home For men Caliphate - what is it? The Arab Caliphate, its emergence and collapse. History of the Caliphate

Caliphate - what is it? The Arab Caliphate, its emergence and collapse. History of the Caliphate

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the 2nd millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples. In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, and was engaged in crafts and trade.

The other part roamed the deserts and steppes and was engaged in cattle breeding. Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. In this oasis lived the Arab tribe Quraysh, whose tribal nobility, using geographical position Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.

In addition, Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. The ancient pre-Islamic temple of the Kaaba was located here. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Quraysh tribe, Allah (from Arabic: ilah - master).

In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, due to the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade decreases. The population, having lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to seek sources of livelihood in agriculture. But suitable for Agriculture there was little land. They had to be conquered.

For this, forces were needed and, therefore, the unification of fragmented tribes, who also worshiped different gods. The need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis became increasingly clear.

This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Muhammad (c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam. This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity: belief in one God and his prophet, doomsday, reward after death, unconditional submission to the will of God (Arabic: Islam - submission).

The Jewish and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced by the names of prophets and other biblical characters common to these religions: biblical Abraham(Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Elijah (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus (Isa), Mary (Maryam), etc. Islam has Judaism shares common customs and prohibitions. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, prohibit depicting God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.

At the first stage of development, the new religious worldview of Islam was not supported by the majority of Muhammad's fellow tribesmen, and primarily by the nobility, as they feared that the new religion would lead to the cessation of the cult of the Kaaba as a religious center, and thereby deprive them of income. In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina).

This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim calendar. The agricultural population of Yathrib (Medina), competing with the merchants from Mecca, supported Muhammad. However, only in 630, having gathered the required number of supporters, he was able to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, especially since they were satisfied that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.

Much later (c. 650) after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected into a single book, the Koran (translated from Arabic as reading), which became sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.

Later Islamic religious literature is called Sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who recognized the Koran and the Sunnah began to be called Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran - Shiites. Shiites recognize only his relatives as the legitimate caliphs (viceroys, deputies) of Muhammad, the spiritual and secular heads of Muslims.

The economic crisis of Western Arabia in the 7th century, caused by the movement of trade routes, the lack of land suitable for agriculture, and high population growth, pushed the leaders of the Arab tribes to seek a way out of the crisis by seizing foreign lands. This is reflected in the Koran, which says that Islam should be the religion of all peoples, but for this it is necessary to fight the infidels, exterminate them and take their property (Koran, 2: 186-189; 4: 76-78, 86).

Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, began a series of aggressive campaigns. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem. Until the end of the 7th century. The countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia came under Arab rule. In the 8th century were captured middle Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, North-West Africa.

In 711, Arab troops under the leadership of Tariq sailed from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from Tariq’s name came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tariq). Having quickly conquered the Pyrenees, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel.

By the middle of the 9th century. Sicily, Sardinia were captured by the Arabs, southern regions Italy, Crete island. At this point the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with Byzantine Empire. The Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.

The main Arab conquests were carried out under the caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and the Umayyad caliphs (661-750). Under the Umayyads, the capital of the caliphate was moved to Syria to the city of Damascus.

The victories of the Arabs and their seizure of vast areas were facilitated by many years of mutually exhausting war between Byzantium and Persia, disunity and constant hostility between other states that were attacked by the Arabs. It should also be noted that the population of the countries captured by the Arabs, suffering from the oppression of Byzantium and Persia, saw the Arabs as liberators who reduced the tax burden primarily for those who converted to Islam.

The unification of many formerly separate and warring states into single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts and trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture quickly developed, incorporating Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage.

Through the Arabs, Europe became acquainted with the cultural achievements of the eastern peoples, primarily with achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.

In 750, the Umayyad dynasty in the eastern part of the caliphate was overthrown. The Abbasids, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abbas, became caliphs. They moved the capital of the state to Baghdad.

In the western part of the caliphate, Spain continued to be ruled by the Umayyads, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Cordoba Caliphate with its capital in the city of Cordoba.

The division of the Arab Caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were provincial rulers - emirs.

The Abbasid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbasid state ceased to exist.

The Spanish Umayyad Caliphate also gradually shrank. In the 11th century As a result of internecine struggle, the Cordoba Caliphate broke up into a number of states. This was taken advantage of by those that emerged in the northern part of Spain. Christian states: Leono-Castilian, Aragonese, Portuguese kingdoms, which began to fight the Arabs for the liberation of the peninsula - the reconquista.

In 1085 they recaptured the city of Toledo, in 1147 Lisbon, and in 1236 Cordoba fell. The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab caliphate as a state ended.

The Caliphate as an institution for the spiritual leadership of the Arabs over all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function passed to to the Turkish Sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.

The history of the Arab Caliphate, dating back only six centuries, was complex, controversial and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution human society planets.

Difficult economic situation population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone, it became necessary to search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here took the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for the fight against infidels (non-believers).

Guided by the ideology of Islam, the caliphs carried out a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of formerly scattered tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe.

Being one of the youngest in the east, occupying the most offensive position among them, having absorbed the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge influence on the spiritual life of Western Europe, posing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages .

The Arab Caliphate was a militarized theocratic state that existed in the 7th-9th centuries in the lands of Asia, Africa and Europe. It was formed in 630 during the life of the Prophet Muhammad (571-632). It is to him that humanity owes the emergence of Islam. He preached his teachings from 610. Within 20 years, all of Western Arabia and Oman recognized the new faith and began to revere Allah.

Muhammad had an amazing gift of persuasion. But the abilities themselves would not be worth anything if the prophet himself did not sincerely believe in what he preached. A group of the same people, fanatically devoted to the new faith, formed around him. They did not seek any benefits or benefits for themselves. They were driven only by the idea and faith in Allah.

Prophet Muhammad (Ancient miniature from an Arabic manuscript)

That is why Islam spread so quickly in the lands of Arabia. But it should be noted that Muslims (followers of Islam) were not at all tolerant of representatives of other religions. They propagated their faith by force. Those who refused to recognize Allah as their god were killed. The alternative was to flee to other lands, the only way to preserve life and one’s religious beliefs.

Shortly before his death, Muhammad sent letters to the Byzantine emperor and the Shah of Persia. He demanded that the peoples under his control accept Islam. But, naturally, he was refused. The rulers of powerful powers did not take seriously the new state, united by one religious idea.

The first caliphs

In 632 the prophet died. From this time on, caliphs appeared. Caliph is the prophet's deputy on earth. His power was based on Sharia- a set of legal, moral, ethical and religious norms of Islam. Muhammad's loyal follower Abu Bakr became the first caliph.(572-634). He served as governor from 632 to 634.

This was a very difficult period for Muslims, since after the death of the prophet many tribes refused to recognize the new religion. I had to restore order with an iron fist. All opponents were mercilessly destroyed. As a result of this activity, almost all of Arabia recognized Islam.

In 634, Abu Bakr fell ill and died. Umar ibn al-Khattab became the second caliph(581-644). He performed the duties of the prophet's deputy from 634 to 644. It was Umar who organized military campaigns against Byzantium and Persia. These were the largest powers of the time.

The population of Byzantium at that time numbered about 20 million people. The population of Persia was slightly smaller. These largest countries At first they didn’t pay any attention to some Arabs who didn’t even have horses. They made their marches on donkeys and camels. Before the battle they dismounted and fought like this.

But you should never underestimate your enemy. In 636, two battles took place: at Yarmouk in Syria, and then at Qadisiya in Mesopotamia. In the first battle, the Byzantine army suffered a crushing defeat, and in the second battle the Persian army was defeated. In 639, the Arab army crossed the Egyptian border. Egypt was under Byzantine rule. The country was torn apart by religious and political contradictions. Therefore, there was practically no resistance.

In 642, Alexandria with its famous Library of Alexandria fell into Muslim hands. It was the most important military and political center of the country. In the same year 642, Persian troops were defeated at the Battle of Nehavend. Thus, a crushing blow was dealt to the Sassanid dynasty. Its last representative, the Persian Shah Yazdegerd III, was killed in 651.

Under Umar, after the Battle of Yarmouk, the Byzantines ceded the city of Jerusalem to the victors. The caliph first entered the city gates alone. He was wearing a poor man's simple cloak. The inhabitants of the city, seeing the conqueror in this form, were shocked. They were accustomed to the arrogant and luxuriously dressed Byzantines and Persians. Here it was the complete opposite.

Orthodox Patriarch Sophrony handed over the keys to the city to the caliph. He assured that he would keep everything orthodox churches intact. They will not be destroyed. Thus, Umar immediately established himself as a wise and far-sighted politician. He prayed to Allah in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and in the place where the Jerusalem Temple had previously stood, he ordered a mosque to be built.

In 644, an assassination attempt was made on the caliph. The Persian slave Firuz committed this act. He complained to Umar about his master, but he considered the complaint unfounded. In retaliation for this, the Persian stabbed the prophet's deputy in the stomach. After 3 days, Umar ibn al-Khattab died. The 10th anniversary of the victorious march of Islam across the Persian and Byzantine lands has ended. The caliph was wise man. He preserved the unity of the Muslim community and significantly strengthened it.

Uthman ibn Affan became the third caliph.(574-656). He performed the duties of the prophet's deputy from 644 to 656. It must be said that in terms of his moral and volitional qualities he was inferior to his predecessor. Uthman surrounded himself with relatives, which caused discontent among other Muslims. At the same time, Persia was completely captured under him. The local population was forbidden to worship fire. Fire worshipers fled to India and live there to this day. The rest of the Persians converted to Islam.

Arab Caliphate on the map

But the Arab Caliphate was not limited to these conquests. He continued to expand his boundaries further. Next in line was the richest country, Sogdiana, located in Central Asia. It included the following Largest cities like Bukhara, Tashkent, Samarkand, Kokand, Gurganj. All of them were surrounded by strong walls and had strong military detachments.

The Arabs began to appear in these lands in small groups and began to capture one city after another. In some places they tricked their way into the city walls, but mostly they took them by storm. At first glance, it seems surprising how poorly armed Muslims could defeat such a strong and wealthy power as Sogdiana. The fortitude of the conquerors was evident here. They turned out to be more resilient, and well-fed residents of rich cities showed weakness of spirit and outright cowardice.

But further progress to the east stopped. The Arabs entered the steppes and encountered nomadic tribes of the Turks and Turgush. The nomads were offered to convert to Islam, but they refused. But it must be said that the entire nomadic population of Southern Kazakhstan was extremely small. In the foothills of the Tien Shan lived the Turgesh, Yagma and Chigil. The steppes were inhabited by the ancestors of the Pechenegs, who were called Kangars, and these lands themselves were called Kangyui. The ancestors of the Turkmen and the descendants of the Parthians lived all the way to the Syr Darya on a vast territory. And this rare population was quite enough to stop the Arab expansion.

In the west, under Uthman, the Arabs reached Carthage and occupied it. But further military actions ceased, as serious political disagreements began within the Arab Caliphate itself. Some provinces rebelled against the caliph. In 655, the rebels entered Medina, where Uthman's residence was located. But all the rebels’ claims were resolved peacefully. But the next year, Muslims dissatisfied with the power of the caliph broke into his chambers, and the deputy of the prophet was killed. From this moment it began fitna. So called Civil War in the Muslim world. It continued until 661.

After the death of Uthman, Ali ibn Abu Talib became the new caliph.(600-661). He was the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. But not all Muslims recognized the power of the new ruler. There were people who accused him of protecting the murderers of Uthman. The governor in Syria, Muawiyah (603-680), was one of these. One of the former thirteen wives of the prophet Aisha and her like-minded people also spoke out against the new caliph.

The latter settled in Basra. In December 656, the so-called Battle of the Camel took place. On the one hand, Ali’s troops took part in it, and on the other hand, rebel troops led by the prophet’s brother-in-law Talha ibn Ubaydullah, the prophet’s cousin Az-Zubair ibn al-Awwam and ex-wife Prophet Aisha.

In this battle the rebels were defeated. The center of the battle was near Aisha, who was sitting on a camel. This is where the battle got its name. The leaders of the uprising were killed. Only Aisha survived. She was captured but then released.

In 657 the Battle of Siffin took place. The troops of Ali and the rebellious Syrian governor Muawiya met there. This battle ended in nothing. The caliph showed indecisiveness, and the rebel troops of Muawiya were not defeated. In January 661, the fourth righteous caliph was killed with a poisoned dagger right in the mosque.

Umayyad Dynasty

With the death of Ali, the Arab Caliphate entered a new era. Muawiya founded the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled the state for 90 years. During this dynasty, the Arabs marched along the entire African coast Mediterranean Sea. They reached the Strait of Gibraltar, crossed it in 711 and ended up in Spain. They captured this state, crossed the Pyrenees and were stopped only at Rouen and the Rhone.

By 750, the followers of the Prophet Muhammad had conquered a vast territory from India to Atlantic Ocean. Islam was established in all these lands. I must say that the Arabs were real gentlemen. When conquering another country, they killed only men if they refused to convert to Islam. As for women, they were sold for harems. Moreover, the prices at the bazaars were ridiculous, since there were a lot of captives.

But captured aristocrats enjoyed special privileges. So the daughter of the Persian Shah Yazdegerd was sold at her request. Buyers passed in front of her, and she herself chose which of them she should go into slavery. Some men were too fat, others too thin. Some had voluptuous lips, while others had too small eyes. Finally the woman saw the right man and said: “Sell me to him. I agree.” The deal was made right away. Among the Arabs, slavery at that time took such exotic forms.

In general, it should be noted that in the Arab Caliphate a slave could be purchased only with his consent. Sometimes conflict arose between slave and slave owner. In this case, the slave had the right to demand that he be resold to another owner. Such relationships were more like a hiring transaction, but were formalized as a purchase and sale.

Under the Umayyads, the capital of Islam was in the city of Damascus, so sometimes they say not the Arab, but the Damascus caliphate. But it's the same thing. What was noteworthy was that during this dynasty the unity of the Muslim community disappeared. Under the faithful caliphs, people were united by faith. Starting from the time of Muawiya, the faithful began to divide themselves along sub-ethnic lines. There were Medina Arabs, Meccan Arabs, Kelbit Arabs, and Qaysite Arabs. And disagreements began to arise between these groups, which very often resulted in brutal massacres.

If you count external and internal wars, it turns out that their number is the same. Moreover, internal conflicts were much more fierce than external ones. It got to the point that the troops of the Umayyad caliph stormed Mecca. In this case, flamethrowers were used and the Kaaba temple was burned. However, all these outrages could not continue indefinitely.

The finale came under the 14th caliph from the Umayyad dynasty. This man's name was Marwan II ibn Muhammad. He was in power from 744 to 750. At this time, Abu Muslim (700-755) entered the political arena. He acquired his influence as a result of the conspiracy of the Persians with the Kelbit Arabs against the Qaysite Arabs. It was thanks to this conspiracy that the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown.

In July 747, Abu Muslim openly opposed Caliph Marwan II. After a series of brilliant military operations, the troops of the prophet's governor were defeated. Marwan II fled to Egypt, but was caught and executed in August 750. Almost all other members of the royal family were killed. Only one representative of the dynasty, Abdu ar-Rahman, managed to save. He fled to Spain and in 756 founded the Emirate of Cordoba on these lands.

Abbasid Dynasty

After the overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty, the Arab Caliphate received new rulers. They became the Abbasids. These were distant relatives of the prophet who had no rights to the throne. However, they suited both the Persians and Arabs. Abul Abbas is considered the founder of the dynasty. Under him, a brilliant victory was won over the Chinese, who invaded Central Asia. In 751 the famous Battle of Talas took place. In it, Arab troops met with regular Chinese troops.

The Chinese were commanded by the Korean Gao Xiang Zhi. And the Arab army was led by Ziyad ibn Salih. The battle lasted three days and no one could win. The Altai tribe of Karluks turned the situation around. They supported the Arabs and attacked the Chinese. The defeat of the aggressors was complete. After this, the Chinese Empire vowed to expand its borders to the west.

Ziyad ibn Salih was executed for participation in the conspiracy about six months after the brilliant victory at Talas. In 755, Abu Muslim was executed. The authority of this man was enormous, and the Abbasids feared for their power, although they received it precisely thanks to Muslim.

In the 8th century, the new dynasty retained the former power of the lands entrusted to it. But the matter was complicated by the fact that the caliphs and members of their families were people with different mentalities. Some rulers had Persian mothers, others Berbers, and still others Georgians. There was a terrible mess there. The unity of the state was maintained only due to the weakness of its opponents. But gradually one islamic state began to fall apart from the inside.

First, as already mentioned, Spain separated, then Morocco, where the Kabyle Moors lived. After this it was the turn of Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Central Asia, Khorasan, eastern regions Persia. The Arab Caliphate gradually disintegrated into independent states and ceased to exist in the 9th century. The Abbasid dynasty itself lasted much longer. It no longer had its former power, but attracted the eastern rulers because its representatives were the viceroys of the prophet. That is, the interest in them was purely religious.

It was only in the second decade of the 16th century that the Ottoman Sultan Selim I forced the last Abbasid caliph to renounce his title in favor of Ottoman sultans. Thus, the Ottomans acquired not only administrative and secular, but also spiritual supremacy over the entire Islamic world.

Thus ended the history of the theocratic state. It was created by the faith and will of Muhammad and his companions. It has achieved unprecedented power and prosperity. But then, thanks to internal strife, a decline began. And although the caliphate itself collapsed, this did not affect Islam in any way. It’s just that Muslims were divided into ethnic groups, because in addition to religion, people are also connected by culture, ancient customs and traditions. They turned out to be fundamental. This is not surprising, since all the peoples and states of our multinational world have gone through similar historical vicissitudes..

The article was written by Mikhail Starikov

The Arab Caliphate arose in the 7th century. in the southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula as a result of the decomposition of the tribal system among the Arabs who inhabited this territory - settled farmers and nomads and their unification under the banner of the religion of Islam.

Before the formation of the Arab Caliphate, the vast majority of the population of Arabia were nomadic pastoralists who were at the stage of tribal relations. They inhabited vast areas of the Arabian steppes and semi-deserts, known as “Badawi”. This word passed into European languages in the form of Arabic plural- Bedouin. The Bedouins were engaged in cattle breeding, mainly camel breeding.
Each tribe (depending on its size and the size of the territory it occupied) consisted of a large or small number of clans and clans.
At the head of each tribe was its leader - the seyid (lord); in a time closer to us, they began to call him a sheikh.
Individual clans and large groups of nomads also had their own sayyids. IN Peaceful time The seyid was in charge of migrations, chose a place for the camp, was a representative of his tribe and negotiated on its behalf with other tribes. If the tribe did not have a judge, he would deal with disputes and litigation among his fellow tribesmen, and in special cases he could perform the duties of a minister of religious worship. In raids and war, the Sayyid commanded the armed detachment of his tribe; then he was called rais (leader).
Each tribe, or even a large clan, was a completely independent organization, independent of anyone.
The main reason Since the emergence of the state, the Arabs had a class stratification. In addition, the economic crisis associated with overpopulation and the need to increase the area of pastures was of no small importance. The Arabs needed new territories and sought to invade Iran and Byzantium. The crisis contributed to the unification of Arab tribes into alliances and the creation of a single Arab state throughout Arabia.
The desire for unification found its ideological expression in the teachings of the Hanifs, who preached faith in one god - Allah, and in Islam (“submission”) - a Mohammedan religious teaching, the founder of which is considered to be Muhammad, who lived from approximately 570 to 632.
Islam originated in Central Arabia. Its main center is Mecca, where the founder of Islam, Muhammad, was born and lived. The city of Mecca stood in the way of large trade caravans that were heading from Yemen and Ethiopia to Mesopotamia and Palestine. This point, which grew into a city large by Arabian standards, acquired ever-increasing religious significance in ancient times.

Muhammad belonged to the Hayshim family, which did not possess wealth and did not enjoy influence. Consequently, he and his immediate circle could well be imbued with the interests and needs of the middle and small Meccan trading people.
The activities of the first Muslims in Mecca ended in complete failure. Having received no support either from the population of the city or from the Bedouins from the surrounding areas, the first Muslims decided to move to Yathrib Medina. There the Meccan settlers began to be called Muhajirs. They had to commit a formal act of voluntary dissolution of family ties with their fellow tribesmen.
Further, a special organization was formed in Medina - the ummah (community of believers). The Muslim Ummah, which united fellow believers, was a theocratic organization. The believers who entered it were convinced that they were ruled by Allah through his messenger. A few years later, the entire Arab population of Medina had already become part of the Muslim community, and Jewish tribes were evicted and partially exterminated. As a religious teacher who constantly communicated with Allah, Muhammad served as the ruler of Medina, judge and military leader.
On January 13, 624, the first battle of Muslims led by Muhammad with the Meccans took place. The battle lasted only a few hours. The Muslims were victorious and captured rich booty. Muhammad acted wisely with the prisoners: he released the captive women and children. Muhammad's generosity did its job. A recent opponent, Malik Ibn Auf, who commanded a Bedouin tribe in a battle with Muhammad, himself converted to Islam. The Bedouin tribes under his control followed his example. So Muhammad expanded his influence step by step.
After this, Muhammad decided to push back the Jews. The latter could not withstand the siege and, starved to death, surrendered. They had to leave Arabia and settle in Syria. Over time, other tribes of Central Arabia surrendered to Muhammad, and he became the most powerful ruler in the region.
Muhammad died in Medina in 632. The death of Muhammad raised the question of his successor as the supreme head of the Muslims. By this time, Muhammad's closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From among them they began to choose individual Muslim leaders.
Abu Bekr, Muhammad's closest ally, was proclaimed the head of the community. In accordance with the gradually developing Islamic law, the appointment of Abu Bekr as heir was made through elections and legitimized by an oath taken by shaking hands, with those present giving a solemn ceremony
a promise for those who were absent. Abu Bekr took the title of caliph, which means “deputy”, “successor”.
The caliphs Abu Bekr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) were called “righteous.” Their accession to the throne was still elective. During their reign, numerous territories in Asia and Africa were conquered, which were part of the Byzantine Empire and the Iranian kingdom. As a result of these conquests, the vast state of the Arab Caliphate was formed.

Arab Empire

The history of the Arab Caliphate can be represented by the following main periods: period - the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of the state (VI-VII centuries); The period is Damascus, or the period of Umayyad rule, during which the heyday of the state falls. The Caliphate becomes a feudal state (661-750); The period is Baghdad, or the period of Abbasid rule. The creation of a vast Arab empire, its further feudalization and the collapse of the state (750-1258) are associated with it.
The collapse of the Caliphate began in the 8th century. In 756, the Emirate of Cordoba in Spain separated from it, which in 929 became an independent caliphate. Later, Tunisia and Morocco, and then other parts of the empire, seceded from the Caliphate. In the middle of the 9th century. Egypt separated. The power of the caliph was preserved by the middle of the 10th century. only in Arabia and part of Mesopotamia adjacent to Baghdad.

In 1055, after the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad, the Arab Caliphate lost its independence.
In 1257-1258 As a result of the invasion of Genghis Khan, the remnants of the once powerful state - the Arab Caliphate - were destroyed.

Civilizations of the East. Islam.

Features of the development of Eastern countries in the Middle Ages

Arab Caliphate

Features of the development of Eastern countries in the Middle Ages

The term “Middle Ages” is used to designate the period in the history of the Eastern countries of the first seventeen centuries of the new era.

Geographically, the Medieval East covers the territory of North Africa, the Near and Middle East, Central and Middle Asia, India, Sri Lanka, South-East Asia And Far East.

In the historical arena during this period appeared peoples, like Arabs, Seljuk Turks, Mongols. New religions were born and civilizations arose on their basis.

The countries of the East in the Middle Ages were connected with Europe. Byzantium remained the bearer of the traditions of Greco-Roman culture. The Arab conquest of Spain and the Crusaders' campaigns in the East contributed to the interaction of cultures. However, for the countries of South Asia and the Far East, acquaintance with Europeans took place only in the 15th-16th centuries.

The formation of medieval societies of the East was characterized by the growth of productive forces - iron tools spread, artificial irrigation expanded and irrigation technology was improved,

leading trend historical process both in the East and in Europe there was a confirmation of feudal relations.

Re-odization of the history of the medieval East.

I-VI centuries AD – the birth of feudalism;

VII-X centuries – period of early feudal relations;

XI-XII centuries – pre-Mongol period, the beginning of the heyday of feudalism, the formation of the estate-corporate system of life, cultural takeoff;

XIII centuries - time Mongol conquest,

XIV-XVI centuries – post-Mongol period, conservation of the despotic form of power.

Eastern civilizations

Some civilizations in the East arose in ancient times; Buddhist and Hindu - on the Hindustan Peninsula,

Taoist-Confucian - in China.

Others were born in the Middle Ages: Muslim civilization in the Near and Middle East,

Hindu-Muslim - in India,

Hindu and Muslim - in the countries of Southeast Asia, Buddhist - in Japan and Southeast Asia,

Confucian - in Japan and Korea.

Arab Caliphate (V – XI centuries AD)

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the 2nd millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples.

In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, and was engaged in crafts and trade. The other part roamed the deserts and steppes and was engaged in cattle breeding.

Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. In this oasis lived the Arab tribe Quraysh, whose tribal nobility, using the geographical location of Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.

Besides Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. An ancient pre-Islamic temple was located here Kaaba. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Qureish tribe Allah(from Arabic ilah - master).

REASONS for the emergence of Islam: In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, due to the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade decreases. The population, having lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to seek sources of livelihood in agriculture. But there was little land suitable for agriculture. They had to be conquered. This required strength and, therefore, the unification of fragmented tribes, who also worshiped different gods. More and more clearly defined the need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis.

This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Muhammad(c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam.

This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity. : belief in one God and his prophet,

the Last Judgment,

afterlife reward,

unconditional submission to the will of God (Arabic: Islam - submission).

The Judaic and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced are common for these religions the names of prophets and other biblical characters: biblical Abraham (Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Elijah (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus ( Isa), Mary (Maryam), etc.

Islam shares common customs and prohibitions with Judaism. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, prohibit depicting God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.

In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina). This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim calendar.

However, only in 630, having gathered the required number of supporters, he was able to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, especially since they were satisfied that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.

Much later (c. 650) after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected in a single book Koran(translated from Arabic means reading), which became sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.

Later Islamic religious literature is called sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who accepted the Koran and Sunnah began to be called Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran - Shiites.

Shiites recognize as legitimate caliphs(vicars, deputies) of Muhammad, spiritual and secular heads of Muslims only his relatives.

Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, began a series of conquests. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem.

Until the end of the 7th century. The countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia came under Arab rule.

In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, and North-West Africa were captured.

In 711, Arab troops led Tariqa swam from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from the name of Tariq came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tariq). Having quickly conquered the Pyrenees, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel. By the middle of the 9th century. The Arabs captured Sicily, Sardinia, the southern regions of Italy, and the island of Crete. At this point, the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. The Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.

The unification of many formerly separate and warring states into a single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts and trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture quickly developed, incorporating Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage. Through the Arabs, Europe became acquainted with the cultural achievements of the eastern peoples, primarily with achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.

In the western part of the caliphate, Spain continued to be ruled by the Umayyads, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Cordoba Caliphate with its capital in the city of Cordoba.

The division of the Arab Caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were the rulers of the provinces - emirs.

The Abbasid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbasid state ceased to exist.

The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab caliphate as a state ended.

The caliphate as an institution for the spiritual leadership of the Arabs and all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function passed to the Turkish Sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.

The history of the Arab Caliphate, dating back only six centuries, was complex, controversial and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution of human society on the planet.

The difficult economic situation of the population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone, it became necessary to search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here took the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for the fight against infidels (non-believers). Guided by the ideology of Islam, the caliphs carried out a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of formerly scattered tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Being one of the youngest in the east, occupying the most offensive position among them, having absorbed the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge influence on the spiritual life of Western Europe, posing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages .

Along with Byzantium, the most prosperous state in the Mediterranean throughout the Middle Ages was the Arab Caliphate, created by the Prophet Mohammed (Muhammad, Mohammed) and his successors. In Asia, as in Europe, military-feudal and military-bureaucratic systems arose sporadically state entities usually as a result of military conquests and annexations. This is how the Mughal empire arose in India, the empire of the Tang dynasty in China, etc. A strong integrating role fell to the Christian religion in Europe, the Buddhist religion in the states of Southeast Asia, and the Islamic religion in the Arabian Peninsula.

The coexistence of domestic and state slavery with feudal-dependent and tribal relations continued in some Asian countries during this historical period.

The Arabian Peninsula, where the first Islamic state arose, is located between Iran and Northeast Africa. During the time of the Prophet Mohammed, born around 570, it was sparsely populated. The Arabs were then a nomadic people and, with the help of camels and other beasts of burden, provided trade and caravan connections between India and Syria, and then North African and European countries. The Arab tribes were also responsible for ensuring the safety of trade routes with oriental spices and handicrafts, and this circumstance served as a favorable factor in the formation of the Arab state.

1. State and law in the early period of the Arab Caliphate

Arab tribes of nomads and farmers have inhabited the territory of the Arabian Peninsula since ancient times. Based on agricultural civilizations in southern Arabia already in the 1st millennium BC. early states similar to the ancient eastern monarchies arose: the Sabaean kingdom (VII–II centuries BC), Nabatiya (VI–I centuries). In large trading cities, urban self-government was formed according to the type of the Asia Minor polis. One of the last early South Arab states, the Himyarite kingdom, fell under the blows of Ethiopia and then Iranian rulers at the beginning of the 6th century.

By the VI–VII centuries. the bulk of the Arab tribes were at the stage of supra-communal administration. Nomads, traders, farmers of oases (mainly around sanctuaries) united family by family into large clans, clans - into tribes. The head of such a tribe was considered an elder - a seid (sheikh). He was the supreme judge, the military leader, and the general leader of the clan assembly. There was also a meeting of elders - the Majlis. Arab tribes also settled outside Arabia - in Syria, Mesopotamia, on the borders of Byzantium, forming temporary tribal unions.

The development of agriculture and livestock breeding leads to property differentiation of society and to the use of slave labor. Leaders of clans and tribes (sheikhs, seids) base their power not only on customs, authority and respect, but also on economic power. Among the Bedouins (inhabitants of the steppes and semi-deserts) there are Salukhi who have no means of subsistence (animals) and even Taridi (robbers) who were expelled from the tribe.

The religious ideas of the Arabs were not united into any ideological system. Fetishism, totemism and animism were combined. Christianity and Judaism were widespread.

In the VI Art. On the Arabian Peninsula there were several independent pre-feudal states. The elders of the clans and tribal nobility concentrated many animals, especially camels. In areas where agriculture was developed, a process of feudalization took place. This process engulfed the city-states, particularly Mecca. On this basis, a religious and political movement arose - the caliphate. This movement was directed against tribal cults for the creation of a common religion with one deity.

The Caliphic movement was directed against the tribal nobility, in whose hands there was power in the Arab pre-feudal states. It arose in those centers of Arabia where the feudal system acquired greater development and meanings - in Yemen and the city of Yathrib, also covered Mecca, where Muhammad was one of its representatives.

The Mecca nobility opposed Muhammad, and in 622 he was forced to flee to Medina, where he found support from the local nobility, who were dissatisfied with competition from the Mecca nobility.

A few years later, the Arab population of Medina became part of the Muslim community, led by Muhammad. He performed not only the functions of the ruler of Medina, but also was a military leader.

The essence of the new religion was to recognize Allah as one deity, and Muhammad as his prophet. It is recommended to pray every day, count out a fortieth part of your income for the benefit of the poor, and fast. Muslims must take part in the holy war against the infidels. The previous division of the population into clans and tribes, from which almost every state formation began, was undermined.

Muhammad proclaimed the need for a new order that excluded inter-tribal strife. All Arabs, regardless of their tribal origin, were called upon to form a single nation. Their head was to be the prophet-messenger of God on earth. The only conditions for joining this community were recognition of the new religion and strict compliance with its instructions.

Mohammed quickly gathered a significant number of followers and already in 630 he managed to settle in Mecca, whose inhabitants by that time had become imbued with his faith and teachings. The new religion was called Islam (peace with God, submission to the will of Allah) and quickly spread throughout the peninsula and beyond. In communicating with representatives of other religions - Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians - Mohammed's followers maintained religious tolerance. In the first centuries of the spread of Islam, a saying from the Koran (Sura 9.33 and Sura 61.9) about the prophet Mohammed, whose name means “gift of God”, was minted on Umayyad and Abbasid coins: “Mohammed is the messenger of God, whom God sent with instructions to the right path and with true faith, in order to elevate it above all faiths, even if the polytheists are dissatisfied with this.”

New ideas found ardent supporters among the poor. They converted to Islam because they had long ago lost faith in the power of tribal gods, who did not protect them from disasters and devastation.

Initially the movement was folk character, which scared off the rich, but it didn't last long. The actions of the adherents of Islam convinced the nobility that the new religion did not threaten their fundamental interests. Soon, representatives of the tribal and trading elites became part of the Muslim ruling elite.

By this time (20–30 years of the 7th century) the organizational formation of the Muslim religious community, headed by Muhammad, was completed. The military units she created fought for the unification of the country under the banner of Islam. The activities of this military-religious organization gradually acquired a political character.

Having first united the tribes of two rival cities - Mecca and Yathrib (Medina) - under his rule, Muhammad led the struggle to unite all Arabs into a new semi-state-semi-religious community (umma). In the early 630s. a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula recognized the power and authority of Muhammad. Under his leadership, a kind of proto-state emerged with the spiritual and political power of the prophet at the same time, relying on the military and administrative powers of new supporters - the Muhajirs.

By the time of the death of the prophet, almost all of Arabia had fallen under his rule, his first successors - Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, nicknamed the righteous caliphs (from "caliph" - successor, deputy) - were in friendly and family ties with him. Already under Caliph Omar (634 - 644), Damascus, Syria, Palestine and Phenicia, and then Egypt, were annexed to this state. In the east Arab state expanded into the territories of Mesopotamia and Persia. Over the next century, the Arabs conquered North Africa and Spain, but failed twice to conquer Constantinople, and were later defeated in France at Poitiers (732), but maintained their dominance in Spain for another seven centuries.

30 years after the death of the prophet, Islam was divided into three large sects, or movements - the Sunnis (who relied in theological and legal issues on the Sunna - a collection of legends about the words and deeds of the prophet), the Shiites (considered themselves more accurate followers and exponents of the views of the prophet, as well as more accurate executors of the instructions of the Koran) and the Kharijites (who took as a model the policies and practices of the first two caliphs - Abu Bakr and Omar).

With the expansion of the borders of the state, Islamic theological and legal structures were influenced by more educated foreigners and people of other faiths. This affected the interpretation of the Sunnah and the closely related fiqh (legislation).

The Umayyad dynasty (from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the Abbasid dynasty that followed them (from the descendants of the prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.

The emerging state decided one of most important tasks, facing the country - overcoming tribal separatism. By the middle of the 7th century. the unification of Arabia was largely completed.

Muhammad's death raised the question of his successors as supreme leader of the Muslims. By this time, his closest relatives and associates (tribal and merchant nobility) had consolidated into a privileged group. From among her, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs (“deputies of the prophet”).

After the death of Muhammad, the unification of the Arab tribes continued. Power in the tribal union was transferred to the spiritual heir of the prophet - the caliph. Internal conflicts were suppressed. During the reign of the first four caliphs (“righteous”), the Arab proto-state, relying on the general armament of the nomads, began to rapidly expand at the expense of neighboring states.

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Caliphate - what is it? The Arab Caliphate, its emergence and collapse. History of the Caliphate

The first caliphs

Umayyad Dynasty

Abbasid Dynasty

1. State and law in the early period of the Arab Caliphate