and non-metals). Typical amphigenes: Be, Cr, Zn, Al, Sn, Pb.

Amphigenes have a lower reducing ability compared to typical metals. In the electrochemical series of voltages, they are adjacent to hydrogen on the left or stand behind it on the right.

Aerogens– noble gases, monatomic simple substances of group VIIIA elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. Of these, He, Ne and Ar are chemically passive (compounds with other elements are not obtained), and Kr, Xe and Rn exhibit some properties of non-metals with high electronegativity.

Complex substances formed by atoms different elements. Divided by composition and chemical properties:

Oxides– compounds of elements with oxygen, the oxidation state of oxygen in oxides is always equal to (‑II). Divided by composition and chemical properties:

The elements He, Ne and Ar do not form compounds with oxygen. Compounds of elements with oxygen in other oxidation states are not oxides, but binary compounds, for example O +II F 2 -I and H 2 +I O 2 -I. Mixed binary compounds, for example S +IV Cl 2 ‑I O ‑II, do not belong to oxides.

Basic oxides– products of complete dehydration (real or conditional) of basic hydroxides retain the chemical properties of the latter.

Of the typical metals, only Li, Mg, Ca and Sr form the oxides Li 2 O, MgO, CaO and SrO when burned in air; oxides Na 2 O, K 2 O, Rb 2 O, Cs 2 O and BaO are obtained by other methods.

The oxides of CuO, Ag 2 O and NiO are also classified as basic.

Acidic oxides– products of complete dehydration (real or conditional) of acid hydroxides retain the chemical properties of the latter.

Of the typical nonmetals, only S, Se, P, As, C and Si form the oxides SO 2, SeO 2, P 2 O 5, As 2 O 3, CO 2 and SiO 2 when burned in air; oxides Cl 2 O, Cl 2 O 7, I 2 O 5, SO 3, SeO 3, N 2 O 3, N 2 O 5 and As 2 O 5 are obtained by other methods.

Exception: the oxides NO 2 and ClO 2 do not have corresponding acidic hydroxides, but they are considered acidic, since NO 2 and ClO 2 react with alkalis, forming salts of two acids, and ClO 2 with water, forming two acids:

a) 2NO 2 + 2NaOH = NaNO 2 + NaNO 3 + H 2 O

b) 2ClO 2 + H 2 O (cold) = HClO 2 + HClO 3

2ClO 2 + 2NaOH (cold) = NaClO 2 + NaClO 3 + H 2 O

The oxides CrO 3 and Mn 2 O 7 (chromium and manganese in the highest oxidation state) are also acidic.

Amphoteric oxides– products of complete dehydration (real or conditional) of amphoteric hydroxides retain the chemical properties of amphoteric hydroxides.

Typical amphigenes (except Ga) when burned in air form the oxides BeO, Cr 2 O 3, ZnO, Al 2 O 3, GeO 2, SnO 2 and PbO; amphoteric oxides Ga 2 O 3, SnO and PbO 2 are obtained by other methods.

Double oxides are formed either by atoms of one amphoteric element in different oxidation states, or by atoms of two different (metallic, amphoteric) elements, which determines their chemical properties. Examples:

(Fe II Fe 2 III) O 4, (Pb 2 II Pb IV) O 4, (MgAl 2) O 4, (CaTi) O 3.

Iron oxide is formed when iron burns in air, lead oxide is formed when lead is slightly heated in oxygen; oxides of two different metals are prepared by other methods.

Non-salt-forming oxides– non-metal oxides that do not have acidic hydroxides and do not enter into salt formation reactions (difference from basic, acidic and amphoteric oxides), for example: CO, NO, N 2 O, SiO, S 2 O.

Hydroxides– compounds of elements (except fluorine and oxygen) with hydroxo groups O ‑II H, may also contain oxygen O ‑II. In hydroxides, the oxidation state of the element is always positive (from +I to +VIII). The number of hydroxo groups is from 1 to 6. They are divided according to chemical properties:

Basic hydroxides (bases) formed by elements with metallic properties.

Obtained by reactions of the corresponding basic oxides with water:

M 2 O + H 2 O = 2MON (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)

MO + H 2 O = M(OH) 2 (M = Ca, Sr, Ba)

Exception: Mg(OH) 2 , Cu(OH) 2 and Ni(OH) 2 hydroxides are obtained by other methods.

When heated, real dehydration (loss of water) occurs for the following hydroxides:

2LiOH = Li 2 O + H 2 O

M(OH) 2 = MO + H 2 O (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Cu, Ni)

Basic hydroxides replace their hydroxo groups with acidic residues to form salts; metal elements retain their oxidation state in salt cations.

Basic hydroxides that are highly soluble in water (NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH) 2, Ba(OH) 2, etc.) are called alkalis, since it is with their help that an alkaline environment is created in the solution.

Acidic hydroxides (acids) formed by elements with non-metallic properties. Examples:

Upon dissociation in a dilute aqueous solution, H + cations (more precisely, H 3 O +) and the following anions are formed, or acid residues:

Acids can be obtained by reactions of the corresponding acid oxides with water (the actual reactions that occur are shown below):

Cl 2 O + H 2 O = 2HClO

E 2 O 3 + H 2 O = 2HEO 2 (E = N, As)

As 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O = 2H 3 AsO 3

EO 2 + H 2 O = H 2 EO 3 (E = C, Se)

E 2 O 5 + H 2 O = 2HEO 3 (E = N, P, I)

E 2 O 5 + 3H 2 O = 2H 3 EO 4 (E = P, As)

EO 3 + H 2 O = H 2 EO 4 (E = S, Se, Cr)

E 2 O 7 + H 2 O = 2HEO 4 (E = Cl, Mn)

Exception: SO 2 oxide corresponds to SO 2 polyhydrate as an acid hydroxide n H 2 O (“sulfurous acid H 2 SO 3 ”does not exist, but the acidic residues HSO 3 ‑ and SO 3 2‑ are present in the salts).

When some acids are heated, actual dehydration occurs and the corresponding acid oxides are formed:

2HAsO 2 = As 2 O 3 + H 2 O

H 2 EO 3 = EO 2 + H 2 O (E = C, Si, Ge, Se)

2HIO 3 = I 2 O 5 + H 2 O

2H 3 AsO 4 = As 2 O 5 + H 2 O

H 2 SeO 4 = SeO 3 + H 2 O

When replacing the (real and formal) hydrogen of acids with metals and amphigenes, salts are formed; the acid residues retain their composition and charge in the salts. The acids H 2 SO 4 and H 3 PO 4 in a dilute aqueous solution react with metals and amphigens located in the voltage series to the left of hydrogen, and the corresponding salts are formed and hydrogen is released (the acid HNO 3 does not enter into such reactions; below are typical metals, except Mg, not listed because they react under similar conditions with water):

M + H 2 SO 4 (pasb.) = MSO 4 + H 2 (M = Be, Mg, Cr, Mn, Zn, Fe, Ni)

2M + 3H 2 SO 4 (dissolved) = M 2 (SO 4) 3 + 3H 2 (M = Al, Ga)

3M + 2H 3 PO 4 (diluted) = M 3 (PO 4) 2 ↓ + 3H 2 (M = Mg, Fe, Zn)

Unlike oxygen-free acids, acid hydroxides are called oxygen-containing acids or oxoacids.

Amphoteric hydroxides formed by elements with amphoteric properties. Typical amphoteric hydroxides:

Be(OH) 2 Sn(OH) 2 Al(OH) 3 AlO(OH)

Zn(OH) 2 Pb(OH) 2 Cr(OH) 3 CrO(OH)

They are not formed from amphoteric oxides and water, but undergo real dehydration and form amphoteric oxides:

Exception: for iron(III) only metahydroxide FeO(OH) is known, “iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OH) 3 ” does not exist (not obtained).

Amphoteric hydroxides exhibit the properties of basic and acidic hydroxides; form two types of salts in which the amphoteric element is part of either the salt cations or their anions.

For elements with several oxidation states, the rule applies: the higher the oxidation state, the more pronounced the acidic properties of hydroxides (and/or corresponding oxides).

Salts– connections consisting of cations basic or amphoteric (as basic) hydroxides and anions(residues) of acidic or amphoteric (as acidic) hydroxides. In contrast to oxygen-free salts, the salts discussed here are called oxygen-containing salts or oxo salts. They are divided according to the composition of cations and anions:

Medium salts contain medium acidic residues CO 3 2‑, NO 3‑, PO 4 3‑, SO 4 2‑, etc.; for example: K 2 CO 3, Mg(NO 3) 2, Cr 2 (SO 4) 3, Zn 3 (PO 4) 2.

If medium salts are obtained by reactions involving hydroxides, then the reagents are taken in equivalent quantities. For example, salt K 2 CO 3 can be obtained by taking the reagents in the following ratios:

2KOH and 1H 2 CO 3, 1K 2 O and 1H 2 CO 3, 2 KOH and 1CO 2.

Reactions of formation of medium salts:

Base + Acid → Salt + Water

1a) basic hydroxide + acidic hydroxide →…

2NaOH + H 2 SO 4 = Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O

Cu(OH) 2 + 2HNO 3 = Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2H 2 O

1b) amphoteric hydroxide + acid hydroxide →…

2Al(OH) 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + 6H 2 O

Zn(OH) 2 + 2HNO 3 = Zn(NO 3) 2 + 2H 2 O

1c) basic hydroxide + amphoteric hydroxide →…

NaOH + Al(OH) 3 = NaAlO 2 + 2H 2 O (in melt)

2NaOH + Zn(OH) 2 = Na 2 ZnO 2 + 2H 2 O (in melt)

Basic Oxide + Acid = Salt + Water

2a) basic oxide + acid hydroxide →…

Na 2 O + H 2 SO 4 = Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O

CuO + 2HNO 3 = Cu(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

2b) amphoteric oxide + acid hydroxide →…

Al 2 O 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + 3H 2 O

ZnO + 2HNO 3 = Zn(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

2c) basic oxide + amphoteric hydroxide →…

Na 2 O + 2Al(OH) 3 = 2NaAlO 2 + ZN 2 O (in the melt)

Na 2 O + Zn(OH) 2 = Na 2 ZnO 2 + H 2 O (in melt)

Base + Acid Oxide → Salt + Water

For) basic hydroxide + acidic oxide →…

2NaOH + SO 3 = Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O

Ba(OH) 2 + CO 2 = BaCO 3 + H 2 O

3b) amphoteric hydroxide + acid oxide →…

2Al(OH) 3 + 3SO 3 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + 3H 2 O

Zn(OH) 2 + N 2 O 5 = Zn(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

Sv) basic hydroxide + amphoteric oxide →…

2NaOH + Al 2 O 3 = 2NaAlO 2 + H 2 O (in melt)

2NaOH + ZnO = Na 2 ZnO 2 + H 2 O (in melt)

Basic oxide + Acidic oxide → Salt

4a) basic oxide + acidic oxide →…

Na 2 O + SO 3 = Na 2 SO 4, BaO + CO 2 = BaCO 3

4b) amphoteric oxide + acidic oxide →…

Al 2 O 3 + 3SO 3 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3, ZnO + N 2 O 5 = Zn(NO 3) 2

4c) basic oxide + amphoteric oxide →…

Na 2 O + Al 2 O 3 = 2NaAlO 2, Na 2 O + ZnO = Na 2 ZnO 2

Reactions 1c, if they occur in solution, are accompanied by the formation of other products – complex salts:

NaOH (conc.) + Al(OH) 3 = Na

KOH (conc.) + Cr(OH) 3 = K 3

2NaOH (conc.) + M(OH) 2 = Na 2 (M = Be, Zn)

KOH (conc.) + M(OH) 2 = K (M = Sn, Pb)

All medium salts in solution are strong electrolytes (dissociate completely).

Acid salts contain acidic acid residues (with hydrogen) HCO 3 ‑, H 2 PO 4 2‑, HPO 4 2‑, etc., are formed by the action of basic and amphoteric hydroxides or medium salts of excess acid hydroxides containing at least two hydrogen atoms in the molecule ; The corresponding acid oxides act similarly:

NaOH + H 2 SO 4 (conc.) = NaHSO 4 + H 2 O

Ba(OH) 2 + 2H 3 PO 4 (conc.) = Ba(H 2 PO 4) 2 + 2H 2 O

Zn(OH) 2 + H 3 PO 4 (conc.) = ZnHPO 4 ↓ + 2H 2 O

PbSO 4 + H 2 SO 4 (conc.) = Pb(HSO 4) 2

K 2 HPO 4 + H 3 PO 4 (conc.) = 2KH 2 PO 4

Ca(OH) 2 + 2EO 2 = Ca(HEO 3) 2 (E = C, S)

Na 2 EO 3 + EO 2 + H 2 O = 2NaHEO 3 (E = C, S)

By adding the hydroxide of the corresponding metal or amphigen acid salts converted to average:

NaHSO 4 + NaOH = Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O

Pb(HSO 4) 2 + Pb(OH) 2 = 2PbSO 4 ↓ + 2H 2 O

Almost all acid salts are highly soluble in water and dissociate completely (KHSO 3 = K + + HCO 3 ‑).

Basic salts contain OH hydroxo groups, considered as individual anions, for example FeNO 3 (OH), Ca 2 SO 4 (OH) 2, Cu 2 CO 3 (OH) 2, are formed when exposed to acidic hydroxides excess a basic hydroxide containing at least two hydroxo groups in the formula unit:

Co(OH) 2 + HNO 3 = CoNO 3 (OH)↓ + H 2 O

2Ni(OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 = Ni 2 SO 4 (OH) 2 ↓ + 2H 2 O

2Cu(OH) 2 + H 2 CO 3 = Cu 2 CO 3 (OH) 2 ↓ + 2H 2 O

Basic salts formed by strong acids, when adding the corresponding acid hydroxide, turn into medium salts:

CoNO 3 (OH) + HNO 3 = Co(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

Ni 2 SO 4 (OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 = 2NiSO 4 + 2H 2 O

Most basic salts are slightly soluble in water; they precipitate during joint hydrolysis if they are formed by weak acids:

2MgCl 2 + H 2 O + 2Na 2 CO 3 = Mg 2 CO 3 (OH) 2 ↓ + CO 2 + 4NaCl

Double salts contain two chemically different cations; for example: CaMg(CO 3) 2, KAl(SO 4) 2, Fe(NH 4) 2 (SO 4) 2, LiAl(SiO 3) 2. Many double salts are formed (in the form of crystalline hydrates) during the joint crystallization of the corresponding average salts from a saturated solution:

K 2 SO 4 + MgSO 4 + 6H 2 O = K 2 Mg(SO 4) 2 6H 2 O↓

Often double salts are less soluble in water compared to single salts.

Binary compounds- these are complex substances that do not belong to the classes of oxides, hydroxides and salts and consist of cations and oxygen-free anions (real or conditional).

Their chemical properties are varied and are discussed in inorganic chemistry separately for non-metals different groups Periodic table; in this case, classification is carried out according to the type of anion.

Examples:

A) halides: OF 2, HF, KBr, PbI 2, NH 4 Cl, BrF 3, IF 7

b) chalgogenides: H 2 S, Na 2 S, ZnS, As 2 S 3, NH 4 HS, K 2 Se, NiSe

V) nitrides: NH 3, NH 3 H 2 O, Li 3 N, Mg 3 N 2, AlN, Si 3 N 4

G) carbides: CH 4, Be 2 C, Al 4 C 3, Na 2 C 2, CaC 2, Fe 3 C, SiC

d) silicides: Li 4 Si, Mg 2 Si, ThSi 2

e) hydrides: LiH, CaH 2, AlH 3, SiH 4

and) peroxide H 2 O 2, Na 2 O 2, CaO 2

h) superoxides: HO 2, KO 2, Ba(O 2) 2

Type chemical bond Among these binary compounds there are:

covalent: OF 2, IF 7, H 2 S, P 2 S 5, NH 3, H 2 O 2

ionic: Nal, K 2 Se, Mg 3 N 2, CaC 2, Na 2 O 2, KO 2

Meet double(with two different cations) and mixed(with two different anions) binary compounds, for example: KMgCl 3, (FeCu)S 2 and Pb(Cl)F, Bi(Cl)O, SCl 2 O 2, As(O)F 3.

All ionic complex salts (except hydroxo complex salts) also belong to this class of complex substances (although usually considered separately), for example:

SO 4 K 4 Na 3

Cl K 3 K 2

Binary compounds include covalent complex compounds without an outer sphere, for example [N(CO) 4 ].

By analogy with the relationship between hydroxides and salts, oxygen-free acids and salts are isolated from all binary compounds (the remaining compounds are classified as others).

Anoxic acids contain (like oxoacids) mobile hydrogen H + and therefore exhibit some chemical properties of acid hydroxides (dissociation in water, participation in salt formation reactions as an acid). Common oxygen-free acids are HF, HCl, HBr, HI, HCN and H 2 S, of which HF, HCN and H 2 S are weak acids, and the rest are strong.

Examples salt formation reactions:

2HBr + ZnO = ZnBr 2 + H 2 O

2H 2 S + Ba(OH) 2 = Ba(HS) 2 + 2H 2 O

2HI + Pb(OH) 2 = Pbl 2 ↓ + 2H 2 O

Metals and amphigenes, which are in the voltage series to the left of hydrogen and do not react with water, interact with strong acids HCl, HBr and HI (in general view NG) in a dilute solution and displace hydrogen from them (reactions that actually occur are shown):

M + 2NG = MG 2 + H 2 (M = Be, Mg, Zn, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni)

2M + 6NG = 2MG 3 + H 2 (M = Al, Ga)

Oxygen-free salts formed by metal and amphigen cations (as well as the ammonium cation NH 4 +) and anions (residues) of oxygen-free acids; examples: AgF, NaCl, KBr, PbI 2, Na 2 S, Ba(HS) 2, NaCN, NH 4 Cl. They exhibit some chemical properties of oxo salts.

The general method for obtaining oxygen-free salts with single-element anions is the interaction of metals and amphigens with non-metals F 2, Cl 2, Br 2 and I 2 (in general form G 2) and sulfur S (actually occurring reactions are shown):

2M + G 2 = 2MG (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ag)

M + G 2 = MG 2 (M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, Mn, Co)

2M + ZG 2 = 2MG 3 (M = Al, Ga, Cr)

2M + S = M 2 S (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ag)

M + S = MS (M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni)

2M + 3S = M 2 S 3 (M = Al, Ga, Cr)

Exceptions:

a) Cu and Ni react only with the halogens Cl 2 and Br 2 (products MCl 2, MBr 2)

b) Cr and Mn react with Cl 2, Br 2 and I 2 (products CrCl 3, CrBr 3, CrI 3 and MnCl 2, MnBr 2, MnI 2)

c) Fe reacts with F 2 and Cl 2 (products FeF 3, FeCl 3), with Br 2 (a mixture of FeBr 3 and FeBr 2), with I 2 (product FeI 2)

d) Cu reacts with S to form a mixture of products Cu 2 S and CuS

Other binary compounds– all substances of this class, except those allocated to separate subclasses of oxygen-free acids and salts.

The methods for obtaining binary compounds of this subclass are varied, the simplest is the interaction of simple substances (reactions that actually occur are shown):

a) halides:

S + 3F 2 = SF 6, N 2 + 3F 2 = 2NF 3

2P + 5G 2 = 2RG 5 (G = F, CI, Br)

C + 2F 2 = CF 4

Si + 2G 2 = Sir 4 (G = F, CI, Br, I)

b) chalcogenides:

2As + 3S = As 2 S 3

2E + 5S = E 2 S 5 (E = P, As)

E + 2S = ES 2 (E = C, Si)

c) nitrides:

6M + N 2 = 2M 3 N (M = Li, Na, K)

3M + N 2 = M 3 N 2 (M = Be, Mg, Ca)

2Al + N 2 = 2AlN

3Si + 2N 2 = Si 3 N 4

d) carbides:

2M + 2C = M 2 C 2 (M = Li, Na)

2Be + C = Be 2 C

M + 2C = MC 2 (M = Ca, Sr, Ba)

4Al + 3C = Al 4 C 3

e) silicides:

4Li + Si = Li 4 Si

2M + Si = M 2 Si (M = Mg, Ca)

f) hydrides:

2M + H 2 = 2MH (M = Li, Na, K)

M + H 2 = MH 2 (M = Mg, Ca)

g) peroxides, superoxides:

2Na + O 2 = Na 2 O 2 (combustion in air)

M + O 2 = MO 2 (M = K, Rb, Cs; combustion in air)

Many of these substances completely react with water (they are often hydrolyzed without changing the oxidation states of the elements, but hydrides act as reducing agents, and superoxides enter into dismutation reactions):

PCl 5 + 4H 2 O = H 3 PO 4 + 5HCl

SiBr 4 + 2H 2 O = SiO 2 ↓ + 4HBr

P 2 S 5 + 8H 2 O = 2H 3 PO 4 + 5H 2 S

SiS 2 + 2H 2 O = SiO 2 ↓ + 2H 2 S

Mg 3 N 2 + 8H 2 O = 3Mg(OH) 2 ↓ + 2(NH 3 H 2 O)

Na 3 N + 4H 2 O = 3NaOH + NH 3 H 2 O

Be 2 C + 4H 2 O = 2Be(OH) 2 ↓ + CH 4

MC 2 + 2H 2 O = M(OH) 2 + C 2 H 2 (M = Ca, Sr, Ba)

Al 4 C 3 + 12H 2 O = 4Al(OH) 3 ↓ + 3CH 4

MH + H 2 O = MOH + H 2 (M = Li, Na, K)

MgH 2 + 2H 2 O = Mg(OH) 2 ↓ + H 2

CaH 2 + 2H 2 O = Ca(OH) 2 + H 2

Na 2 O 2 + 2H 2 O = 2NaOH + H 2 O 2

2MO 2 + 2H 2 O = 2MOH + H 2 O 2 + O 2 (M = K, Rb, Cs)

Other substances, on the contrary, are resistant to water, including SF 6, NF 3, CF 4, CS 2, AlN, Si 3 N 4, SiC, Li 4 Si, Mg 2 Si and Ca 2 Si.

The classification of inorganic substances is based on chemical composition– the simplest and most constant characteristic over time. The chemical composition of a substance shows which elements are present in it and in what numerical ratio for their atoms.

The classification of simple and complex inorganic substances is given in table. 6.

Below are definitions of classes of inorganic substances, their most important chemical properties and methods of preparation.

Inorganic substances– compounds formed by all chemical elements (except most organic carbon compounds). Divided by chemical composition:

Simple substances formed by atoms of the same element. Divided by chemical properties:

Metals– simple substances of elements with metallic properties (low electronegativity). Typical metals:

The simple substances of the elements Cu, Ag and Ni are also classified as metals, since their oxides CuO, Ag 2 O, NiO and hydroxides Cu(OH) 2, Ni(OH) 2 have predominant basic properties.

Nonmetals– simple substances of elements with non-metallic properties (high electronegativity). Typical non-metals: F 2, Cl 2, Br 2, I 2, O 2, S, N 2, P, C, Si.

Nonmetals have a high oxidizing capacity compared to typical metals.

Amphigenes have a lower reducing ability compared to typical metals. In the electrochemical series of voltages, they are adjacent to hydrogen on the left or stand behind it on the right.

Complex substances formed by atoms of different elements. Divided by composition and chemical properties:

Oxides– compounds of elements with oxygen, the oxidation state of oxygen in oxides is always equal to (-II). Divided by composition and chemical properties:

Basic oxides– products of complete dehydration (real or conditional) of basic hydroxides retain the chemical properties of the latter.

Of the typical metals, only Li, Mg, Ca and Sr form the oxides Li 2 O, MgO, CaO and SrO when burned in air; oxides Na 2 O, K 2 O, Rb 2 O, Cs 2 O and BaO are obtained by other methods.

The oxides of CuO, Ag 2 O and NiO are also classified as basic.

Acidic oxides– products of complete dehydration (real or conditional) of acid hydroxides retain the chemical properties of the latter.

a) 2NO 2 + 2NaOH = NaNO 2 + NaNO 3 + H 2 O

b) 2ClO 2 + H 2 O (cold) = HClO 2 + HClO 3

2ClO 2 + 2NaOH (cold) = NaClO 2 + NaClO 3 + H 2 O

The oxides CrO 3 and Mn 2 O 7 (chromium and manganese in the highest oxidation state) are also acidic.

Amphoteric oxides– products of complete dehydration (real or conditional) of amphoteric hydroxides retain the chemical properties of amphoteric hydroxides.

Typical amphigenes (except Ga) when burned in air form the oxides BeO, Cr 2 O 3, ZnO, Al 2 O 3, GeO 2, SnO 2 and PbO; amphoteric oxides Ga 2 O 3, SnO and PbO 2 are obtained by other methods.

(Fe II Fe 2 III) O 4, (Pb 2 II Pb IV) O 4, (MgAl 2) O 4, (CaTi) O 3.

Iron oxide is formed when iron burns in air, lead oxide is formed when lead is slightly heated in oxygen; oxides of two different metals are prepared by other methods.

Hydroxides– compounds of elements (except fluorine and oxygen) with hydroxo groups O -II H, may also contain oxygen O -II. In hydroxides, the oxidation state of the element is always positive (from +I to +VIII). The number of hydroxo groups is from 1 to 6. They are divided according to chemical properties:

Basic hydroxides (bases) formed by elements with metallic properties.

Obtained by reactions of the corresponding basic oxides with water:

M 2 O + H 2 O = 2MON (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)

MO + H 2 O = M(OH) 2 (M = Ca, Sr, Ba)

Exception: Mg(OH) 2 , Cu(OH) 2 and Ni(OH) 2 hydroxides are obtained by other methods.

When heated, real dehydration (loss of water) occurs for the following hydroxides:

2LiOH = Li 2 O + H 2 O

M(OH) 2 = MO + H 2 O (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Cu, Ni)

Basic hydroxides replace their hydroxo groups with acidic residues to form salts; metal elements retain their oxidation state in salt cations.

Basic hydroxides that are highly soluble in water (NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH) 2, Ba(OH) 2, etc.) are called alkalis, since it is with their help that an alkaline environment is created in the solution.

Acidic hydroxides (acids) formed by elements with non-metallic properties. Examples:

Upon dissociation in a dilute aqueous solution, H + cations (more precisely, H 3 O +) and the following anions are formed, or acid residues:

Acids can be obtained by reactions of the corresponding acid oxides with water (the actual reactions that occur are shown below):

Cl 2 O + H 2 O = 2HClO

E 2 O 3 + H 2 O = 2HEO 2 (E = N, As)

As 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O = 2H 3 AsO 3

EO 2 + H 2 O = H 2 EO 3 (E = C, Se)

E 2 O 5 + H 2 O = 2HEO 3 (E = N, P, I)

E 2 O 5 + 3H 2 O = 2H 3 EO 4 (E = P, As)

EO 3 + H 2 O = H 2 EO 4 (E = S, Se, Cr)

E 2 O 7 + H 2 O = 2HEO 4 (E = Cl, Mn)

Exception: SO 2 oxide corresponds to SO 2 polyhydrate as an acid hydroxide n H 2 O (“sulfurous acid H 2 SO 3 ”does not exist, but the acidic residues HSO 3 - and SO 3 2- are present in the salts).

When some acids are heated, actual dehydration occurs and the corresponding acid oxides are formed:

2HAsO 2 = As 2 O 3 + H 2 O

H 2 EO 3 = EO 2 + H 2 O (E = C, Si, Ge, Se)

2HIO 3 = I 2 O 5 + H 2 O

2H 3 AsO 4 = As 2 O 5 + H 2 O

H 2 SeO 4 = SeO 3 + H 2 O

M + H 2 SO 4 (pasb.) = MSO 4 + H 2 ^ (M = Be, Mg, Cr, Mn, Zn, Fe, Ni)

2M + 3H 2 SO 4 (dissolved) = M 2 (SO 4) 3 + 3H 2 ^ (M = Al, Ga)

3M + 2H 3 PO 4 (diluted) = M 3 (PO 4) 2 v + 3H 2 ^ (M = Mg, Fe, Zn)

Unlike oxygen-free acids, acid hydroxides are called oxygen-containing acids or oxoacids.

Amphoteric hydroxides formed by elements with amphoteric properties. Typical amphoteric hydroxides:

Be(OH) 2 Sn(OH) 2 Al(OH) 3 AlO(OH)

Zn(OH) 2 Pb(OH) 2 Cr(OH) 3 CrO(OH)

They are not formed from amphoteric oxides and water, but undergo real dehydration and form amphoteric oxides:

Exception: for iron(III) only metahydroxide FeO(OH) is known, “iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OH) 3 ” does not exist (not obtained).

Amphoteric hydroxides exhibit the properties of basic and acidic hydroxides; form two types of salts in which the amphoteric element is part of either the salt cations or their anions.

For elements with several oxidation states, the rule applies: the higher the oxidation state, the more pronounced the acidic properties of hydroxides (and/or corresponding oxides).

Medium salts contain medium acidic residues CO 3 2-, NO 3-, PO 4 3-, SO 4 2-, etc.; for example: K 2 CO 3, Mg(NO 3) 2, Cr 2 (SO 4) 3, Zn 3 (PO 4) 2.

2KOH and 1H 2 CO 3, 1K 2 O and 1H 2 CO 3, 2 KOH and 1CO 2.

Reactions of formation of medium salts:

Base + Acid > Salt + Water

1a) basic hydroxide + acidic hydroxide >...

2NaOH + H 2 SO 4 = Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O

Cu(OH) 2 + 2HNO 3 = Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2H 2 O

1b) amphoteric hydroxide + acid hydroxide >...

2Al(OH) 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + 6H 2 O

Zn(OH) 2 + 2HNO 3 = Zn(NO 3) 2 + 2H 2 O

1c) basic hydroxide + amphoteric hydroxide >...

NaOH + Al(OH) 3 = NaAlO 2 + 2H 2 O (in melt)

2NaOH + Zn(OH) 2 = Na 2 ZnO 2 + 2H 2 O (in melt)

Basic Oxide + Acid = Salt + Water

2a) basic oxide + acidic hydroxide >...

Na 2 O + H 2 SO 4 = Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O

CuO + 2HNO 3 = Cu(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

2b) amphoteric oxide + acid hydroxide >...

Al 2 O 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + 3H 2 O

ZnO + 2HNO 3 = Zn(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

2c) basic oxide + amphoteric hydroxide >...

Na 2 O + 2Al(OH) 3 = 2NaAlO 2 + ZN 2 O (in the melt)

Na 2 O + Zn(OH) 2 = Na 2 ZnO 2 + H 2 O (in melt)

Base + Acid Oxide > Salt + Water

For) basic hydroxide + acidic oxide >...

2NaOH + SO 3 = Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O

Ba(OH) 2 + CO 2 = BaCO 3 + H 2 O

3b) amphoteric hydroxide + acid oxide >...

2Al(OH) 3 + 3SO 3 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3 + 3H 2 O

Zn(OH) 2 + N 2 O 5 = Zn(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

Sv) basic hydroxide + amphoteric oxide >...

2NaOH + Al 2 O 3 = 2NaAlO 2 + H 2 O (in melt)

2NaOH + ZnO = Na 2 ZnO 2 + H 2 O (in melt)

Basic oxide + Acidic oxide > Salt

4a) basic oxide + acidic oxide >...

Na 2 O + SO 3 = Na 2 SO 4, BaO + CO 2 = BaCO 3

4b) amphoteric oxide + acidic oxide >...

Al 2 O 3 + 3SO 3 = Al 2 (SO 4) 3, ZnO + N 2 O 5 = Zn(NO 3) 2

4c) basic oxide + amphoteric oxide >...

Na 2 O + Al 2 O 3 = 2NaAlO 2, Na 2 O + ZnO = Na 2 ZnO 2

Reactions 1c, if they occur in solution, are accompanied by the formation of other products - complex salts:

NaOH (conc.) + Al(OH) 3 = Na

KOH (conc.) + Cr(OH) 3 = K 3

2NaOH (conc.) + M(OH) 2 = Na 2 (M = Be, Zn)

KOH (conc.) + M(OH) 2 = K (M = Sn, Pb)

All medium salts in solution are strong electrolytes (dissociate completely).

Acid salts contain acidic acid residues (with hydrogen) HCO 3 -, H 2 PO 4 2-, HPO 4 2-, etc., are formed by the action of basic and amphoteric hydroxides or medium salts of excess acid hydroxides containing at least two hydrogen atoms in the molecule ; The corresponding acid oxides act similarly:

NaOH + H 2 SO 4 (conc.) = NaHSO 4 + H 2 O

Ba(OH) 2 + 2H 3 PO 4 (conc.) = Ba(H 2 PO 4) 2 + 2H 2 O

Zn(OH) 2 + H 3 PO 4 (conc.) = ZnHPO 4 v + 2H 2 O

PbSO 4 + H 2 SO 4 (conc.) = Pb(HSO 4) 2

K 2 HPO 4 + H 3 PO 4 (conc.) = 2KH 2 PO 4

Ca(OH) 2 + 2EO 2 = Ca(HEO 3) 2 (E = C, S)

Na 2 EO 3 + EO 2 + H 2 O = 2NaHEO 3 (E = C, S)

By adding the hydroxide of the corresponding metal or amphigene, the acid salts are converted to medium salts:

NaHSO 4 + NaOH = Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O

Pb(HSO 4) 2 + Pb(OH) 2 = 2PbSO 4 v + 2H 2 O

Almost all acid salts are highly soluble in water and dissociate completely (KHSO 3 = K + + HCO 3 -).

Co(OH) 2 + HNO 3 = CoNO 3 (OH)v + H 2 O

2Ni(OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 = Ni 2 SO 4 (OH) 2 v + 2H 2 O

2Cu(OH) 2 + H 2 CO 3 = Cu 2 CO 3 (OH) 2 v + 2H 2 O

Basic salts formed by strong acids, when adding the corresponding acid hydroxide, turn into medium salts:

CoNO 3 (OH) + HNO 3 = Co(NO 3) 2 + H 2 O

Ni 2 SO 4 (OH) 2 + H 2 SO 4 = 2NiSO 4 + 2H 2 O

Most basic salts are slightly soluble in water; they precipitate during joint hydrolysis if they are formed by weak acids:

2MgCl 2 + H 2 O + 2Na 2 CO 3 = Mg 2 CO 3 (OH) 2 v + CO 2 ^ + 4NaCl

Double salts contain two chemically different cations; for example: CaMg(CO 3) 2, KAl(SO 4) 2, Fe(NH 4) 2 (SO 4) 2, LiAl(SiO 3) 2. Many double salts are formed (in the form of crystalline hydrates) by co-crystallization of the corresponding intermediate salts from a saturated solution:

K 2 SO 4 + MgSO 4 + 6H 2 O = K 2 Mg(SO 4) 2 6H 2 Ov

Often double salts are less soluble in water compared to single salts.

Binary compounds- these are complex substances that do not belong to the classes of oxides, hydroxides and salts and consist of cations and oxygen-free anions (real or conditional).

Their chemical properties are varied and are considered in inorganic chemistry separately for nonmetals of different groups of the Periodic Table; in this case, classification is carried out according to the type of anion.

Examples:

A) halides: OF 2, HF, KBr, PbI 2, NH 4 Cl, BrF 3, IF 7

b) chalgogenides: H 2 S, Na 2 S, ZnS, As 2 S 3, NH 4 HS, K 2 Se, NiSe

V) nitrides: NH 3, NH 3 H 2 O, Li 3 N, Mg 3 N 2, AlN, Si 3 N 4

G) carbides: CH 4, Be 2 C, Al 4 C 3, Na 2 C 2, CaC 2, Fe 3 C, SiC

d) silicides: Li 4 Si, Mg 2 Si, ThSi 2

e) hydrides: LiH, CaH 2, AlH 3, SiH 4

and) peroxide H 2 O 2, Na 2 O 2, CaO 2

h) superoxides: HO 2, KO 2, Ba(O 2) 2

Based on the type of chemical bond, these binary compounds are distinguished:

covalent: OF 2, IF 7, H 2 S, P 2 S 5, NH 3, H 2 O 2

ionic: Nal, K 2 Se, Mg 3 N 2, CaC 2, Na 2 O 2, KO 2

Meet double(with two different cations) and mixed(with two different anions) binary compounds, for example: KMgCl 3, (FeCu)S 2 and Pb(Cl)F, Bi(Cl)O, SCl 2 O 2, As(O)F 3.

All ionic complex salts (except hydroxo complex salts) also belong to this class of complex substances (although usually considered separately), for example:

SO 4 K 4 Na 3

Cl K 3 K 2

Binary compounds include covalent complex compounds without an outer sphere, for example [N(CO) 4 ].

By analogy with the relationship between hydroxides and salts, oxygen-free acids and salts are isolated from all binary compounds (the remaining compounds are classified as others).

Examples salt formation reactions:

2HBr + ZnO = ZnBr 2 + H 2 O

2H 2 S + Ba(OH) 2 = Ba(HS) 2 + 2H 2 O

2HI + Pb(OH) 2 = Pbl 2 v + 2H 2 O

Metals and amphigenes, which are in the voltage series to the left of hydrogen and do not react with water, interact with strong acids HCl, HBr and HI (in the general form NG) in a dilute solution and displace hydrogen from them (actually occurring reactions are shown):

M + 2NG = MG 2 + H 2 ^ (M = Be, Mg, Zn, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni)

2M + 6NG = 2MG 3 + H 2 ^ (M = Al, Ga)

2M + G 2 = 2MG (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ag)

M + G 2 = MG 2 (M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, Mn, Co)

2M + ZG 2 = 2MG 3 (M = Al, Ga, Cr)

2M + S = M 2 S (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ag)

M + S = MS (M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni)

2M + 3S = M 2 S 3 (M = Al, Ga, Cr)

Exceptions:

a) Cu and Ni react only with the halogens Cl 2 and Br 2 (products MCl 2, MBr 2)

b) Cr and Mn react with Cl 2, Br 2 and I 2 (products CrCl 3, CrBr 3, CrI 3 and MnCl 2, MnBr 2, MnI 2)

c) Fe reacts with F 2 and Cl 2 (products FeF 3, FeCl 3), with Br 2 (a mixture of FeBr 3 and FeBr 2), with I 2 (product FeI 2)

d) Cu reacts with S to form a mixture of products Cu 2 S and CuS

Other binary compounds– all substances of this class, except those allocated to separate subclasses of oxygen-free acids and salts.

The methods for obtaining binary compounds of this subclass are varied, the simplest is the interaction of simple substances (reactions that actually occur are shown):

a) halides:

S + 3F 2 = SF 6, N 2 + 3F 2 = 2NF 3

2P + 5G 2 = 2RG 5 (G = F, CI, Br)

C + 2F 2 = CF 4

Si + 2G 2 = Sir 4 (G = F, CI, Br, I)

b) chalcogenides:

2As + 3S = As 2 S 3

2E + 5S = E 2 S 5 (E = P, As)

E + 2S = ES 2 (E = C, Si)

c) nitrides:

3H 2 + N 2 2NH 3

6M + N 2 = 2M 3 N (M = Li, Na, K)

3M + N 2 = M 3 N 2 (M = Be, Mg, Ca)

2Al + N 2 = 2AlN

3Si + 2N 2 = Si 3 N 4

d) carbides:

2M + 2C = M 2 C 2 (M = Li, Na)

2Be + C = Be 2 C

M + 2C = MC 2 (M = Ca, Sr, Ba)

4Al + 3C = Al 4 C 3

e) silicides:

4Li + Si = Li 4 Si

2M + Si = M 2 Si (M = Mg, Ca)

f) hydrides:

2M + H 2 = 2MH (M = Li, Na, K)

M + H 2 = MH 2 (M = Mg, Ca)

g) peroxides, superoxides:

2Na + O 2 = Na 2 O 2 (combustion in air)

M + O 2 = MO 2 (M = K, Rb, Cs; combustion in air)

PCl 5 + 4H 2 O = H 3 PO 4 + 5HCl

SiBr 4 + 2H 2 O = SiO 2 v + 4HBr

P 2 S 5 + 8H 2 O = 2H 3 PO 4 + 5H 2 S^

SiS 2 + 2H 2 O = SiO 2 v + 2H 2 S

Mg 3 N 2 + 8H 2 O = 3Mg(OH) 2 v + 2(NH 3 H 2 O)

Na 3 N + 4H 2 O = 3NaOH + NH 3 H 2 O

Be 2 C + 4H 2 O = 2Be(OH) 2 v + CH 4 ^

MC 2 + 2H 2 O = M(OH) 2 + C 2 H 2 ^ (M = Ca, Sr, Ba)

Al 4 C 3 + 12H 2 O = 4Al(OH) 3 v + 3CH 4 ^

MH + H 2 O = MOH + H 2 ^ (M = Li, Na, K)

MgH 2 + 2H 2 O = Mg(OH) 2 v + H 2 ^

CaH 2 + 2H 2 O = Ca(OH) 2 + H 2 ^

Na 2 O 2 + 2H 2 O = 2NaOH + H 2 O 2

2MO 2 + 2H 2 O = 2MOH + H 2 O 2 + O 2 ^ (M = K, Rb, Cs)

Other substances, on the contrary, are resistant to water, including SF 6, NF 3, CF 4, CS 2, AlN, Si 3 N 4, SiC, Li 4 Si, Mg 2 Si and Ca 2 Si.

Examples of tasks for parts A, B, C

1. Simple substances are

1) fullerene

2. In formula units of reaction products

Si + CF1 2 >…, Si + O 2 >…, Si + Mg >…

3. In metal-containing reaction products

Na + H 2 O >…, Ca + H 2 O >…, Al + НCl (solution) >…

the total sum of the number of atoms of all elements is equal to

4. Calcium oxide can react (separately) with all substances in the set

1) CO 2, NaOH, NO

2) HBr, SO 3, NH 4 Cl

3) BaO, SO 3, KMgCl 3

4) O 2, Al 2 O 3, NH 3

5. A reaction will take place between sulfur oxide (IV) and

6. Salt МAlO 2 is formed during fusion

2) Al 2 O 3 and KOH

3) Al and Ca(OH) 2

4) Al 2 O 3 and Fe 2 O 3

7. In the molecular equation of the reaction

ZnO + HNO 3 > Zn(NO 3) 2 +…

the sum of the coefficients is equal

8. The products of the reaction N 2 O 5 + NaOH >... are

1) Na 2 O, HNO 3

3) NaNO 3, H 2 O

4) NaNO 2, N 2, H 2 O

9. A set of bases is

1) NaOH, LiOH, ClOH

2) NaOH, Ba(OH) 2, Cu(OH) 2

3) Ca(OH) 2, KOH, BrOH

4) Mg(OH) 2 , Be(OH) 2 , NO(OH)

10. Potassium hydroxide reacts in solution (separately) with the substances of the set

4) SO 3, FeCl 3

11–12. The residue corresponding to the acid with the name

11. Sulfuric

12. Nitrogen

has the formula

13. From hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids doesn't highlight gas only metal

14. Amphoteric hydroxide is

15-16. According to given hydroxide formulas

15. H 3 PO 4, Pb(OH) 2

16. Cr(OH) 3 , HNO 3

the formula for the average salt is derived

1) Pb 3 (PO 4) 2

17. After passing excess H 2 S through a solution of barium hydroxide, the final solution will contain salt

18. Possible reactions:

1) CaSO 3 + H 2 SO 4 >...

2) Ca(NO 3) 2 + HNO 3 >...

3) NaHCOg + K 2 SO 4 >...

4) Al(HSO 4) 3 + NaOH >...

19. In the reaction equation (CaOH) 2 CO 3 (t) + H 3 PO 4 > CaHPO 4 v +…

the sum of the coefficients is equal

20. Establish a correspondence between the formula of a substance and the group to which it belongs.

21. Establish a correspondence between the starting materials and reaction products.

22. In the transformation scheme

substances A and B are indicated in the set

1) NaNO 3, H 2 O

4) HNO 3, H 2 O

23. Make up equations for possible reactions according to the diagram

FeS > H 2 S + PbS > PbSO 4 > Pb(HSO 4) 2

24. Write down equations for four possible reactions between substances:

1) nitric acid (conc.)

2) carbon (graphite or coke)

3) calcium oxide

The relationship and interrelation of chemical transformations is confirmed by the genetic connection between classes of inorganic substances. One simple substance depending on the class and chemical properties forms a chain of transformations of complex substances - a genetic series.

Inorganic substances

Compounds that do not have a carbon skeleton characteristic of organic substances are called inorganic or minerals. All mineral compounds are classified into two broad groups:

simple, consisting of atoms of one element;
complex, including atoms of two or more elements.

Rice. 1. General classification substances.

Simple connections include:

metals (K, Mg, Ca);
non-metals (O 2 , S, P);
inert gases (Kr, Xe, Rn).

Complex substances have a more extensive classification, shown in the table.

Rice. 2. Classification of complex substances.

Amphoteric metals form the corresponding oxides and hydroxides. Amphoteric compounds exhibit the properties of acids and bases.

Genetic series

Simple substances - metals and non-metals - form chains of transformations that reflect the genetic connection of inorganic substances. Through chemical reactions of addition, substitution and decomposition, new simpler or more complex compounds are formed.

Each link in the chain is connected to the previous presence of a simple substance. The difference between the two types of genetic series lies in the reaction with water: metals form soluble and insoluble bases, non-metals form acids.

The main chains of transformations are described in the table.

*Substance*	*Genetic series*	*Examples*
	Active metal → basic oxide → alkali → salt	2Ca + O 2 → 2CaO; CaO + H 2 O → Ca(OH) 2; Ca(OH) 2 + 2HCl → CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O
	Low reactive metal → basic oxide → salt → insoluble base → basic oxide → metal	2Cu + O 2 → 2CuO; CuO + 2HCl → CuCl 2 + H 2 O; CuCl 2 + 2KOH → Cu(OH) 2 + 2KCl; Cu(OH) 2 → CuO + H 2 O; CuO + H 2 → Cu + H 2 O
Non-metal	→ acidic oxide → soluble (strong) acid → salt	4P + 5O 2 → 2P 2 O 5 ; P 2 O 5 + 3H 2 O → 2H 3 PO 4 ; H 3 PO 4 + 3NaOH → Na 3 PO 4 + 3H 2 O
Non-metal	→ acidic oxide → salt → insoluble (weak) acid → acidic oxide → nonmetal	Si + O 2 → SiO 2 ; SiO 2 + 2NaOH → Na 2 SiO 3 + H 2 O; Na 2 SiO 3 + 2HCl → H 2 SiO 3 + 2NaCl; H 2 SiO 3 → SiO 2 + H 2 O; SiO 2 + 2Zn → 2ZnO + Si

Rice. 3. Scheme of genetic connections between classes.

Using a transformation chain, you can obtain medium (normal) or acid salts. Complex salts can contain several metal and non-metal atoms.

What have we learned?

Genetic linkage shows the relationship between classes of inorganic substances. It is characterized by a genetic series - a series of transformations of simple substances. Simple substances include metals and non-metals. Metals form soluble and insoluble bases depending on their activity. Nonmetals are converted into strong or weak acids. New complex substances of a series are formed by addition, substitution and decomposition reactions.

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