Mushroom body It is represented by mycelium, or mycelium, and consists of thin branching threads called hyphae. Fungi are characterized by asexual reproduction by spores, parts of mycelium, or budding. In some species, sexual intercourse is possible. Sexual reproduction occurs with the formation of gametes in special organs - antheridia and archegonia.

According to the structure of the mycelium mushrooms are divided into lower and higher.

Lifespan of mycelium lower fungi is several days. Their hyphae do not have partitions and are giant, highly branched cells with numerous nuclei. An example of such fungi is mucor, or capitate mold. It can often be found in the form of white fluff on spoiling vegetables, fruits, berries, and bread. Hence the name “molds”. They live on soil and foods rich in carbohydrates. On the mycelium of mucor, black rounded heads are visible - sporangia, in which spores are formed. They serve for asexual reproduction. Mucor can also reproduce by dividing the mycelium.

Mycelium cap mushrooms located in the soil, and on its surface forms a large fruiting body, consisting of a stalk (stump) and a cap. The cap is designed to form spores. Its top layer - the skin - is usually colored. The lower layer is represented by plates in lamellar mushrooms (volnushki, russula, milk mushrooms) or penetrated by tubes in tubular mushrooms (boletus, boletus, boletus).

Cap mushrooms called symbiont mushrooms. It is known, for example, that saffron milk caps are found in pine and spruce forests, porcini mushrooms near birch, pine, spruce and oak trees. Fungal hyphae enter into symbiosis with tree roots (the so-called mycorrhiza, or fungal root). Mycelium threads entwine the roots and penetrate into them, replacing the tree with root hairs. The mycelium absorbs water and solutions from the soil minerals and guides them into the roots of the tree. In return, it receives organic substances (carbohydrates) that the plant produces during photosynthesis.

The meaning of mushrooms

Mushrooms have great value in nature and economic activity person. Saprophytic fungi participate in the cycle of substances, decomposing plant residues and replenishing the supply of minerals in the soil. Yeasts are also saprophytes. They develop on a sugary medium and cause alcoholic fermentation. They are widely used in winemaking, brewing, baking, and for the production of technical alcohol. Brewer's yeast is often prescribed to patients suffering from hypovitaminosis, as it contains thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and other vitamins. Nutritional yeast contains up to 55% protein, which is similar in composition to meat proteins. IN agriculture feed yeast is used. Various types Penicillium is used to prepare Roquefort and Camembert cheeses in order to give them a specific aroma and taste.

Many cap mushrooms(about 200 species) are edible and are human food. They contain many mineral salts and vitamins. Mushroom proteins make up up to 30% of their mass, but only two-thirds are absorbed in the human digestive tract. The most commonly eaten mushrooms are porcini mushrooms, boletus, aspen mushrooms, milk mushrooms, russula, chanterelles, boletus, and honey mushrooms. Champignons and oyster mushrooms are artificially bred from cap mushrooms.

It must be borne in mind that poisoning from stale or old edible mushrooms, as well as poisonous (about 25 species are known), are extremely severe and can lead to death. Therefore, when collecting mushrooms, you need to be able to distinguish poisonous ones from edible ones. Most poisonous pale grebe, fly agaric, gall mushroom, false chanterelles and false honey mushrooms.

House mushroom and tinder fungus destroy wood. Polypore spores infect the tree through various damage to the trunk or branches and germinate. The resulting mycelium destroys the wood and makes it rotten. The affected tree usually dies. The fruiting body of the tinder fungus is perennial and resembles a hoof in shape. Spores form on its lower surface.

Currently, there are about 100,000 species of fungi described, but some estimates there may be about 1.5 million.

Taxonomy

Kingdom Mushrooms

Subkingdom Fungiformes

Subkingdom Real mushrooms (do not form motile cells at any stage of the life cycle)

Department Zygomycetes (belong to lower fungi)

Division Ascomycetes, or marsupial fungi

Division Basidiomycetes

Division Deuteromycetes (Imperfect fungi)

The body of the mushroom consists of long threads - gif.

The hyphae grow apically (at the apex) and can branch to form a dense intertwined network -- mycelium, or mycelium.

Mycelium is located in the substrate (soil, wood, living organism) or on its surface.

The growth rate of mycelium depends on environmental conditions and can reach several centimeters per day.

In basidiomycetes, the mycelium is often perennial, while in other fungi it is annual. Since the mycelium grows apically, its growth is centrifugal. The oldest part of the mycelium in the center gradually dies off and the mycelium forms a ring. In addition, some fungi secrete substances that interfere with plant growth (amensalism), and the plant cover forms rounded “bald spots.”

Rice. "Witch's Ring"

TYPES OF MYCELIUM

• non-cellular (non-septate) mycelium: formed by one multinucleated giant cell (for example, in zygomycetes);
• cellular (septate) mycelium: there are intercellular partitions (septa); cells are mononucleate or multinucleate. INCell walls may have openings through which cytoplasm and organelles (including nuclei) freely flow from cell to cell.

In ascomycetes mycelium dikaryotic(consists of binucleate cells).

Rice. Mycelium: 1 - unicellular (non-septate); 2 - multicellular (septate); 3 - dikaryotic (yeast).

The fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes are formed by false tissue plectenchyma(pseudoparenchyma), consisting of densely intertwined mycelial hyphae. Plectenchyma, unlike ordinary parenchyma, is formed not by three-dimensionally dividing cells, but by strands of hyphae.

Hyphae are capable of uniting into long cords - rhizomorphs(ancient Greek - root-like form): the outer cells of the cord are denser and perform a protective function, the inner, more delicate cells perform a conducting function.

Rice. Rhizomorphs

To withstand unfavorable conditions, many mushrooms form dense round bodies formed by a plexus of hyphae - sclerotia(ancient Greek - hard). On the outside, the sclerotia are covered with a hard, dark shell that protects the inner light, delicate hyphae containing nutrients. When germinating, sclerotia give rise to mycelium; sometimes a fruiting body is immediately formed from them.

Rice. Ergot sclerotia

SCLEROTIA

FUNCTIONS OF GIF (MYCELIUM):

Physiology of fungi

NUTRITION OF MUSHROOMS

Based on the sources of organic substances used, mushrooms are divided into 4 groups.

Molecules of organic substances that make up living organisms and their remains cannot pass through the cell wall of fungi, so fungi secrete digestive enzymes into the substrate. These enzymes break down organic substances into low molecular weight compounds, which the fungus can absorb on its surface (osmotrophic type of nutrition).Thus it happens external digestion mushrooms

• Predatory mushrooms: actively catch prey using modified hyphae (catching loops, etc.).
• Symbiotic mushrooms: enter into symbiosis with various autotrophic organisms (lower and higher plants), receiving organic substances from them, and in return supplying them with mineral nutrition.

SYMBIOSIS

• Mycorrhiza (fungal root): symbiosis of fungi with the roots of seed plants.
  Since the absorption area of ​​fungal hyphae is much larger than the area of ​​the root absorption zone, the plant receives much more minerals, which allows it to grow more actively. The plant, in turn, gives the fungus some of the carbohydrates, products of photosynthesis.

Rice. Mycorrhiza

SYMBIOTE MUSHROOMS

MUSHROOMS PROPAGATION

Asexual reproduction:

• multicellular and unicellular parts of mycelium
• sporulation
  endogenous spores (sporangiespores) are formed in sporangia
  exogenous spores (conidiospores = conidia) are formed in conidia
• budding (in yeast)

Rice. Sporulation of mold fungi: conidia of penicillium (a) and aspergillus (b); sporangiospores mucor (c)

Sexual reproduction:

Real fungi do not have motile cells, so the fusion of cells of two individuals occurs through the growth and convergence of hyphae.

• fusion of gametes formed in gametangia (isogamy, heterogamy, oogamy);
• somatogamy: fusion of two cells of vegetative mycelium;
• gametangiogamy: fusion of two sexual structures not differentiated into gametes;
• hologamy: fusion of cells of unicellular fungi.

In addition to asexual sporulation, sexual sporulation also occurs in fungi: the formation of spores by meiosis after the fusion of the genetic material of gametes or nuclei.

Rice. Mucor and its sporangium

REPRODUCTION OF MUKOR

Division Ascomycetes (Marsupials)

• About 30,000 species.
• Saprotrophic soil and mold fungi that settle on bread, vegetables and other products.
• Representatives: penicillium, yeast, morels, lines, ergot.
• The mycelium is haploid, septate, branching. Through the pores, the cytoplasm and nuclei can pass into neighboring cells.
• Asexual reproduction by conidia or budding (yeast).
• During sexual reproduction, bags (asci) are formed, in which haploid spores of sexual sporulation are formed during meiosis.
  
  

YEAST

Yeast presented a large number species widely distributed in nature.

Unicellular or bicellular fungi vegetative body which consists of mononuclear oval cells.

Different species of yeast can exist in diploid or haploid phases.

Yeast is characterized by aerobic metabolism. They use various sugars, simple and polyhydric alcohols, organic acids and other substances as a carbon source.

The ability to ferment carbohydrates, breaking down glucose to form ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide, served as the basis for the introduction of yeast into culture.

WITH6 N12 ABOUT6 С6Н12О6 → 2 WITH2 N5 ABOUTN 2C2H5OH + 2 WITHABOUT2 2CO2

Yeast reproduces by budding and sexually.

Under favorable conditions, yeast long time They reproduce vegetatively - by budding. A bud appears at one end of the cell, begins to grow and separates from the mother cell. Often the daughter cell does not lose contact with the mother cell and begins to form buds itself. As a result, short chains of cells are formed. However, the connection between them is fragile, and when shaken, such chains break up into individual cells.

With a lack of nutrition and excess oxygen occurs sexual reproduction: Two cells fuse to form a diploid zygote. The zygote divides by meiosis to form a bursa with 4 ascospores. The spores fuse to form a new diploid yeast cell.

Rice. Budding and sexual reproduction of yeast.

Outwardly, it resembles black and purple horns (sclerotia) protruding from the ear. They consist of tightly intertwined hyphae.

Rice. Ergot

LIFE CYCLE OF ERGOT

Binuclear mycelium forms fruiting bodies, known as cap mushrooms.

Rice. The structure of cap mushrooms

On the underside of the cap there is a spore-forming layer (hymenophore), on which special structures are formed - basidia.

To increase the surface of the hymenophore, the lower part of the cap is modified:

• in lamellar mushrooms, the hymenophore has the shape of radially diverging plates (russula, chanterelle, milk mushroom, champignon);
• in tubular mushrooms, the hymenophore has the appearance of tubes that fit tightly to each other (boletus, aspen boletus, oiler, boletus).

Some mushrooms produce velum(= velum = cover) - a thin shell that protects the fruiting body of the mushroom at a young age:

• general veil: covering the entire fruiting body;
• private veil: covers the lower surface of the cap with the hymenophore.

As the fungus grows, the coverings tear and remain on the fruiting body in the form of rings and a rim. (Volvos) on the stalk, various scales and flaps covering the cap. The presence of veil remains and their characteristics are important for identifying fungi.

Rice. The rest of the blanket (velum) on the fly agaric

When smut is infected, instead of grain, black dust is obtained, which is spores of the fungus. The ears become like charred firebrands. Infection by some species occurs during the flowering stage of cereals, when spores from the infected plant fall on the stigmas of the pistils of healthy plants. They germinate, the hyphae of the fungus penetrate the embryo of the seed, and a caryopsis is formed, which is apparently healthy. The next year, at the time of flowering, sporulation of the fungus begins, no flowers are formed, and the inflorescence takes on a charred appearance.

Rice. Smut

Polypores have a tubular perennial hymenophore that grows annually from below.

A tinder spore, once on a wound in a tree, grows into a mycelium and destroys the wood.

After a few years, perennial hoof-shaped or disc-shaped fruiting bodies are formed.

Polypores secrete enzymes that destroy wood and turn it into dust. Even after the death of the tree, the fungus continues to live on the dead substrate (as a saprotroph), producing large number spores and infect healthy trees.

Therefore, it is recommended to remove dead trees and fruiting bodies of polypores from the forest.

Rice. Pine polypore ( edged tinder fungus) Rice. Scaly polypore (variegated)

DEPARTMENT DEUTEROMYCETES, OR IMPERFECT FUNGI

• Deuteromycetes occupy a special position among mushrooms.
• They reproduce only asexually - by conidia.
• The mycelium is septate.
• All life cycle takes place in the haploid stage, without changing nuclear phases.

These fungi are “former” ascomycetes or, less commonly, basidiomycetes, which in the process of evolution have lost sexual sporulation for one reason or another. Thus, deuteromycetes represent a phylogenetically diverse group.

meaning of mushrooms

• They are the main decomposers during wood decomposition.
• They are food for many species of animals, being the beginning of detrital food chains.
• Food product with high nutritional value.
• Yeast cultures are used in food industry(bakery, brewing, etc.)
• Chemical raw materials for production citric acid and enzymes.
• Receiving antibiotics (eg penicillin).

Botany- science that studies the plant kingdom (Greek. nerd- grass, plant).

The ancient Greek scientist Theophrastus (III century BC), a student of Aristotle, created a system of botanical concepts, systematizing and summarizing all the knowledge of farmers and doctors known at that time with his own theoretical conclusions. It is Theophrastus who is considered the father of botany.

Modern botany- science of morphology, anatomy, physiology, ecology and taxonomy of plants

Signs of the Plant Kingdom

• eukaryotes;
• autotrophs (photosynthesis process);
• osmotrophic type of nutrition: the ability of cells to absorb only low molecular weight substances;
• unlimited growth;
• sedentary lifestyle;
• reserve substance - starch (accumulates in plastids during photosynthesis);

Features of the structure of a plant cell (Fig. 1):

• cell wall made of cellulose
  The presence of a cell wall prevents the penetration of food particles and large molecules into the cell, so plant cells absorb only low-molecular substances (osmotrophic type of nutrition). Plants absorb from environment water and carbon dioxide, for which the cell membrane is permeable, as well as mineral salts, for which cell membrane there are channels and carriers.
• plastids (chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leucoplasts);
• large central vacuole
  Bubble containing cell sap surrounded by a membrane - tonoplast. The tonoplast has a system of regulated transporters that transport various substances into the vacuole, maintaining the desired salt concentration and acidity in the cytoplasm. In addition, the vacuole provides the necessary osmotic pressure in the cell, which leads to the appearance turgor- tension on the cell wall, which maintains the shape of the plant. The vacuole also serves as a site for storing nutrients and storing metabolic waste.
• There are no centrioles in plant cell centers.

Rice. 1. plant cell

plant classification

The main ranks of plant taxa are distributed according to principle of hierarchy(subordination): larger taxa unite smaller ones.

For example:

Plant Kingdom

department Angiosperms

class Dicotyledons

family Asteraceae

genus Chamomile

type Chamomile

Life form- external appearance of the plant.

The main life forms: tree, bush, shrub and grass.

Tree- a perennial plant with a large woody trunk.

Bush- a plant with numerous medium-sized lignified trunks that live no more than 10 years.

shrub- a low-growing perennial plant with lignified trunks, up to 40 cm high.

Herbs- grassy green shoots that die off annually. In spring, biennial and perennial grasses grow new shoots from wintering buds.

higher and lower plants

Different groups of plants differ significantly in structure.

Lower plants do not have organs or tissues. Their body is thallus, or thallus. TO lower plants include algae. Most of them live in aquatic environment. Under these conditions, they receive nutrition by absorbing substances over the entire surface of the body. All or most of the cells of these plants are exposed to light and are capable of photosynthesis. Therefore they have no need to fast movement substances throughout the body. The cells of these plants in most cases have the same structure.

Other photosynthetic organisms are also found in the aquatic environment. These are primarily cyanobacteria, which are sometimes called blue-green algae. These are prokaryotic organisms that are not plants.

Higher plants that live in water are often called algae. In these cases, the term "algae" is used in an ecological rather than a systematic sense.

Higher plants have functionally different organs formed by specialized cells. Basically, they live on land. They receive water and mineral nutrition from the soil, and in order to carry out photosynthesis they must rise above its surface, therefore, such plants require the movement of substances between parts of the body (conductive tissue) and mechanical support and support ground-air environment(mechanical and integumentary tissue).

The presence of specialized cells, tissues and organs allowed them to achieve large sizes and explore a wide range of habitats. Many representatives of higher plants returned to the water for the second time. In fresh water bodies they make up the bulk of aquatic vegetation.

“Store substances” is not a very precise term if it refers to substances stored for future use for future use, since their origin and functions are not always clear. These may also include some antibiotics, such as polyacetylenes accumulated in large quantities, pigments and wastes and products of their resynthesis after other biosynthetic processes, such as volutin. In this case, we will only talk about reserve substances for direct use, i.e. carbohydrates, fats and urea.

Among the carbohydrates localized in fungal cells, they are characterized by glycogen, mannitol, and the disaccharide trehalose (or mycosis). Amount of glycogen in fruiting bodies and fungal mycelium can vary from 1.5 to 40% depending on the type of fungus and the age of the fruiting body. In young fruiting bodies and mushroom cultures, it is correspondingly greater by a whole order of magnitude than in old ones with mature spores.

Trehalose - a disaccharide (α-D-glucoside-α, D-glucoside) is usually found in small quantities, usually in tenths of a percent relative to the mass of dry mycelium, but sometimes its amount reaches 1-2%. Its use is apparently associated with the accumulation of hexahydric alcohol, mannitol, which can accumulate up to 10-15% in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms, especially in the hymenium of basidiomycetes. IN significant quantities it is found in species of the genus Boletus (B. scaber, B. aurantiacus, B. crassus). Mannitol is more characteristic of more mature mycelium and fruiting bodies, as can be seen from the example of fruiting bodies Phallus impudicus, in which it predominates over trehalose. Apparently, during the metabolism of trehalose in these fruiting bodies, mannitol can be synthesized. Both trehalose and mannitol, among other organisms, are found mainly in insects.

Among other substances, the mycelium of mushrooms often contains a lot of fat, which accumulates in the form of drop-shaped inclusions, which can be consumed by mushrooms during growth or sporulation. In young mycelium of Penicillium chrysogenum its amount can reach up to 35%, while in aging mycelium it drops to 4-5% of the mass of dry mycelium.

Mushroom fats typically have a high content of unsaturated fatty acids, oleic, linoleic, linolenic and other liquid acids. room temperature, and a large amount of unsaponifiable lipids, i.e. steroids. In the mycelium of Penicillium chrysogenum, the amount of steroids such as ergosterol reaches 1% of the mass of dry mycelium. There is reason to believe that in some fungi, at certain stages of their development, steroids can make up up to 80% of the composition of their fat fraction, and these are often biologically active substances, toxins or vitamins.

The accumulation of fats in mushrooms often depends on the age of the culture or on the composition of the nutrient medium, in particular on the presence of carbohydrates in it. As noted, with increasing glucose concentration in the medium, the amount of fatty substances increases. Although there is no direct proportionality between the accumulation of fats and an increase in glucose concentration, in order to double the amount of fatty substances in the mycelium of a wood-decaying fungus, it turned out to be necessary to increase the sugar concentration in the nutrient medium from 10 to 40% (Ripacek, 1967).

Mushrooms ( Mycota)

Fungi are heterotrophic organisms, the body of which is called mycelium (mycelium), consisting of individual threads - hyphae with apical (apical) growth and lateral branching. The mycelium penetrates the substrate and absorbs nutrients from it with its entire surface (substrate mycelium), and is also located on its surface and can rise above the substrate (surface and aerial mycelium). Reproductive organs are usually formed on aerial mycelium.

There are non-cellular, or coenotic mycelium, devoid of partitions and representing, as it were, one giant cell with a large number of nuclei, and cellular, or septate mycelium, divided by partitions - septa into individual cells containing from one to many nuclei. For representatives of the classes Chytridiomycetes, Oomycetes and Zygomycetes, conventionally called lower fungi, characterized by noncellular mycelium. Everyone has higher mushrooms– ascomycetes, bisidiomycetes and deuteromycetes – cellular mycelium.

The cell membrane contains chitin. Spare nutrient glycogen (animal starch).

Fungi reproduce vegetatively, asexually and sexually.

Based on the structure of the mycelium and the characteristics of sexual reproduction, six main classes of fungi are distinguished: Chytridiomycetes– chytridiomycetes, Zygomycetes– zygomycetes, Ascomycetes– ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes– basidiomycetes, Oomycetes– oomycetes and Deuteromycetes– deuteromycetes.

In medicine, baker's yeast and ergot are used from the class of ascomycetes, or marsupial fungi, from the class of basidiomycetes - chaga (mow fungus or birch fungus), from deuteromycetes - species of the genus Penicillium.

A revolutionary event in the history of medicine was the discovery of the first antibiotic penicillin, obtained from fungi of the genus Penicillium. Penicillin is active against all staphylococcal infections and gram-positive bacteria and is almost non-toxic to humans. Despite the fact that many synthetic derivatives of penicillin have now been introduced into medical practice, the basis for obtaining this medicinal raw material is the industrial cultivation of penicillium.

Chaga preparations have a stimulating and tonic effect on the body, have antibiotic properties against many microorganisms, cure gastritis, and promote resorption malignant tumors in the early stages of development.

Yeast, used for a number of branches of the food industry (production of beer, wine, etc.), is itself nutritious, as it contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins. Highest value for a person has Saccharomyces cerevisiae(baker's yeast). Yeast biomass is well absorbed by the human body, so yeast is specially grown for medicinal purposes. They are used in liquid form and in tablets.

Ergot is used as a source of alkaloids that cause contraction of smooth muscles, used in gynecological practice.

Many mushrooms have valuable nutritional and medicinal properties. The science of treating various diseases with mushrooms is called fungotherapy.