home For men Give a description of the reign of the first Russian princes. Russian princes of the 9th–19th centuries

Give a description of the reign of the first Russian princes. Russian princes of the 9th–19th centuries

Forbidden Rus'. 10 thousand years of our history - from the Flood to Rurik Pavlishcheva Natalya Pavlovna

Princes Ancient Rus'

Princes of Ancient Rus'

Let me make a reservation once again: in Rus' there have been princes, as they say, from time immemorial, but these were the heads of individual tribes and tribal unions. Often the size of their territories and population, these unions exceeded the states of Europe, only they lived in inaccessible forests. What historians would later call Kievan Rus was a super-union of tribal alliances. And now the princes of the Rurikovich family, who were first invited and then received power by inheritance, appeared in it.

First the founder of the family Rurik.

Historians have found only one prince with this nickname (this is not a name, Rurik means Falcon). And his mother’s name was Umila, and she was the daughter of the Obodritsky prince Gostomysl. Everything seems to fit, but the debate continues. Let's try to figure it out. First, about Rurik’s grandfather.

Gostomysl More than once he is called the Prince of Bodrite. What would that mean? After all, Ilmen lived with Slovenes, Chud, Merya, Vse, Krivichi, but no Obodrits. Sound familiar? “Tea, suitcase, cheburek, Cheboksary... There are no Cheburashki...” But there were. Just not near Novgorod, but where would you think? That's right, on the territory of what is now Germany! German annals of 844 tell about the campaign of King Louis the German (quite historical figure, and the campaign was) to the lands of the Obodrites, that is, the Baltic Slavs, one of whom was Gostimusl. Most of the Obodrite princes turned out to be cunning; they swore allegiance to Louis, and as soon as the danger had passed, they broke the oath without hesitation. This is not what “our” Gostimusl is like! He died, but did not give up! Do you like this ancestor? Then read on.

If we accept that same inflexible Gostimusl as the Novgorod Gostomysl, then I wonder how he could manage to punish his fellow tribesmen about his grandson in the middle of a battle, and even before that consult with the wise men? During lunch break? But perhaps he did not die directly on the battlefield and still managed to punish. Then what does Novgorod have to do with it, which generally appeared much later than this most tragic incident? And yet there is a rational grain in everything (maybe the ancient Russian chroniclers saw it?). It is mentioned in passing in the manuscripts that Gostomysl’s grandson (not the one who had to be called, but the other, older one) Vadim, nicknamed the Brave, fled (apparently with the remnants of the undead tribe) to Ilmen and sat down there. It was on this spot that the ancient city of Slovenesk once stood and Novgorod arose.

But there is another opinion that Vadim is not connected with Gostomysl in any way, and Rurik was really called to encourage him, and he came to Ilmen not only without an invitation, but quite the opposite, as an invader. Maybe too. Who needed to make Gostomysl a Novgorod elder? Probably, I wanted to rehabilitate Rurik.

But let's go back to the first one, the former for a long time official version.

So, Gostomysl had four sons, some who died in battle, some while hunting, and three daughters. The son of the eldest of them, Beautiful, Vadim, although he was Brave, for some reason his fellow tribesmen did not really like him (“because he was worthless”). The middle daughter Umila married, according to some sources, King Ludbrant Bjorn from the Scandinavian family of Skjeldungs. She had two sons (although in general Ludbrant had much more), one of whom was the same Gerraud, nicknamed Rurik.

Does everything fit? It seems, but there is one “but” (ancient Russian history is full of these “buts”). The Obodrites were Western Slavs and lived along the Oder and Elbe (Laba) rivers, therefore they are also called Polabian Slavs, later the Germans came to these lands, and Slavic history ended here (to continue at Ilmen?). One of the Obodrite cities was the city of Rerik. Historians agree that the city is large and rich, but there’s just one catch: they can’t find where it stood. Now they believe that this is Mecklenburg.

After visiting the glorious city of Rerik Tatiami, under the wise leadership of the Danish king Gottrick, merchants from this shopping center moved to another nice city Hedeby (before that he was called Slisthorp). They crossed on their own or under escort - history is silent about this, only Rerik began to wither after such injustice, until in 844 he was captured and ruined by another well-wisher, Louis. It is called "obodritskaya" theory.

By the way, in Mecklenburg there was a legend that the prince of the Obodrits, Godolub, had three sons: Rurik, Sivar and Truvar. They came to Russia and began to rule - Rurik in Novgorod, Sivar in Pskov, and Truvar in Beloozero. If you remember from school history textbooks, Rurik settled in Novgorod, and his brothers Truvor and Sineus in Izborsk (near Pskov) and Beloozero (on Onega). I just wonder if the legend was copied from our chronicles, does the chronicle repeat the legend, or are they really talking about the same event?

German chronicles report that King Ludbrant Bjorn from the Scandinavian family of Skjeldungs was married to the daughter of the Obodritic prince (or governor?) Gostomysl (probably not only her, but this is no longer relevant) Umila and had two sons from her - Harald and Guerrauda.

If you delve thoroughly into the Scandinavian sagas, then in the ancestors of Ludbrant Bjorn you can easily find not only legendary personalities from the history of the Scans (and the Skjeldungs are one of the oldest and most glorious families), but also the god Odin himself (!). There is nothing to be surprised here, we went through this (and are going through it now). How long ago was it that every horse (except perhaps zebras) in our stables certainly traced its ancestry back to Budyonny’s First Horse, and its owner was a hereditary farm laborer (read: “labor peasantry”) or a worker of the Kirov plant (read: “hegemon”). The wind of history changed, and the horses turned out to be the descendants of the handsome men of the ceremonial dressage of the court of His Imperial Majesty, and the owners suddenly discovered their noble roots and began to attend balls in the Assembly of the Nobility. It all depends on desire. “Do you want to be happy? Be it!” – this is what the unforgettable Kozma Prutkov used to say. The same can be said about the pedigree, if you really want to, you can find any roots. But that's not what we're talking about.

So, somewhere in 780, a distant descendant of Odin, Ludbrant Bjorn from the Skjeldung family, was expelled from his native Jutland (for those who skipped geography at school, let me remind you: this is the peninsula on which Denmark is now, and not only it) was expelled, presumably , not for smoking in public places, and became a vassal of Charlemagne, the one who gathered almost all of Europe into one big pile. The Great One also needs dashing people in his service, Vikings in the sense, so Ludbrant received from him in 782 a fief, that is, for external administration (read: “robbery”), Friesland. The land is rich, Umila’s husband lived with his large family, not so much in poverty, until 826, when he went to his god Odin, being called. The fief passed to the eldest son Harald.

This eldest was baptized that same year with his entire family (most likely, his younger brother with him) in Ingelheim and came under the protection of the heir of the Great Charles, Louis the Pious. For which, apparently, he received a richer fief - Rustingen in Friesland. Not surprisingly, the Vikings were baptized a dozen times, or even more, for the sake of rich gifts, while remaining pagans at heart. After his death, the flax went to the younger Gerraud, but in 843 it went to Lothair, another heir to Father Charles.

What did the Vikings do if they were deprived of feeding places? That's right, they went out for free robbery! Gerraud from the Skjeldung family, presumably, showed Lothair what he was capable of, since he backed down and returned Friesland to him on the terms of protecting the lands from the rest of the raiders. But either it became boring to stay at home, or flax gave little wealth, only in 850 Gerraud, whose nickname was Rurik, which means Falcon, moved his longships to the east of the Varangian Sea, that is, to Lake Nevo, where he plundered the ancient city Ladoga and took a good tribute from it. A Viking named Rolf also took part in this campaign, who was nicknamed the Pedestrian due to his heavy weight by his colleagues in the robbery (not a single horse could stand it, he had to move on his own two feet). Allegedly, this same Rolf nailed a white shield to the gates of Ladoga as a sign that the city surrendered without a fight. The case, in general, was ordinary, only Ladoga did not have any gates, since it was not a city. A city is, first of all, a fortress, and Ladoga at that time did not have a fortress.

We will talk about Ladoga itself later, but remember the name Rolf Pedestrian, this man may have played a huge role in the history of Rus'. After such a feat as nailing down a shield, Rolf became a friend of Gerraud-Rurik, this led to their kinship. It is believed that Rurik himself (for the umpteenth time!) married Rolf’s half-sister Efande, and Rolf did not spare his daughter Silkizif as his wife (why should we spare them?).

Apparently, for some reason Lothair did not like the behavior of Rurik, who suddenly in 854 replaced Friesland, dear to Falcon’s heart, with Jutland.

This “free Cossack” » Gerraud-Sokol Ludbrantovich Victorious Trustworthy and called Ladoga, “without remembering the insults,” to her (as a defender from other raids, one must think?) in 862 (870?), according to fellow monk Nestor, ruled by fellow abbot Sylvester. It’s not surprising, many did the same, but here it turns out that they even clicked on their prince’s grandson. Who else, if not him, would build fortresses and improve life so that trading boats could safely sail not only along the Volkhov, but also along the Varangian Sea? And he did! I staged it in Ladoga and Novo Grad. He strengthened, so to speak, the borders of the Slavic land.

One note. The chronicles say that Rurik settled first in Ladoga, and then in Novgorod, and his name was from Novgorod. If you remember, Veliky Novgorod stands in the place where the ancient Volkhov flows out of Lake Ilmen, heading towards Lake Ladoga (formerly Nevo). But archaeologists, no matter how much they look for traces Togo They cannot find Novgorod before the 11th century. And they cannot decide in relation to which city they called it new. To ancient Slovenesku? But it is unlikely that Rurik could remember this. To Ladoga? But it was not a city.

But in one of the chronicles Novgorod is named differently - Nevogorod, that is, a city standing on the Nevo (a lake, not a river). In the time of Rurik, the Neva River did not yet exist, I have already mentioned this, but on Lake Nevo (Lake Ladoga) there supposedly stood Big city in the area of present-day Priozersk, exactly where ancient lake poured into the Varangian (Baltic) Sea.

So, maybe, the name of Rurik from Nevogorod was called and Novgorod was called new in relation to him? Or was Nevogorod the name of ancient Ladoga, and in relation to it Novgorod was called “new”? History is waiting to be solved. Maybe it will be possible to unearth traces of ancient Nevogorod, this will explain a lot. One can also recall the testimony of the ancient Arabs that the capital, and indeed the entire land of the Rus, stands on a huge island with very wet soil and a damp climate. By the way, it is quite similar to the Karelian Isthmus. Now it is an isthmus, but before, in fact, it was a huge island. How do you like this mystery? The places, by the way, are the most beautiful and rich, although they are indeed damp.

And one more version on the topic of why King Rurik practically did not poke his nose further than Ladoga for some time and why Ladoga itself, which did not have protection in the form of a fortress, was rarely subjected to ruin by its northwestern neighbors who were eager for other people’s goods.

Not so long ago, scientists suddenly remembered that the Volkhov River, on which Ladoga stands, was not always quiet and calm. The fact is that the ancient Volkhov has rapids slightly higher and lower downstream than Ladoga. Now most of them are hidden under the waters of the reservoir for the Volkhov hydroelectric power station, but in the time of Rurik they looked very intimidating: a narrow passage between steep banks, a strong oncoming current and the impossibility of going around along the shore. In such places, even the strongest squad inevitably found itself under targeted fire from the aborigines. So, maybe the famous king sat in Ladoga for a long time until he reached an agreement with the Ilmen elders? Then his calling is really more like simple hiring.

The main objection of those who do not believe in the calling of this particular Rurik (although they do not know others) still remains that Gerraud-Rurik appeared every now and then in Skiringssal - the main city of the Vikings, where they quite successfully traded in looted goods and collected tribute . Even, they say, he went to Lothair and later, in 873, received a new flax from another Charles - the Bald (he was also called Tolstoy, this apparently depended on the height of the caller himself, whoever was taller saw a bald spot, whoever was shorter saw a belly), and or rather, the old one - Friesland. I begged for it!

So what? Why can you go on raids for a year or two and then return as master, but not from Ladoga? From Friesland it is much more dangerous, there are many rivals, and they are looking to grab it for themselves, and Ladoga is already beyond the Nevo and, again, under the supervision of Rolf, who received a new nickname in return for the Pedestrian. They began to call him Helgi, that is, the Wise Leader. Who said that this same Wise Leader ruled worse than the Falcon himself? We know that it’s better, much better, because this Helga Slavs Olga(and we are in Oleg) were remade and over time they gave their nickname - Prophetic!

And it is also clear that the German chronicles say nothing about his, Rurik’s, valiant deeds on the land of Ilmen. Maybe he didn’t shout in the squares about his conquests, so why reveal his secrets? Firstly, the places are rich, who knows? Secondly, maybe he was called up under an employment agreement, so to speak, and therefore is not the owner, which is also not appropriate to inform everyone about. Who will figure it out after so many years? In short, this Rurik was silent in his mustache and tried to sit on two chairs - not to miss the Slavs, and his Friesland too. It seems that we succeeded.

And the system of government with an invited prince, who could be turned away by the veche at any moment, took root in Novgorod; there were only such princes there. In general, our Rurik is even in some sense a pioneer. Know-how, so to speak.

Another note: the chronicler links the emergence of Rurik as a prince to the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Michael (who, by the way, had a fairly understandable nickname for us: “The Drunkard”). This is all because the Byzantine chronicles first mention the Rus in connection with their raid on Constantinople in 864–865. So, Emperor Michael III really reigned from 842 to 867, but the chronicler calls the first year of his reign 852, thus pushing back all dates by ten years. “And from the first summer of Mikhailov to the first summer of Olgov, Prince of Russia, 29 years; and from the first summer of Olgov, who was still gray in Kyiv, to the first summer of Igor, 31 years old; and from the first summer of Igor to the first summer of Svyatoslavl is 33 years,” etc. This is where all the official dates are taken: respectively, 852–881-912-945. By the way, not a word about Rurik here! It’s a strange forgetfulness, but it would be a sin not to mention the founder of the dynasty.

But if we start from the real beginning of the reign of Emperor Michael - 842, then we get real nonsense: 842-871-902-935. Later readers will understand why. I wonder if the chronicler got it wrong or deliberately distorted the dates? By the way, this gave rise to a great many hypotheses: about the existence of two princes Olegs, one of whom was connected with Rurik, and the second was not, about who Prince Igor was and what relation he had to everyone else...

It seems clear about Rurik Lyudbrantovich the Victorious, but what next? Well, he came, well, he corrected it with the help of a relative, well, he left... Either he sailed back to Friesland, or he died (or even died) - historians have not yet decided. The fact is that they cannot find graves with a golden coffin, like the prince apparently had. But that's not what we're interested in. By the way, in addition to the “Tale” itself, the mention of Rurik nowhere, it really seems that the news about it is simply far-fetched. According to Nestor, edited by Sylvester, Rurik left behind a son Igor under the supervision of that same Rolf-Oleg, who is the Prophet.

And this is where the real detective story begins.

The next ruler according to the official version is Prince Oleg. He ruled first Novgorod, and then Kiev as regent of the young Prince Igor, but essentially for himself. About this prince, too, countless copies have been broken; according to the chronicle, he was all positive (how could it be otherwise, after all, they entrusted an heir!), with one drawback - he was a pagan. For which he paid with death, predicted by his own wise men, from a snake bite. First, objections, and then about the real merits of the Grand Duke.

The chronicle says that he was simply a mentor to the prince because of his youth. Other historians object, they say, Rurik has nothing to do with it at all, Prince Oleg was on his own, and did not come to Kiev from Novgorod, but quite the opposite, from Kiev he subjugated a free city on the banks of the Volkhov (having established it first?). Regarding the uncle-mentor: it took a long time to instruct, because in the year of Prince Oleg’s death, “baby” Igor was at least 37 years old! And Rurik bequeathed Novgorod to his son, and Prince Oleg took Kyiv on his own initiative, he could have left his ward to be devoured by the Novgorod boyars, why take him with him? They would have reminded the prince of Rurik’s murder of Vadim the Brave. Once upon a time, the outstanding Russian historian Tatishchev noticed that the chronicler who wrote “The Tale” was not very knowledgeable in the history of the first princes of Kievan Rus. Well, it looks a lot like that...

But the Lord is with him, with where he came from, the main thing is that he captured Kyiv by deception: according to the chronicle, he sailed, masquerading as a merchant caravan, lured the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir to his shore and killed them. In Kyiv they still remember Askold’s grave. And it’s nothing that Dir, apparently, lived many years before Askold, was far-fetched - and that’s all. There is an opinion that Askold also lived long before the Rurikovichs, about a hundred years ago. Let’s not touch the story about Askold and Dir now, let’s return to Prince Oleg.

Oleg took Kyiv with a firm hand, it was not very difficult, the glades were distinguished by a calm and flexible disposition, they probably didn’t care whether Askold or Oleg. All one thing is that tribute was paid to the Khazars (Askold was a Khazar tadun - a tribute collector). They did not forget about the ruined prince, but perhaps only those who, ten years earlier, fled from Novgorod to Kyiv from Rurik, resisted. But the prince consistently tortured the surrounding tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners, Ulichs, Tiverts, Radimichis and others. Some with fighting, like the Drevlyans (they never missed a chance for a century without kicking), and some almost peacefully. He imposed tribute, also not the same, whoever obeyed himself, reasoning that the Khazars were far away, and the prince and his retinue were nearby, the easier it was, and those like the Drevlyans, the heavier.

The poet noticed one thing correctly: the death of the prince was predicted by a magician. It is a magician, not a sorcerer. Is there a big difference? There are a few, the magicians are the priests of the Finno-Ugric tribes, they could not treat the invader prince with ardent love, they were the first to suffer from the rule of the Varangian squads on the Novgorod land. Could they have slipped the prince an asp? Quite, but something else is more likely. Prince Oleg was sick before his death, maybe they bullied him first, and then blamed everything on the poor snake?

This is about death. But the prince is famous for his deeds.

It was he who called Kyiv the future mother of Russian cities (practically declared it the capital); under him, for the first time, the words were uttered in an interstate agreement “We are from the Russian family...” The contract needs to be discussed separately.

As already said, the prince himself did not fight the Khazars, but he went to Constantinople, that is, Byzantium, and with great success.

A little “alien” history. The life of Rus' cannot be considered separately from its neighbors. No matter how some tribes were cut off by forests and swamps from the rest of the world, they still had to trade, and therefore enter into relationships with other peoples. Especially those who sat on navigable rivers.

The most famous chronicle, The Tale of Bygone Years, tells us about several trade routes. First of all, about the path "from Greek to Varangians." Exactly: from Greek, emphasizing that the Varangians went their own way to the Greeks. What is the difference? The Greeks sailed to the Varangians, that is, to the Varangian (and now Baltic) Sea, through Rus'. To do this, it was necessary to go from Constantinople (now Istanbul), which the Russians called Tsar-grad, the Black Sea to the mouth of the Dnieper, rise against the current to the portages to Lovat, sail along it to Lake Ilmen (this is all to the north, to the north), from Ilmen to Volkhov, along it through the rapids to Lake Nevo (Ladoga), and then to the Varangian Sea. The Neva River, which now connects Lake Ladoga with the Baltic Sea and on which Tsar Peter later cut his window to Europe - the city of St. Petersburg - did not exist then, the lake simply merged in a wide stream into the sea much further north, where there are now many small channels Vuoksa River. The Neva River is the youngest river in Europe, the bottom of Lake Nevo (Ladoga) simply rose, its waters remained locked for some time, but then they broke through a new channel and turned into a river.

And here Varangians to the Greeks they walked a different route - by sea around Europe, which they had tormented. Why? There were quite a lot of difficulties on the waterway from the Greeks to the Varangians. First of all, these were heavy portages, when the ships had to be placed on rollers and dragged along clearings, at the risk of being turned into a pile of firewood for the stove during this time. Secondly, the Dnieper rapids, the names can tell about the difficulty of their passage - Issupi, which means “don’t sleep”, Leandi - “boiling water”... And the rapids near Ladoga left little chance of getting out dry, or rather, alive.

The Russians went to the Greeks on one-tree boats, which the Byzantines called monoxyls. They were single-shafted not because they were shuttles, but because the keel was cut out of one huge tree, so it was stronger, and the sides of the boat were sewn with boards, they could be quickly disassembled and reassembled after passing the rapids. For Varangian heavy longships with a deep sea landing, such a journey is like death. It’s easier to go around Europe by sea.

True, the Scandinavians still sailed both Volkhov and Ilmen, and dragged ships, but only to the east, along the Volga to the Khvalynsky (Caspian) Sea and to the Arab Caliphate. It was difficult to get there through the Greeks; Byzantium always fought with the Arabs, just as the Arabs did with it.

This concerns trade routes. Now about the neighbors.

Word Khazars everyone heard. Who is this, what kind of country is Khazaria? Why does this name sound like a curse even to us, the distant descendants of those Russians who neighbored it in the 8th–10th centuries? Genetic memory, no less. By the time described, the Khazar Kaganate, with its capital city of Itil, located on the Volga, was one of the strongest in its region, its power extended to the entire Black Sea region from the Volga to the Dnieper (by the way, Scythian territories!). Hundreds of thousands of Slavic captives were sold in the slave markets of Khazaria. The Khazars were able to escape from power by moving to other lands, the Bulgarians, who created Danube Bulgaria, and the Ugrians (Hungarians), who fled beyond the Carpathians.

Khazaria waged constant wars with the Arab Caliphate for Transcaucasia and with Byzantium for the Crimea region. By the 8th century, a somewhat strange situation had developed in the state; Khazaria was clearly divided in two: the bulk of the population were Muslims, and the ruling elite were Jews. In the capital Itil, areas were not simply populated by religion, there were even courts, cemeteries, and markets separately for Muslims and separately for Jews (Karaites).

The heyday of Khazaria was the 8th century, when East Slavic tribes, rich in fast food (furs), fish, honey, wax, timber, and most importantly, servants (slaves), paid tribute to it. In the 9th century, the Kiev prince Oleg, having tortured some of these tribes, forced them to pay tribute to themselves, and not to the Khazars. The Russians began to actively fight back against the weakening Khazaria, and in the 10th century, Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich completely defeated the Khazars, destroying the Khazar Khaganate as a state.

Khazaria either fought or went hand in hand with another neighbor of Rus' - Byzantium. Rus' did not border directly with Byzantium, but the tribute collected from Lake Nevo to the Dnieper rapids was sold primarily in the markets of Constantinople (Constantinople). And the Greeks themselves actively traded in Kyiv, Podol, in the markets in Novgorod, in Gnezdovo and along the entire waterway. Peace in Rus' largely depended on the change of power in Byzantium and on the ability of the Greeks to negotiate (simply bribe) with their neighbors.

By the time Prince Oleg came to power in Kyiv, the Slavs’ relations with Byzantium were not the best, that is, they did not exist. In 860, one of the Slavic princes made an exceptionally successful raid on Constantinople, taking a large tribute and leaving the Greeks with a souvenir of trembling knees at the mention of the word “Rus”. Historians cannot decide which of the princes it was. The chronicle states that Askold and Dir, but places the raid in 860, and the Greeks describe their horror at the appearance of Slavic rooks under their walls in 866.

Byzantium was able to simply buy itself off with gold, expensive gifts, and even baptize the prince of the Rus for money. Note that in those days baptism itself was not something out of the ordinary; for the majority it did not really mean anything. The Varangians were often baptized more than a dozen times in order to receive rich gifts, and after that they held funeral feasts for the dead, like ordinary pagans. In any case, information about the priests who were sent with the baptized prince to Rus' has not been preserved; no one knows where they went. Pagan Rus' was capable of grinding down even a smaller landing force to convert to a new faith.

Byzantium itself was famous not so much for its strength as for its wealth and ability to bribe everyone and everything. The Byzantine emperors manipulated neighboring countries according to the “bribe and conquer” principle. More than once they sent the same Khazars or Pechenegs against the Rus, pitted the Bulgarians against the Ugrians...

From time to time we will make small excursions into the history of Byzantium to try to explain certain events.

But let us return to Prince Oleg, who was not yet called the Prophetic. Let us recall that, according to the chronicle, he appeared in Kiev with little Igor in his arms, deceived the Kiev princes (or prince) onto the banks of the Dnieper, killed them and declared Kiev the mother of Russian cities (by the way, in Greek “demetria”, which is literally translated simply means capital). Apparently, the people of Kiev liked the prospect of becoming metropolitan things, they did not particularly resist.

Prince Oleg placed his governors in the Dnieper fortresses and took care of the surrounding tribes. Those who did not immediately recognize him as their superiors were subject to a large tribute, and those who did not seem to mind were subject to a small tribute. In addition, he began to pay tribute... to the Varangians, or rather, he instructed the Novgorodians to do this. The Ilmen people didn’t like this arrangement much, but, apparently, they had already experienced the heavy hand of the prince, so they agreed so that it wouldn’t get any worse.

Why did Prince Oleg pay (even from the pockets of the Novgorodians) tribute to the Varangians, with whom there seemed to be no war, as the prince himself said, “dividing peace”? The calculation is correct, it is easier to pay off the raiders so that others are not allowed in, than to scour the entire coast after them or keep a large squad in Novgorod for protection. This was a common practice of a strong state that did not want to waste precious forces on repelling small attacks. Rus' acted as a strong state.

But almost at the same time, Rus' was paying another tribute, as a defeated side asking for peace. Under the year 898, the “Tale” modestly mentions that, almost by accident, people suddenly found themselves under the walls of Kyiv Ugrians (Hungarians), standing up. And then they suddenly took it and left to the west to fight the Slavs, the Volokhs, sitting there, to push back the Greeks, Moravians, and Czechs. Why would it be necessary to leave the walls of an already rich city?

The enemies, roaming in a huge camp, stood in circles around the capital city. This was a mortal danger for Kyiv! And the Russian chronicler seems to accidentally miss the essence of the matter, did he not know or did he deliberately hide it? And what's the catch? The answer was found from a Hungarian chronicler. He paints the usual picture for such “courtesy visits”: the Hungarians went around the area, taking “estates”, plundered towns and villages, and finally stood near Kyiv. That's when a Russian embassy appeared in the camp of the Hungarian leader Almos. As a result of negotiations, the Rus sent hostages to the Ugrians, provided food, clothing, fodder and other supplies for the road, and also pledged to pay an annual tribute of 10 thousand marks. Almos and his nobles, having accepted the advice of the Rus, concluded a “strong peace” with them. Somewhat strange behavior - to leave on the advice of the besieged. And what kind of strong peace is this between the nomads (at that time the Ugric-Hungarians were still nomads) and the Russians?

If you trace the further history of the development of their relationship, it becomes clear what the ambassadors of Prince Oleg were talking about in the Almosh camp. The Hungarians and Russians acted almost simultaneously against Byzantium for many decades of the 10th century, sometimes even waiting for each other. It is not for nothing that the Emperor of Constantinople, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, in his works more than once put the enemies of the empire - the Ugrians and Russ - next to each other. We will also remember as the story progresses about their union.

Judging by the events of the following years, Prince Oleg concluded such an agreement not only with the Ugrians, but also with the Bulgarians. About Bulgaria It’s worth telling in more detail.

The Byzantine emperors, in pursuit of spiritual power over everyone, warmed this asp on their chests. In Constantinople he studied at the Magnavra school for ten years. younger son Bulgarian Prince Boris Simeon(future Great). Bulgaria in those years was a serious friend-enemy of Byzantium and a very strong state. In Constantinople they hoped that, having learned to read and write in Greek, having gained intelligence there, Simeon would not forget his alma mater and, on occasion, would put in a word about it. I didn’t forget to say my word.

Simeon did not immediately become king. His father, Prince Boris I, under pressure from Byzantium, he baptized the Bulgarians in 864, and in 889 he voluntarily entered a monastery, leaving power to his eldest son Vladimir (not to be confused with ours, they had their own Vladimirs!). But unlike our Vladimirs, who are famous Christians, theirs turned out to be a pagan and tried to return everything to normal. The father did not watch this disgrace for a long time, took time off from the monastery, ran to Preslava (this is their capital), quickly blinded his son, declared his third son heir and returned back. Whether his absence was noted or not in the monastery, we don’t know, but Simeon became a Bulgarian prince, having escaped from the Byzantine capital for the sake of such a social burden and replacing the monastic schema with chain mail. Ten years later, in 903, Simeon was tired of being called a prince, he declared himself king.

But regardless of who he was called, having received power, he immediately began to fight with his teachers (they taught him well). Considering that Simeon knew well the weaknesses of the empire and its strengths, he fought successfully; the Bulgarians several times approached the very walls of Constantinople. And apparently, Prince Oleg had an agreement similar to the Ugric one with the Bulgarians.

Under 907, the Tale reports that the Kiev prince Oleg, leaving Igor in Kyiv, undertook a campaign against Constantinople. And not just a campaign, but the so-called Great Skuf, that is, he assembled a whole army of Varangians, Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Polyans, Northerners, Vyatichi, Croats, Dulebs, Tiverts, Chuds, Meris...

The Greeks, having learned about the approach of the Russian army, closed their harbor with a chain (they had such a technique) and locked themselves in Constantinople. The Russians, coming ashore, thoroughly plundered the area, and then put their ships on wheels and moved on dry land under sails to the walls of the city! Ours are no strangers to normal dragging, but the Byzantines were horrified. In addition, cavalry detachments joined the ships from land. They could only appear by passing through the territory of Bulgaria. Here the Greeks fully realized the treachery of the Bulgarian prince Simeon! If he had caught the eye of the Byzantine Emperor Leo and his co-ruler Alexander, he would have been incinerated by one glance from the monarchs, but the Bulgarian was far away, and the Russians stood under the walls. Panic reigned in the city.

The Greeks tried to resort to their favorite method - to poison the prince-invader, but Oleg, the Prophet, guessed about their treachery, did not eat the poison, which plunged the unfortunate Greeks into complete despondency. The poor fellows had to sprinkle the ashes of their hopes on their heads, that is, ask for peace and promise to pay tribute.

The Russians at first simply demanded a huge indemnity, which threatened to ruin the unfortunate Constantinople, but when the Greeks were ready for this, they suddenly changed their requests. The tribute remained large, but not so huge, but the Greeks undertook to pay it annually and to all Russian cities that took part in the skufi, Russian merchants received unprecedented privileges - they could trade in Constantinople duty free, they received “slebnoe”, that is, maintenance for the entire time stay, provisions and ship equipment for the return journey and the right to wash for free in the baths of Constantinople...

The Greeks breathed a sigh of relief, tomorrow is not today, the main thing is to fight back now, and we will see. They understood what they were doing, it was the Russians who swore before their gods Perun and Veles “by company,” their oath had no statute of limitations, but the Byzantine emperors habitually swore by kissing the cross. And for them, the oath was valid only as long as there was no new threat of attack; later Byzantium demonstrated this more than once; in addition, the death or death of one of the monarchs who entered into the treaty automatically meant its termination, and monarchs in Byzantium were often overthrown.

But at that moment the Greeks were ready to do anything just to send these unheard-of impudents away from their fortress walls. There is a legend that Prince Oleg nailed a shield to the gates of Constantinople as a sign that the city was taken without a fight. Nothing surprising, by the way, it seems that the Varangians did the same. Such information, as well as ships moving on land, caused a hysteria of denial among Western historians according to the principle “this cannot be, because it cannot be!” Moreover, the Greeks strictly forbade their chroniclers to record such an unsightly event for posterity. Nothing surprising either, remember the Ugrians under the walls of Kyiv, about whom the Russian chroniclers modestly kept silent. True, a renegade was found, he wrote, but the ancient censorship did not notice, they are far from Comrade Beria!

Since the time of the Prophetic Prince, historians have made countless copies about the likelihood and improbability of this campaign. There are tons of those who, in a brilliant demonstration by the Russians to the Byzantines own strength firmly believes, but no less than those who insist on the chronicler’s invention. What is in doubt, well, except for damaged gates and ships under sail on the bare shore?

First of all, the Byzantines themselves lack records of the event (one literate traitor does not count). Secondly, the absence of the text of the treaty of 907, because only a translation was found from the Greek treaty of 911, which contains references to the previous one. In fact, it’s strange to refer to something that never happened, but this doesn’t bother opponents. But when a single record was discovered of an attempt to attack Constantinople in 904 by the Arab naval owner Leo of Tripoli, this information was immediately declared absolutely reliable, and the defeat that the above-mentioned unfortunate hero suffered from the Byzantine admiral of the Empire was attributed to the Kyiv prince Oleg. They say that a little later the Ross-Dromites (Slavic-Varangian freemen who lived at the mouth of the Dnieper and along the Black Sea coast) also tried to attack Constantinople, but were saved only thanks to the supernatural abilities of their leader Ross, otherwise they would have been destroyed by another Byzantine naval commander - John Radin . This is what Nestor supposedly merged all together in his chronicle, only with the opposite result. What to believe?

But let's return to fellow monk Nestor.

An agreement was concluded with Byzantium according to all the rules, and it was in it that the phrase was first heard "We are from the Russian family." Somewhat later, the Russians noticed a flaw in the agreement, the Greeks granted them “chrisovul”, that is, they seemed to show mercy to the winners. Prince Oleg did not like this much, and he pretended that he was going to Constantinople again, the Greeks believed and the treaty was re-concluded in 911 without any chrisovuls, Rus' was recognized as equal to the arrogant Byzantium. True, so far only on paper, that is, parchment, real equality has not come soon!

Question. Usually, the Byzantines, when concluding an agreement with someone, wrote it in two copies in two languages - Greek proper and the language of the second party. Then a copy was made from the “stranger”, which was given to the contracting parties as a souvenir, so to speak... In what language was the second copy of the agreement with Oleg the Prophet written? In Russian, what else (naturally, Old Russian)!

This is understandable, but how did they write it? Cyrillic? Glagolitic? Or even runes? The prophetic Oleg was a tough prince and did not accept any Byzantine tricks; if his conditions were not met, he could again show such a “Kuzka’s mother” that the Byzantines would quickly learn runes too. He did not allow into Rus' either preachers of foreign faiths or those wishing to teach literacy invented by the holy brothers; perhaps this explains the absence for a long time in Rus' of books written in Cyrillic.

So how were the agreements with the formidable prince written? Isn’t this the secret of the absence of their copies among Byzantine rarities, because the arrogant Romans more than once declared that the Rus had no written language (we didn’t have sex in the Soviet Union, but for some reason children were born). Or rather, it was not until they (these stupid Rus) were made happy by the intelligent Byzantines. How then to explain to the world community the presence of some runes and signatures of Byzantine emperors under them?

And their own Russian princes, who also considered literacy exclusively a gift from Byzantium, were probably also not very keen to preserve such seditious evidence to the contrary. How else can we explain the fact that the text of such an important treaty was not found in Rus'? Did they let you light the stove?

It should be noted how well the moment of the campaign was chosen, as in 860. When, at the beginning of 907, Byzantine troops moved against the advancing Arabs, the head of the provincial Byzantine nobility Andronikos Dukas, who secretly contacted the same Arabs, rebelled. He was supported by the Patriarch of Constantinople, Nicholas the Mystic. In the city, as in the empire itself, discord reigned. Relations with Bulgaria were also turbulent (remember Tsar Simeon?). It's time to demand what's due from the proud empire, which is in a difficult situation; the Russians knew what they were doing. But this speaks of well-organized intelligence activities of the Russians and the ability to negotiate.

One interesting note. In the treaty(s) the Byzantines are called Greeks. We will not argue about the first treaty, but the second one, supposedly rewritten from Byzantine sources, sins in the same way. Why does he sin? The fact is that the Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans and “Greeks” was an offensive word for them, something like “Jew”, “Khokhol” or “chock”. What is this? Were the Russians so frightened that they even agreed to be called Greeks, just so that they would get out of sight? Or was it a later copyist who screwed it up? What then is the path from the Greeks to the Varangians? If you remember a little geography, you will inevitably agree that the Greeks themselves lived only in a small part of the huge Eastern Roman Empire, and this hardly gave reason to call them after the Byzantine rulers. By the way, the Slavs clearly called “theirs” and “theirs” with unequal respect; they had Polyans, Drevlyans, Vyatichi, Krivichi, Radimichi, etc., but the Finno-Ugric tribes were called Chud, Merya, all... A thousand years later we Following the chronicler, we do not hesitate to call the Byzantines Greeks.

According to the agreement with Byzantium, the Rus were supposed to help it military force if necessary, and the Greeks had this all the time. They loved to fight with someone else's hands! But even here, Prince Oleg managed to preserve his, or rather, Russian interests. How? Let's return to our friends the Khazars. Yes, yes, I didn’t make a mistake, which doesn’t happen in life for money, especially Greek money! The fact is that the Rus helped the Byzantines with military force, but in their own interests. The Greeks, as already mentioned, were at war with the Arabs, and one of the types of assistance could be the diversion of forces Arab Caliphate far from the Byzantine shores. But Rus' did not border anywhere with the Arabs! But she nevertheless made a raid on the lands subject to the caliphate, passing through the territory of... Khazaria! This was in 909–910.

A little bit of geography. To get to the coast of the Caspian Sea from Kiev, you need to either fly by plane, as now, or, as in the times of Rus', sail along the Dnieper to its mouth, then go by sea around the Crimea to the mouth of the Don, climb along the Don to the portages to the Volga (Itil), go down it to the Caspian Sea and only there sail to the desired cities. The most difficult and dangerous path, running through the lands of Khazaria, with portages on the site of the current Volga-Don Canal past the famous Sarkel (White Vezha) fortress, which the Khazars built with the help of the ubiquitous Greeks to protect against Russian squads...

And yet the Russians passed it by agreement with Byzantium, with the full support of the Khazars. With what pleasure would the Khazars destroy these new allies of their allies! But they were forced, gritting their teeth, to watch the Russian boats. The Russes attacked the Caspian coast as snow avalanche in the middle of summer! Well, who could wait for the sworn enemies of Khazaria beyond the mouth of the Volga?! Russian boats in the Caspian Sea - then it seemed like something out of science fiction. The cities of the Caspian region were plundered and burned. Tabaristan, lying on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, long remembered the Russian raid. On the way back, the Rus, by agreement, shared their booty with the Khazars. Both liked it, and the next year the expedition was repeated. And Abesgun and Berdaa shuddered again, and the inhabitants of Tabaristan were horrified.

The Russians took a very large tribute, but they did not just go for tribute; the Caspian coast had to be developed, not destroyed, there were trade routes to the east, to the Arabs. That is why the boats from Kyiv did not go to Asia Minor, where the Byzantine allies fought, and in Transcaucasia. A little later, Kyiv will undertake a new campaign against Tabaristan, but Prince Igor will make a lot of mistakes, and the attempt will end in failure. The story about this is ahead.

And then Russian ambassadors sailed to Constantinople again and again, straightening out the points of the agreement. Finally in 911 it was signed in Byzantium. The Greeks decided to show the ambassadors what Constantinople was. The embassy, which, by the way, consisted of 15 people, unlike the first small one (only five), was received by Emperor Leo VI in his magnificent Great Palace, then the ambassadors were shown the luxurious temples of Constantinople, the richest church utensils, masterpieces of art and luxury goods. Everything had to convince the ambassadors that they needed to be friends with the rich Byzantium, and even better, obey it. It is not known what the ambassadors were thinking, but they didn’t say anything out loud. Upon their return to their homeland, Prince Oleg also organized a large reception in honor of the heroes of the negotiation genre. Surely he was far from Byzantine splendor, but it was a reception on his native land, where water tastes better than expensive wines, and bread is sweeter than overseas dishes.

But the life of Prophetic Oleg was declining. Not only because he was old, because he probably came with Rurik to Ladoga not as a youth, and the prince ruled after Rurik for thirty years and three years. According to legend, Oleg died in 912 precisely from a bite in the leg of a snake hiding in the skull of a horse that had been slaughtered a long time ago, remember Pushkin? There were three graves of the Prophetic Oleg in Rus' - two in Kyiv and one in Ladoga. We must remember that the pagans burned their dead, and a grave was considered not so much the place where the remains were buried, but rather the place where they celebrated a funeral feast for the deceased. There could be several of these. These are necessarily mounds, but not always exactly burials. The prince was a real pagan, he practically did not allow preachers of other faiths into Rus', and under him even the new writing system, which the brothers Cyril and Methodius allegedly invented, did not become widespread.

After the death of Prince Oleg, the son of Rurik finally received power (according to the chronicles) Prince Igor. If we remember that in the year of his father’s death, in 879, he was four years old, then by the time of his mentor’s death he was already 37! Too much for the person under care. The prince was married (and, apparently, more than once, he was a pagan). Having taken power into his own hands, Igor tried to continue Oleg’s work, but you cannot step into the same river twice, the prince’s entire reign was marked by ups and downs.

The first failure was the new campaign against Tabaristan. Historians often and with pleasure accuse Prince Igor of short-sightedness, of greed, of all sins. Perhaps he was both short-sighted and greedy, but the failure of the campaign was not only his fault, but also a coincidence of circumstances. Here again you will have to make an excursion into the history of Rus''s neighbors.

If you trace the history of Byzantium and Rus' year by year, you get the impression that these two countries are strangely connected by the same fate. In Constantinople and Kyiv, power changed almost simultaneously! Judge for yourself, Oleg took Kyiv in 882, the Byzantine Leo VI became emperor in 886; Oleg died in 912, Lev in the same year; Prince Igor began to rule in 912, in Constantinople, Constantine Porphyrogenitus formally began in 913; Igor was killed by the Drevlyans in 944, Roman Lekapin, who seized power from his son-in-law Constantine, was overthrown in 944; Princess Olga, who ruled after her husband, gave power to her son Svyatoslav in 964, at the same time the new usurper Nikifor Phokas came to power to replace Constantine’s son Roman II; Olga died in 969, Phocas was killed in the same year by John Tzimiskes, who ruled until 976, in which the fratricidal war began in Rus' between the sons of Svyatoslav... And so on...

From the book The Truth about “Jewish Racism” author Burovsky Andrey Mikhailovich

In Ancient Rus', the Chronicle tale about the “test of faith” tells that the Jews also praised their faith to Prince Vladimir. The prince did not have the slightest need to go to communicate with Jews in other lands: if the prince wanted, he could communicate with Judaists without leaving

From the book Rus', which was author Maksimov Albert Vasilievich

KINGS AND GRAND DUKES IN Rus' Years Alternative version ………………………………………………….. Traditional version 1425-1432 Yuri Dmitrievich, son of Donskoy, from the Tatars ………………… … ……… Vasily II1432-1448(?) Makhmet, Prince of Ordynsky1448-1462 Kasim, son of Makhmet1462-1472 Yagup=Yuri, son of Makhmet

From the book Forbidden Rus'. 10 thousand years of our history - from the Flood to Rurik author Pavlishcheva Natalya Pavlovna

Princes of Ancient Rus' Let me make a reservation once again: in Rus' there have been princes, as they say, from time immemorial, but these were the heads of individual tribes and tribal unions. Often the size of their territories and population, these unions exceeded the states of Europe, only they lived in inaccessible forests.

From the book Laughter in Ancient Rus' author Likhachev Dmitry Sergeevich

THE LAUGHTER WORLD OF ANCIENT Rus' Of course, the essence of the funny remains the same in all centuries, but the predominance of certain features in the “laughter culture” makes it possible to distinguish national features and features of the era in laughter. /Old Russian laughter is of the same type as laughter

From the book History of the Middle Ages author Nefedov Sergey Alexandrovich

THE DEATH OF ANCIENT Rus' The Tatars carried out a great massacre in the land of Russia, destroyed cities and fortresses and killed people... As we drove through their land, we found countless heads and bones of dead people lying in the field... Plano Carpini. History of the Mongols. The Polovtsians were old and

From the book Ancient Rus' through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (IX-XII centuries); Lecture course author Danilevsky Igor Nikolaevich

Topic 3 ORIGINS OF THE CULTURE OF ANCIENT Rus' Lecture 7 Pagan traditions and Christianity in Ancient Rus' Lecture 8 Everyday ideas of Old Russian

From the book Rurikovich. History of the dynasty author Pchelov Evgeniy Vladimirovich

Appendix 2. Rurikovich - kings of Rus' (Galician princes) 1. King Daniil Romanovich 1253 - 12642. Lev Danilovich 1264 - 1301?3. King Yuri Lvovich 1301? - 13084. Andrey and Lev Yurievich 1308 -

From the book History of Fortresses. The evolution of long-term fortification [with illustrations] author Yakovlev Viktor Vasilievich

From the book Loud Murders author Khvorostukhina Svetlana Alexandrovna

Fratricide in Ancient Rus' In 1015, the famous baptist prince Vladimir I, the youngest son of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, popularly nicknamed the Red Sun, died. His wise reign contributed to the flourishing of the Old Russian state, the growth of cities, crafts and level

From the book History of Russia author Ivanushkina V V

3. Ancient Rus' in the period of the X – beginning of the XII centuries. Adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The role of the Church in the life of Ancient Rus' Olga’s grandson Vladimir Svyatoslavovich was initially a zealous pagan. He even placed idols of pagan gods near the princely court, to whom the Kievans brought

author

The beginning of Ancient Rus' 862 Chronicle news about the calling of the Varangians. Arrival of Rurik in Ladoga There is still debate about where and when the ancient Russian state arose. According to legend, in the middle of the 9th century. in the land of the Ilmen Slovenes and Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Merya, etc.)

From the book Chronology Russian history. Russia and the world author Anisimov Evgeniy Viktorovich

The heyday of Ancient Rus' 1019–1054 The reign of Yaroslav the Wise The struggle between Yaroslav and Svyatopolk lasted several years, and Svyatopolk used the help of his father-in-law, the Polish king Boleslav the Brave, who himself was not averse to capturing Kyiv. Only in 1019 Yaroslav

From the book All the Rulers of Russia author Vostryshev Mikhail Ivanovich

THE FIRST PRINCE OF KIEVAN Rus' The Old Russian state was formed in Eastern Europe in the last decades of the 9th century as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Kyiv and Novgorod, as well as lands

From book National history: Cheat sheet author author unknown

8. ACCEPTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY AND BAPTISM OF Rus'. CULTURE OF ANCIENT Rus' One of the largest events of long-term significance for Rus' was the adoption of Christianity as a state religion. The main reason for the introduction of Christianity in its Byzantine version was

From the book History author Plavinsky Nikolay Alexandrovich

On September 21, 862, the inhabitants of the Novgorod principality called on the Varangian brothers to rule: Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. This date is considered to be the beginning of the state of Rus'. The dynasty of Russian rulers, nicknamed the Rurikovichs, originates from Rurik. This dynasty ruled the state for more than seven and a half centuries. We remembered the most significant representatives of this family.

1. Rurik Varangsky. Although the Novgorod prince Rurik Varangian did not become the sole ruler of the united state, he forever went down in history as the founder of the dynasty of the first Russian autocrats. During his reign, Finnish lands, as well as the territories of some scattered Slavic tribes, began to be annexed to Rus'. This led to the cultural unification of the Eastern Slavs, which contributed to the formation of a new political formation - the state. According to researcher S. Solovyov, it was from Rurik that the important activities of the Russian princes began - the construction of cities, the concentration of the population. Rurik’s first steps in the formation of the ancient Russian state were already completed by Prince Oleg the Prophet.

2. Vladimir Svyatoslavich Red Sun. The contribution of this Grand Duke to the development of Kievan Rus is difficult to overestimate. It was he who went down in history as the baptist of Rus'. Preachers of many religions wanted to persuade the prince to their faith, but he sent his ambassadors to different lands, and upon their return, he listened to everyone and gave preference to Christianity. Vladimir liked the rituals of this faith. Having conquered the Christian city, Vladimir Kherson took the imperial princess Anna as his wife and accepted holy baptism. By order of the prince, the idols of the pagan gods were chopped up and burned. Ordinary people accepted the new faith by being baptized in the waters of the Dnieper. So, on August 1, 988, the Russian people, following the ruler, adopted Christianity. Only the residents of Novgorod opposed the new faith. Then the Novgorodians were baptized with the help of a squad. However, at the same time, the first special theological schools were created in Rus', where unenlightened boyars studied divine books translated from Greek by Cyril and Methodius.

3. Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise. Grand Duke Yaroslav received the nickname “Wise” from the people for his wise reign. He is considered the creator of the first set of laws and civil statutes, “Russian Truth.” Before this, in ancient Rus' there were no laws written down in a single collection. This is one of the most important steps in building statehood. Ancient lists of these laws have survived to this day, giving an idea of the life of our ancestors. According to the chronicler, Yaroslav was “lame-footed, but he had a kind mind and was brave in the army.” These words are also proven by the fact that under Yaroslav the Wise, Russian troops put an end to the raids of the nomadic Pecheneg tribe. Peace was also concluded with the Byzantine Empire.

Grand Duke Yaroslav received the nickname “Wise” from the people for his wise reign

4. Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. His reign was the period of the last strengthening of the Old Russian state. Monomakh knew well that for the peace of the state it was necessary to make sure that external enemies were discouraged from attacking Rus'. During his life, he made 83 military campaigns, concluded 19 peace treaties with the Polovtsians, captured more than a hundred Polovtsian princes and released them all, executed more than 200 princes. The military successes of Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh and his children glorified his name throughout the world. The Greek Empire trembled in the name of Monomakh. Emperor Alexy Komnenos, after the conquest of Thrace by Vladimir's son Mstislav, even sent great gifts to Kyiv - symbols of power: the carnelian cup of Augustus Caesar, the Cross of the Life-Giving Tree, the crown, gold chain and bars of Vladimir's grandfather Constantine Monomakh. The gifts were brought by the Metropolitan of Ephesus. He also proclaimed Monomakh the Russian ruler. Since then, Monomakh's hat, chain, scepter and barmas were indispensable attributes on the wedding day of Russian rulers and were passed from sovereign to sovereign.

5. Vsevolod III Yurievich Big Nest. He is the tenth son of Grand Duke Yuri Dolgoruky, who founded the city of Moscow, and the younger brother of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. Under him, the Great Northern Principality of Vladimir reached its greatest power and finally began to dominate the southern Principality of Kyiv. The reasons for the success of Vsevolod's policy were reliance on new cities: Vladimir, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Dmitrov, Gorodets, Kostroma, Tver, where the boyars before him were relatively weak, as well as reliance on the nobility. Under him, Kiev Russia ceased to exist, and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' finally took shape. Vsevolod had a large offspring - 12 children (including 8 sons), so he received the nickname "Big Nest". The unknown author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” noted: his army “can splash the Volga with oars, and scoop up the Don with helmets.”

6. Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky. According to the “canonical” version, Alexander Nevsky played an exceptional role in Russian history. During his reign, Rus' was attacked from two sides: the Catholic West and the Tatars from the East. Nevsky showed remarkable talent as a commander and diplomat, concluding an alliance with the most powerful enemy - the Tatars. Having repelled the attack of the Germans, he defended Orthodoxy from Catholic expansion. For the faith of the Grand Duke, for love of the fatherland, for preserving the integrity of Rus', the Orthodox Church canonized Alexander.

7. Ivan Danilovich Kalita. This Grand Duke became famous for the fact that under him the rise of Muscovite Rus' began. Moscow under Ivan Kalita became real capital Russian state. On the instructions of Metropolitan Peter, Ivan Kalita in 1326 laid the foundation for the first stone Church of the Dormition of the Mother of God in Moscow. Since then, the Russian metropolitanate moved from Vladimir to Moscow, which elevated this city above others in the Vladimir principality. Ivan Kalita became the first prince who received the label for a great reign in the Golden Horde. Thus, he increasingly strengthened the role of the capital of the state beyond Moscow. Later, for silver, he bought from the Horde labels for reign in other Russian cities, annexing them to the Moscow principality.

8. Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy. The Great Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich was nicknamed Donskoy after his first serious victory over the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. After a number of significant military victories over the Golden Horde, she did not dare to fight the Russians in the open field. By this time, the Moscow Principality had become one of the main centers of unification of Russian lands. The white stone Moscow Kremlin was built in the city.

9. Ivan III Vasilievich. During the reign of this Grand Duke and Sovereign, many events took place that determined the fate of the Russian state. Firstly, there was a unification of a significant part of the scattered Russian lands around Moscow. This city finally becomes the center of the all-Russian state. Secondly, the final liberation of the country from the power of the Horde khans was achieved. After standing on the Ugra River, Rus' finally threw off Tatar-Mongol yoke. Thirdly, under the reign of Ivan III, the territory of Rus' increased fivefold and began to amount to about two million square kilometers. The Code of Laws, a set of state laws, was also adopted, and a number of reforms were carried out that laid the foundations for the local land tenure system. The sovereign established the first post office in Rus', city councils appeared in cities, drunkenness was prohibited, and the armament of troops was significantly increased.

10. Ivan IV Vasilievich. It was this ruler who was nicknamed the Terrible. He headed Russian state longest ruler: 50 years and 105 days. The contribution of this tsar to the history of Rus' is difficult to overestimate. Under him, boyar strife ceased, and the territory of the state grew by almost 100 percent - from 2.8 million square kilometers to 5.4 million. Russian state became larger than the rest of Europe. He defeated the slave-trading khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan and annexed these territories to Rus'. Also under him, Western Siberia, the Don Army Region, Bashkiria, and the lands of the Nogai Horde were annexed. Ivan the Terrible entered into diplomatic and military relations with the Don and Terek-Grebensky Cossacks. Ivan IV Vasilievich created a regular Streltsy army, the first Russian military flotilla in the Baltic. I would especially like to note the creation of the code of law of 1550. The collection of laws of the period of the class monarchy in Russia is the first legal act in Russian history proclaimed as the only source of law. It contained 100 articles. Under Ivan the Terrible, the first printing house (Pechatny Dvor) appeared in Russia. Under him, the election of local administration was introduced, a network was created primary schools, a postal service and the first fire brigade in Europe were created.

The period of formation of the Old Russian state begins with the reign of the Norman prince Rurik. His descendants sought to annex new territories to their principalities and establish trade and allied relations with Byzantium and other countries.

Pre-Norman princes	Polyudye was not introduced, but developed historically
The first mention of Rus'	Mentions of Rus' are contained in contemporary Western European, Byzantine and Eastern sources.
Rurik (862-879)	The Varangians, who invaded the East Slavic lands, took thrones in the cities of Novgorod, Beloozero, Izborsk
Oleg (879-912)	According to the chronicle, in 882 the unification of two East Slavic centers took place: Novgorod and Kiev. Prince Oleg's troops took Constantinople
Igor (912-945)	peace was concluded between Prince Igor and the Emperor of Byzantium Prince Igor was killed
Olga (945 - 964)	“Lessons” and “cemeteries” were established in Kievan Rus: began to appoint persons to collect tribute (tributers) set the size of the tribute (lessons) indicated locations for princely strongholds (cemeteries) During the reign of Princess Olga, most of the population of Kievan Rus professed paganism. The collection of tribute from the tribes subject to the Kyiv ruler acquired a regular and orderly nature during the reign of Olga.
Svyatoslav (962-972)
Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015)	Consequences of baptism: 1) the culture of Rus' turned into “axial” 2) statehood strengthened Rus' has entered the circle Christian countries, focusing not on Asia, but on Europe.
Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054)	The conclusion of dynastic marriages became the main means of foreign policy of Kievan Rus during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise
Triumvirate of Yaroslavichs. (1060) Izyaslav (1054-1073; 1076-1078) Vsevolod (1078-1093) Svyatoslav (1073-1076)	Articles on blood feud were excluded from the Russian Truth of the Yaroslavichs.
Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125)	Congress ancient Russian princes 1097, where the question was posed “why are we destroying the Russian land, starting strife among ourselves,” occurred in Lyubech 1093-1096. All-Russian campaign against the Polovtsians, organized by Vladimir Monomakh.

Domestic and foreign policy of the ancient Kyiv Princes

	Policy
	Successful campaign against Byzantium, conclusion of a treaty in September 911. with the Byzantine emperor Leo VI. He managed to unite the northern and southern lands into a single state.
	He subjugated the street tribes to his power. In 941 – big hike against Byzantium, which ended in the defeat of the Russian army. Conclusion of the treaty 944 with the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lecapinus. The uprising of the Drevlyans, as a result of which he was killed.
By the beginning of the 10th century, the power of the Kyiv prince extended to most of the East Slavic lands. This is how the Old Russian state was formed.
	Having avenged the murder of her husband three times, she made a campaign against the Drevlyans. Their capital, Iskorosten, was taken and destroyed, and the inhabitants were killed or enslaved. Olga and her retinue traveled around the land of the Drevlyans, “establishing regulations and lessons” - the amount of tribute and other duties. “Encampments” were established—places where tribute was to be taken, and “traps”—hunting grounds—were allocated. She visited Byzantium on a “friendly visit” and was baptized.
Svyatoslav	The expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state to the east led to the war between Svyatoslav and the Khazars in the mid-60s. X century The campaign against Khazaria in the late 60s was successful, the Khazar army was defeated. After Svyatoslav’s victories, the Vyatichi who lived in the Oka valley submitted to the authority of the Kyiv prince. In 968 Svyatoslav appeared on the Danube - the Bulgarians were defeated. A war began between the Kyiv prince and Byzantium. In July 971 Svyatoslav was defeated near Dorostol. According to the concluded peace, the Byzantines released Svyatoslav and his soldiers. At the Dnieper rapids, Svyatoslav died in battle with the Pechenegs.
Svyatoslav, being away from home for a long time, appointed his eldest son Yaropolk as governor in Kyiv, planted his second son, Oleg, in the land of the Drevlyans, and the Novgorodians took the youngest, Vladimir. It was Vladimir who was destined to win the bloody civil strife that flared up after the death of Svyatoslav. Yaropolk started a war with Oleg, in which the latter died. However, Vladimir, who came from Novgorod, defeated Yaropolk and after his death began to reign in Kyiv.
Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko		Tries to strengthen the rather loose super union of tribes. In 981 and 982 he made successful campaigns against the Vyatichi, and in 984. - on Radimichi. In 981 conquered the Cherven cities in Southwestern Rus' from the Poles. The Russian lands continued to suffer from the Pechenegs. On the southern borders of Rus', Vladimir built four defensive lines. Baptism of Rus'.
Yaroslav the Wise		On the initiative of Yaroslav, the first written collection of laws was created - “Russian Truth”. He did a lot to spread Christianity, building new churches, cathedrals, schools, and he founded the first monasteries. At the end of his reign, he issued a “Charter”, which established significant monetary fines in favor of the bishop for violation of church canons. Yaroslav also acted as a continuator of his father’s efforts to organize the country’s defense from attacks by nomads. During the reign of Yaroslav, Rus' finally took an honorable place in the community of states of Christian Europe. Yaroslavich Triumvirate: Izyaslav, Vsevolod, Svyatoslav
Vladimir Monomakh		A serious attempt was made to restore the former significance of the power of the Kyiv prince. Having the support of the people, Vladimir forced almost all Russian princes to submit to him. In Kyiv, during the reign of Monomakh, a new collection of laws, “Extensive Truth,” was prepared. In general, he was a prince close to the ideal in the minds of ancient Russian people. He himself created a portrait of such a prince in his famous “Teaching”. The “Charter on Resentments” protected the urban lower classes.

Management system of ancient Russian lands

The territory of Kievan Rus has undergone repeated changes over the more than 3-century history of the existence of the state. According to Nestor, the Eastern Slavs numbered 10-15 tribes (Polyans, Drevlyans, Ilmen Slovenes, etc.), settled over a large area. However, it is unlikely that the land of the Vyatichi, with whom the Kyiv princes regularly fought until the end of the 11th century, can be attributed to Kievan Rus. And in the 12th-13th centuries, feudal fragmentation led to the fact that some of the Russian principalities were captured by the Lithuanians and Poles (Polotsk, Minsk, etc.).

Over the course of 3 centuries, not only the territory changed, but also regional governance, as they would say now. Initially, the tribes governed themselves. In the 9th century, Oleg, regent for the Novgorod prince, conquered Kyiv, thereby establishing centralized power. Subsequently, he and his followers on the Kiev princely throne imposed tribute on several neighboring tribes. Management of territories in the 9th-10th centuries consisted of collecting tribute and was carried out in the form of polyudya - the prince and his retinue traveled to cities and villages and collected tribute. In addition, the prince led the defense of the land from common external enemies, and could also organize a military campaign (most often in the direction of Byzantium).

Since there was enough land in Kievan Rus, and it would have been difficult for one prince to lead such a vast territory, the grand dukes practiced distributing inheritances to their warriors. First, with a return as payment for military affairs, and then into hereditary possession. In addition, the great princes had many children. As a result, in the 11th-12th centuries, the Kiev dynasty ousted the tribal princes from their ancestral principalities.

At the same time, the land in the principalities began to belong to the prince himself, the boyars, and the monasteries. The exception was the Pskov-Novgorod land, which at that time still had a feudal republic.
To manage their plots, princes and boyars - large landowners - divided the territory into hundreds, fives, ryads, and districts. However, there was no clear definition of these territorial units.

Often there were no clearly defined boundaries of these units. The management of the city was carried out by mayors and thousanders, at a lower level they were centurions, tens, governors, elders, depending on the traditions of a particular land. At the same time, if candidates for higher positions were more often appointed, then for lower positions they were elected. Even to collect tribute, the peasants chose “good people.”

The people's assembly among the Eastern Slavs was called the veche.

Olesya
A very detailed and historically accurate table. This period of ancient Russian history is usually best remembered by both schoolchildren and students. The whole point is that the reign of ancient Russian princes is certainly associated with various myths, chronicle fables and unusual stories. My favorite stage in the development of the ancient Russian state remains the period of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. If there were more such rulers in Russia, the country would not have to regularly experience dynastic crises and popular uprisings.
Irina
Olesya, I completely agree with you about Yaroslav the Wise. By the way, it is interesting that initially he had no desire to become the head of state: circumstances pushed him to do so. However, the period of his reign became a time of stability and prosperity for Rus'. So after this you say that personality does not make history: it does, and how! If it were not for Yaroslav, Rus' would not have received rest from strife and would not have had in the 11th century. "Russian Truth". He managed to improve the international situation. Talented statesman! We wish there were more of these in our time.
Lana
The table shows only individual Russian princes, therefore it cannot be considered complete; if we consider everything in detail, we can count more than 20 princes who were related and controlled their own destinies.
Irina
The table is useful, but incomplete. In my opinion, it would be better to highlight the features of the foreign and domestic policies of the princes. Attention is paid more to changes and innovations, rather than character traits reign period.
Angelina
There is very little information about the domestic and foreign policies of rulers! It would be much more informative to present the main achievements of the princes in the form of a single table - the information is a little scattered - you can get confused. I don’t see the point in the first table at all. There is little information at all about some rulers. For example, Vladimir the Great carried out a number of important reforms that are not mentioned in the tables at all.
Igor
Vladimir Monomakh succeeded in a short time of his reign to unite more than half of the lands of Rus', which disintegrated after the Yaroslavich triumvirate. Vladimir Monomakh improved the legislative system. For a short time, his son Mstislav managed to maintain the unity of the country.
Olga
Nothing is said about the important reforms of Vladimir the Great. In addition to the baptism of Rus', he carried out administrative and military reforms - this helped strengthen the borders and strengthen the unity of the state’s territories.
Anna
It is worth noting the features of the rulers of the period of formation and heyday of Rus'. If at the stage of formation these were strong warriors, an example of courage, then at the stage of prosperity they were politicians and diplomats who practically did not even participate in campaigns. This concerns, first of all, Yaroslav the Wise.
Vyacheslav
In the comments, many approve and admire the personality of Yaroslav the Wise and claim that Yaroslav saved Rus' from strife and strife. I completely disagree with this position of commentators in relation to the personality of Yaroslav the Wise. There is a Scandinavian saga about Edmund. This saga tells that a squad of Scandinavians was hired by Yaroslav to fight his brother Boris. By order of Yaroslav, the Scandinavians send assassins to his brother Boris and kill him (Prince Boris, who was, was later recognized as a saint with his brother Gleb). Also, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, in 1014 Yaroslav rebelled against his father Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko (the baptist of Rus') and hired the Varangians to fight him, wanting to rule Veliky Novgorod on his own. The Varangians, while in Novgorod, robbed the population and committed violence against the inhabitants, which led to an uprising against Yaroslav. After the death of his brothers Boris, Gleb and Svyatopolk, Yaroslav took the Kiev throne and fought with his brother Mstislav of Tmutorokansky, nicknamed the Brave. Until 1036 (the year of Mstislav's death), the Russian state was divided between Yaroslav and Mstislav into two political associations independent of each other. Until Mstislav's death, Yaroslav preferred to live in Novgorod rather than in the capital Kyiv. Yaroslav also began paying tribute to the Varangians in the amount of 300 hryvnia. He introduced a rather heavy fine in favor of the bishop for non-compliance with Christian rules. This is despite the fact that 90% of the population were pagans or dual-religionists. He sent his son Vladimir along with the Varangian Harold on a predatory campaign against Orthodox Byzantium. The army was defeated and most of the soldiers died in battle from the use of Greek fire. During his reign, nomadic tribes cut off the Tmutarakan principality from Kyiv and as a result of this, it came under the influence of neighboring states. He transferred the original Russian lands around Ladoga to the relatives of the Swedish king Olaf Shetkonung for hereditary possession. Then these lands became known as Ingria. The Russian Pravda code of laws reflects the enslavement of the population, which actively occurred during the reign of Yaroslav, as well as uprisings and resistance to his power. In the course of recent studies of the Russian Chronicles, in the description of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, there are a large number of changes and insertions into the original text of the chronicle made, most likely at his direction. Yaroslav distorted the chronicles, killed his brothers, started civil strife with his brothers and declared war on his father, being essentially a separatist, but he is praised in the chronicles and the church recognized him as a believer. Maybe that's why Yaroslav was nicknamed the Wise?

Rurik………………………………………………………………………………………..…3

Prince Oleg………………………………………………………………………………………..……..5

Prince Igor………………………………………………………………………………………..……7

Princess Olga……………………………………………………………………………….9

Prince Svyatoslav………………………………………………………………………………………..……13

Prince Yaropolk………………………………………………………………………………16

Prince Vladimir………………………………………………………………………………………..…..17

Literature………………………………………………………………………………………..19

"History, in a sense, is the sacred book of nations:
main, necessary; a mirror of their existence and activity;
the tablet of revelations and rules; the covenant of ancestors to posterity;
a complement to the present and an example of the future.”

N. M. Karamzin

Rurik

The formation of the Russian state dates back to 862, and this event is associated with the names of Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor. Perhaps these names appeared from legends, but they came to us from the words of Nestor (XI and early XII centuries), Sylvester (died in 1123) and other chroniclers. Among the “others” the legendary chronicler Joachim is most often named. The historian V.N. Tatishchev also refers to it when he writes: “The northern writers of the ancient Russian sovereigns remember several names on strangers’ occasions without all the circumstances, or maybe they have some circumstances, but new writers, choosing from them, neglected and left it locked.” However, N.M. Karamzin believes that Joachim’s name is fictitious. Among the “closed” princes, Tatishchev names Gostomysl, who allegedly had four sons and three daughters. The sons died without leaving children, and from the middle daughter, who was married to the Finnish king, a son, Rurik, was born. Gostomysl, according to Nestor, died in 860. In this case, Tatishchev used the so-called Joachim Chronicle, which he attributed to the Novgorod bishop Joachim. Most modern historians believe that this chronicle was compiled much later, in the 17th century. But the legend is persistent and cannot be ignored.

So, if you believe Nestor, three Varangian brothers appeared in Rus' in 862. They were invited to rule the Novgorodians (Ilmen Slovenes), as well as the Krivichi, all the Chud. But, as proven by the most prominent expert on Russian chronicles, Academician A.A. Shakhmatov, the legend about the calling of the Varangian princes is of Novgorod origin and was recorded in the chronicle only at the beginning of the 12th century. The princes are called brothers, which reflected the union of three tribes - Slovenian (Slavic), Finnish (Vesi) and Krivichi.

Surrounded by a large Scandinavian squad, these ambitious Varangians left their fatherland forever. Rurik arrived in Novgorod, Sineus - in Beloozero, not far from modern Beloozersk, in the region of the Finnish Vesi people, and Truvor - in Izborsk, the city of the Krivichi. Smolensk and Polotsk still remained independent and did not take part in the calling of the Varangians.

Consequently, as N.M. narrates. Karamzin, “the power of three rulers, united by ties of kinship and mutual benefit, extended only from Estonia and the Slavic Keys, where we see the remains of Izborsk. That is we're talking about about the former St. Petersburg, Estland, Novgorod and Pskov provinces.”

Two years later, after the death of Sineus and Truvor (according to some sources, the brothers were killed in 864), their elder brother Rurik, annexing the regions to his principality, founded the Russian monarchy. “Its borders have already reached in the east to the present Yaroslavl and Nizhny Novgorod provinces, and in the south - to the Western Dvina; Already Merya, Murom and Polotsk depended on Rurik” N.M. Karamzin).

To this time the chroniclers attribute the following an important event. Two of Rurik's close associates - Askold and Dir - perhaps dissatisfied with him, went with a small squad from Novgorod to Constantinople (Constantinople) to seek their fortune. On the way there, on the high bank of the Dnieper, they saw a small town and asked whose it was. They were told that its builders, three brothers, had died long ago and that the peace-loving inhabitants were paying tribute to the Khazars. It was Kyiv. Askold and Dir took possession of the town, invited many residents from Novgorod and began to rule in Kyiv.

Consequently, as N.M. writes. Karamzin, “...the Varangians founded two autocratic regions in Rus': Rurik in the north, Askold and Dir in the south.”

In 866, the Slavs, led by Askold and Dir, attacked the Byzantine Empire. Having armed 200 ships, these knights, experienced in voyages since ancient times, penetrated the navigable Dnieper and the Russian (Black) Sea into the territory of Byzantium. They devastated the outskirts of Constantinople with fire and sword, then besieged the capital from the sea. The Empire saw its formidable enemies for the first time, and for the first time the word “Rusich” (“Russian”) was pronounced with horror. Having learned about the attack on the country, its emperor Michael III hurried to the capital (at that time he was out of the country). But it was not so easy to defeat the attackers. However, a miracle helped. A storm began, and the light boats of the Russians were scattered across the sea. The Byzantines were saved. Few soldiers returned to Kyiv.

Rurik reigned as sole ruler in Novgorod for 15 years. He died in 879, entrusting the rule of the principality and his young son Igor to his relative Oleg.

The memory of Rurik as the first ruler of Rus' has remained immortal in our history. The main task of his reign was the unification of some Finnish tribes and the Slavic people into a single power, as a result, over time, the entire Muroma and Merya merged with the Slavs, adopting their customs, language and faith. Thus, Rurik is considered the ancestor of Russian princes.

Prince Oleg

The news of Rurik's success attracted many Varangians to Rus'. Probably among his entourage was Oleg, who began to rule Northern Russia after the death of Rurik. Oleg went to conquer the Dnieper lands in 882, captured Smolensk - the city of free Krivichi, and ancient city Lyubech (on the Dnieper). Oleg took possession of Kiev by cunning and killed Askold and Dir, and he showed little Igor to the glades, saying: “Here is the son of Rurik - your prince.”

The navigable Dnieper, the convenience of having relations with various rich countries - with the Greek Kherson (in the Crimea), Khazar Taurida, Bulgaria, Byzantium captivated Oleg, and he said: “Let Kiev be the mother of Russian cities” (chronicle).

The vast Russian possessions did not yet have stable internal connections. Between Novgorod and Kiev lived peoples independent of Rus'. The Ilmen Slavs bordered on the whole, the whole - on the Merya, the Merya - on Muroma and Krivichi. In 883, Oleg conquered the Drevlyans (Pripyat River), in 884 - the Dnieper northerners, in 885 - the Radimichi (Sozh River). Thus, having subjugated neighboring peoples and destroyed the rule of the Khazar Khagan, Oleg united the lands of Novgorod and Kyiv. Then he conquered the lands along the banks of the Sula River (neighboring Chernigov), part of the Polotsk and Volyn lands.

Kyiv was attacked by the Ugrians (Hungarians), who once lived near the Stone Belt (Ural), and in the 9th century. - east of Kyiv. They were looking for new places to live. Oleg let these people through without military clashes. The Hungarians crossed the Dnieper and took possession of the lands between the Dniester and the Danube.

By this time, Igor, the son of Rurik, had matured. Accustomed from childhood to obedience, he did not dare to demand his inheritance from the power-hungry Oleg, surrounded by the splendor of victories, the glory of conquests and brave comrades who considered his power legitimate, for he was able to exalt the state.

In 903, Oleg chose a wife for Igor, the legendary Olga, famous at that time for her feminine charms and good behavior alone. She was brought to Kyiv from Pleskov (now Pskov). This is what Nestor wrote. According to other sources, Olga was of a simple Varangian family and lived in the village, not far from Pskov. She adopted her name, according to N.M. Karamzin, on behalf of Oleg, as a sign of his friendship for her or as a sign of Igor’s love for him.

Oleg decided to attack Byzantium. In 907, he assembled two thousand ships with forty warriors on each ship. The cavalry walked along the shore. Oleg ravaged this country, brutally dealt with the inhabitants (“sea of blood”), and besieged Constantinople (Constantinople). The Byzantines hastened to pay off. The winner demanded from them twelve hryvnias for each soldier of the fleet. The Byzantines granted Oleg's request, after which peace was concluded (911). Returning from this campaign, the Russians brought home a lot of gold, expensive fabrics, wine and all other wealth.

This peace, beneficial to the Russians, was approved by the sacred rites of faith: the emperor swore by the Gospel, Oleg and his warriors swore by weapons and the gods of the Slavic people - Perun and Volos. As a sign of victory, Oleg hung his shield on the gates of Constantinople and returned to Kyiv. The people warmly welcomed Oleg and unanimously called him prophetic, that is, wise.

Then Oleg sent his ambassadors to Byzantium (and as later retellings of the chronicles tell) with a letter, from which it is clear that the Russians were no longer presented as savage barbarians. They knew the sanctity of honor and had their own laws that approved personal security, property, the right of inheritance, the power of wills, and conducted internal and external trade.

Oleg, humbled by years, already wanted silence and enjoyment of universal peace. None of the neighbors dared to interrupt his calm. And in his old age he seemed formidable. The Magi predicted Oleg's death from his horse. From that time on, he stopped mounting his pet. Four years have passed. One autumn, the prince remembered the sage’s prediction and laughed at him, since the horse had been dead for a long time. Oleg wanted to look at the bones of the horse, stood with his foot on the skull, and said: “Should I be afraid of him?” But there was a snake in the skull. She stung the prince, and the hero died. You can believe or not believe that Oleg was actually bitten by a snake, but such a legend has come down to our time from the past. The people mourned Oleg. By annexing it to your country richest lands, the prince was the true founder of its greatness.

If Rurik's possessions extended from Estonia and Volkhov to Beloozero, the mouth of the Oka and the city of Rostov, then Oleg conquered all the lands from Smolensk, the Sula and Dniester rivers to the Carpathians.

Oleg, having reigned for 33 years, died at a ripe old age. The prince's body was buried on Mount Shchekovitsa, and the Kyiv residents, Nestor's contemporaries, called this place Oleg's grave (Oleg's other supposed burial place is Staraya Ladoga).

Some modern domestic historians are trying to reinterpret Nestor’s famous chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years”, speaking, in particular, about “attributing” to Oleg many victories over neighboring tribes and the merit of annexing vast lands to Rus'. They also do not agree with the fact that it was Oleg who made the campaign against Constantinople, giving the laurels of primacy to Askold and shifting the date of the event from 907 to 860.

You can, of course, sow doubts, but we must not forget that Nestor described what was happening nine centuries before us and looked at these events through the eyes of both a historian and a contemporary; he assumed power already in adulthood.

Prince Igor

Oleg's death encouraged the defeated Drevlyans, and in 913 they tried to free themselves from Kyiv. Igor pacified them and added tribute. But soon new enemies, strong in numbers, terrible in insolence and robbery, appeared in Rus'. These were the Pechenegs. They, like other peoples - the Huns, Ugrians, Bulgars, Avars - came from the east. All these peoples, except the Ugrians, no longer exist in Europe.

The Pechenegs led a nomadic lifestyle and engaged in robbery. They hoped to devastate Kyiv, but met with a strong army and were forced to retire to Bessarabia. These people terrified their neighbors. The Byzantines used the Pechenegs against the Ugrians, Bulgars and especially the Slavs for gold and money. For almost two centuries, the Pechenegs dominated the lands south of Rus'. Having made peace with Igor, they did not disturb the Russians for five years, but from 920, as Nestor writes, they began to invade the expanses of Rus'.

Igor's reign was not marked by any great events until 941, before the war between the Russians and the Byzantines. Igor, like Oleg, wanted to glorify his reign with military exploits. If you believe the chroniclers, then Igor entered the Russian (Black) Sea on ten thousand ships in 941. He devastated the outskirts of Constantinople, turning temples, villages, and monasteries to ashes. But soon Byzantine troops and fleet arrived. They caused significant damage to Igor and he left the empire with great losses.

Igor did not lose heart. He wanted to take revenge on the Byzantines. In 943 - 944 A new campaign against Byzantium took place, but it paid off with rich gifts. Igor returned to Kyiv. In 944, Rus' and Byzantium made peace.

By old age, Igor really wanted peace. But the greed of the squad did not allow him to enjoy peace. “We are barefoot and naked,” the soldiers said to Igor, “come pay tribute with us, and we, together with you, will be happy.” Going “to tribute” meant collecting taxes.

In the fall of 945, Igor and his retinue went to the Drevlyans. There they pretty much plundered the local population. Most of the army was sent to Kyiv, and Igor still wanted to “wander” through the Drevlyan land and rob the people. But the Drevlyans, driven to extremes, attacked Igor, tied him to two trees and tore him in two. The army was also destroyed. At the head of the rebellious Drevlyans was Prince Mal.

This is how Igor ended his life ingloriously. He did not have the successes that Oleg achieved in the war with the Byzantines. Igor did not have the properties of his predecessor, but he preserved the integrity of the power founded by Rurik and Oleg, defended honor and benefits in treaties with Byzantium.

However, the people reproached Igor for allowing the dangerous Pechenegs to establish themselves in the neighborhood of the Russians and for the fact that this prince loved to collect excessive tribute from his people.

Having united the East Slavic lands, defending them from the onslaught of foreigners, Oleg gave the princely power unprecedented authority and international prestige. He now assumes the title of Prince of all Princes, or Grand Duke. The rest of the rulers of individual Russian principalities become his tributaries, vassals, although they still retain the rights to govern in their principalities.

Rus' was born as a united East Slavic state. In its scale it was not inferior to the empire of Charlemagne or the territory Byzantine Empire. However, many of its areas were sparsely populated and poorly suitable for living. The difference in the level of development of different parts of the state was also too great. Having appeared immediately as a multi-ethnic entity, this state was therefore not distinguished by the strength that characterized states where the population was mainly single-ethnic.

Duchess Olga

Although historians do not particularly highlight Olga’s reign, she deserved great praise for her wise deeds, as she worthily represented Rus' in all external relations and skillfully ruled the country. Probably, with the help of the boyar Asmud, the teacher of Svyatoslav (son of Olga and Igor), and Sveneld, the governor, Olga was able to take possession of the helm of the state. First of all, she punished Igor’s killers. Perhaps the chronicler Nestor reports not entirely plausible facts about Olga’s revenge, cunning and wisdom, but they are included in our history.

The Drevlyans, proud of the murder of Igor as a victory, and despising the young Svyatoslav, planned to rule over Kiev and wanted their prince Mal to marry Olga. Twenty famous Drevlyan ambassadors sailed to Kyiv in a boat. Olga received them with affection. The next day, having ordered a deep grave to be dug, she buried all the Drevlyan ambassadors alive along with the boat.

Then Olga sent her messenger to Mal so that he would send her more famous men. The Drevlyans did just that. According to the old custom, a bathhouse was heated for the guests, and then they were all locked up there and burned.

Olga announced her readiness to come to the Drevlyans to marry Mal. The ruler approached the city of Iskorosten, where Igor died, watered his grave with tears and performed a funeral feast. After this, the Drevlyans began a merry feast. Having left, Olga gave a sign to her soldiers, and five thousand Drevlyans died at Igor’s grave.

In 946, Olga, returning to Kyiv, gathered a large army and marched against her enemies, punished by cunning, but not yet by force. Little Svyatoslav began the battle. A spear thrown at the enemy by a weak child’s hand fell at the feet of his horse, but the commanders Asmud and Sveneld encouraged the warriors by the example of the young hero with the exclamation “Friends! Let’s stand for the prince!” And they rushed into battle.

The frightened residents wanted to flee, but they all fell into the hands of Olga’s soldiers. She condemned some elders to death, took others into slavery, and the rest had to pay tribute.

Olga and her son Svyatoslav traveled throughout the Drevlyansky land, imposing tribute on the people in favor of the treasury. But the inhabitants of Iskorosten itself paid the third part of the tribute personally to Olga, in her own inheritance, in Vyshgorod, founded, perhaps, by Oleg and given to Olga as the bride or wife of the prince. This city was located seven miles from Kyiv, on the high bank of the Dnieper.

The next year, Olga went to Northern Rus', leaving Svyatoslav in Kyiv. The princess visited the Novgorod lands. She divided Rus' into several volosts, did, without a doubt, everything necessary for the state good and left signs of her protective wisdom. After 150 years, the people remembered with gratitude Olga’s beneficent journey, and during the time of Nestor, the townspeople of Pskov kept her sleigh as a precious thing. It is likely that the princess, born in Pskov, granted privileges to the residents of this city. But in the neighboring city, the more ancient one, Izborsk, which is taxed, life somehow faded away, and it lost its former glory. Having established internal order, Olga returned to Kyiv, to her son Svyatoslav. There she lived for several years in peace and tranquility.

Olga was a pagan, but in 957 she decided to accept the Christian faith, for which she went to Constantinople. Olga herself headed a magnificent and crowded embassy, consisting of more than a hundred people, not counting the servants and shipmen. Olga was accepted at the highest rank. She was invited to the imperial chambers for lunch, and she was received by the empress. During the conversations, Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus and Olga confirmed the validity of the previous treaty, as well as the military alliance of the two states, directed primarily against the Arabs and Khazaria.

Baptism of Princess Olga. An important issue in the negotiations was the baptism of the Russian princess.

By the middle of the 9th century. almost all major states Western Europe, as well as part of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula and the Caucasus, adopted Christianity - some according to the Roman, others according to the Byzantine model. Christianity introduced states and peoples to a new civilization, enriched their spiritual culture, raised them to higher high level the prestige of baptized statesmen.

But for the pagan world this process was difficult and painful. That is why in most countries the adoption of Christianity took place in several stages and took various forms. In the Frankish state, King Clovis adopted Christianity along with his retinue at the turn of the 5th - 6th centuries. The purpose of baptism was clear: to receive help from papal Rome in the fight against strong opponents in still pagan Europe. The bulk of Frankish society remained pagan for a long time and was only later Christianized. In England in the 7th century. kings accepted personal baptism, but then, under the influence of pagan opposition, they renounced it, and then were baptized again. In Bulgaria in the 9th century. The entire population converted to Christianity along with Boris I. There, the roots of Christianity under the influence of neighboring Byzantium were very deep.

Olga chose the baptism of English kings as her model. She, being a very perspicacious ruler, understood that further strengthening the state prestige of the country and the dynasty was unthinkable without the adoption of Christianity. But she also understood the complexity of this process in Rus' with its powerful pagan tradition, with the great commitment of the people and part of the ruling circles to old religion. IN major cities among the merchants, townspeople, and part of the boyars there were already many Christians and they had equal rights with the pagans. But the further from the center of the state, the stronger the influence of pagan orders, and most importantly, the pagan magicians. Therefore, Olga decided to accept personal baptism, starting this process in the princely environment.

Moreover, morally, the princess was already prepared for this act. Having survived the tragic death of her husband, the bloody battles with the Drevlyans, the destruction of their capital in the fire, Olga could turn for an answer to the human questions that troubled her to the new religion, which was precisely attuned to the inner world of man and tried to answer his eternal questions about the meaning of life and her own life. place in the world. If paganism sought answers to all eternal questions outside of man, in the powerful actions of the forces of nature, Christianity turned to the world human feelings and the human mind.

Olga arranged the baptism with the pomp appropriate for a great state. The baptism took place in the Church of St. Sophia. The emperor himself was her godfather, and the patriarch baptized her. Olga took the name Helen in baptism, in honor of the mother of Constantine the Great, the Byzantine emperor who made it in the 4th century. Christianity was the official religion of the empire. After baptism, Olga was received by the patriarch and had a conversation with him about faith.

Upon returning to Kyiv, Olga tried to persuade Svyatoslav to Christianity, saying that the prince’s squad would also accept baptism. But Svyatoslav, being an ardent pagan who worshiped the warrior god Perun, refused her.

A few years after her trip to Constantinople, Olga sent an embassy to the German Emperor Otgon I. The purpose of the embassy was twofold - to establish permanent political relations with Germany and strengthen religious ties. A zealous Christian, Otto I sent Christian missionaries to Kyiv. Olga continued her line. However, the Kyiv pagans drove the missionaries out of the city and almost killed them.

Dying, the princess bequeathed not to celebrate a pagan funeral feast at her grave, but to bury her according to Christian rites.

Olga died in 969. The people called her cunning, the church - a saint, history - wise. Before Olga's time, the Russian princes fought, but she ruled the state. Confident in his mother’s wisdom, Svyatoslav left her internal board, constantly engaged in wars. Under Olga, Rus' became famous in the most remote countries of Europe.

Prince Svyatoslav

Having matured, Svyatoslav began to think about exploits and conquests. He burned with jealousy to distinguish himself by deeds and to restore the glory of Russian weapons, so happy under Oleg. Svyatoslav gathered an army. Among his warriors, he lived, like them, in harsh conditions: he ate horse meat, fried it himself, neglected the cold and bad weather of the northern climate, did not know a tent, slept in the open air. Proud Svyatoslav always followed the rules of true knightly honor - he never attacked by surprise. It was he who wrote the words: “I’m going against you” (against the enemy).

In 964, Svyatoslav conquered the Vyatichi, who paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. The Vyatichi tribe became part of Slavic peoples Ancient Rus', freed from the oppression of the Khazars. Having spent the winter on the Itil (Volga) River, in the spring of 965 Svyatoslav quickly attacked the capital of Khazaria, the city of Itil (Balangiar) and “overcame” it. The city residents fled. The Khazar capital was empty.

In 965, Svyatoslav's warriors entered the lands of the Yas (Ossetians) and Kasogs (Circassians). They conquered the Khazar fortress of Semikara by storm and reached the Sea of Surozh (Azov). Despite the fact that powerful fortresses Tmutarakan and Korchev (Kerch) stood here, their defenders did not fight Svyatoslav. They, having driven out the Khazar governors, went over to the side of the Russians. Svyatoslav did not yet bother the Greek Taurida (Crimea), since he did not want to quarrel with Byzantium.

The prince directed his forces to impregnable fortress Sarkel (White Vezha). Having conquered the fortress by storm, Svyatoslav conquered this Khazar city, thereby significantly weakening his long-time enemies - the Khazars and Pechenegs. The trophies were great, the glory of the ancient Russian commander was great.

In 967, with 60 thousand soldiers, Svyatoslav went to war against Bulgaria. We crossed the Danube. The cities surrendered to the winner. The Bulgarian Tsar Peter died “of grief.” The Russian prince began to rule in ancient Mysia. He lived there, not thinking that his own capital was in danger. The Pechenegs attacked Rus' in 968. They approached Kiev, where Olga and children of Svyatoslav. There was not enough water in the besieged city. One warrior managed to make his way from Kiev to the Russian army and report the disaster. Svyatoslav took revenge on the Pechenegs.

Soon Svyatoslav again rushed to the banks of the Danube. Olga asked her son to wait a little, not to leave her, as she felt bad. But he didn't listen to the advice. Four days later Olga died. After the death of his mother, Svyatoslav could freely fulfill his reckless intention - to move the capital of the state to the banks of the Danube. He gave Kyiv to his son Yaropolk, and to his other son, Oleg, the Drevlyansky land. Svyatoslav also had a third son - Vladimir, born from Olga's housekeeper, Malusha's servant. The Novgorodians elected him as their prince.

Svyatoslav conquered Bulgaria for the second time, but the Byzantines, who were afraid of their formidable neighbor, intervened. The Byzantine Emperor John Tzimiskes, an experienced commander and diplomat, began negotiations with Svyatoslav. But the Russian knight rejected peaceful conditions and had no intention of leaving Bulgaria. Then Tzimiskes began to arm himself. The famous Byzantine commanders Varda Sklir and the patrician Peter came out to meet Svyatoslav. In the spring of 970, without waiting for the enemy to arrive, Svyatoslav himself entered Thrace - the indigenous Byzantine land. The Bulgarians and Pechenegs also fought on the side of the Russians. Svyatoslav's horsemen crushed Skler's cavalry.

The Russians and Bulgarian troops took Adrianople. Master Sklir lost the battle under the city walls completely. There was practically no one to defend the road to the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. The combined forces of the “barbarians,” as the Byzantines called them, under the leadership of Svyatoslav crossed Macedonia, defeated the army of Master John Kurkouas and devastated the entire country.

Tzimiskes had one chance left - diplomacy. And he used it. The arriving Byzantine ambassadors “ransomed” the world with rich gifts and expenses for military needs. Svyatoslav gave his word not to interfere in Bulgarian affairs anymore.

But Tzimiskes was not like that. April 12, 971 imperial regiments unexpectedly surrounded the capital of Bulgaria - the city of Preslav, which was defended by a small garrison of Russians. They all died in fierce battles. On April 17, Tzimiskes quickly marched to Dorostol, where Prince Svyatoslav was located. His small army showed examples of courage and perseverance. The present martial art Svyatoslav demonstrated defense and attack. Continuous battles continued until July 22. Almost the entire army of the Rus was lost - 15 thousand killed, but military happiness was still on the side of Svyatoslav. Tzimiskes himself asked for peace (apparently, a conspiracy was brewing against him, and he was forced to save his throne).

According to legends, Svyatoslav was of average height, rather slender, but gloomy and wild in appearance, had a wide chest, a thick neck, blue eyes, thick eyebrows, a flat nose, a long mustache, a sparse beard and one tuft of hair on his head, as a sign of his nobility in On her ear hung a gold earring decorated with two pearls and a ruby.

Svyatoslav returned to Kyiv with a detachment of exhausted soldiers. According to Nestor, the residents of Pereyaslavets let the Pechenegs know that the Russian prince was returning to Kyiv with great wealth and a small retinue.

Despite the small number of exhausted warriors, proud Svyatoslav decided to fight the Pechenegs at the rapids of the Dnieper. In this battle he died (972). The Pecheneg prince Kurya, having cut off the head of Svyatoslav, made a cup from the skull. Only a few Russian soldiers, led by governor Sveneld, escaped and brought the sad news of the prince’s death to Kyiv.

Thus, the famous warrior died. But he, an example of great commanders, as N.M. writes. Karamzin is not a great sovereign, since he respected the glory of victories more than the state good, and his character, captivating the imagination of the poet, deserves the reproach of a historian.

Prince Yaropolk

After the death of Svyatoslav, Yaropolk reigned in Kyiv. Oleg is in the Drevlyansky land, Vladimir is in Novgorod. Yaropolk had no power over the estates of his brothers. Soon the disastrous consequences of such a division were revealed, and brother went against brother. Yaropolk decided to go to the lands of the Drevlyans and annex them to Kyiv. Oleg gathered soldiers and set out to meet his brother (977), but his army was defeated, and he himself died. Yaropolk sincerely mourned the death of his brother.

Having assembled a squad, Vladimir returned to Novgorod two years later and replaced Yaropolk’s confidants, telling them with pride: “Go to my brother: let him know that I am arming myself against him, and let him prepare to repel me!” (chronicle).

Yaropolk had a lovely bride, Rogneda, in Polotsk. Vladimir, preparing to take away his brother’s power, wanted to deprive him of his bride, and through ambassadors demanded her hand. Rogneda, loyal to Yaropolk, replied that she could not marry the son of a slave. Irritated, Vladimir took Polotsk, killed Rogneda’s father, Rogvolod, and his two sons and married Rogneda. Then he went to Kyiv. Yaropolk closed himself in the city, and then left it, going to the city of Rodnya (where the Ros flows into the Dnieper).

After some time, Yaropolk, weak in spirit, with the assistance of his commander Blud, who had entered into an agreement with Vladimir, came to him. “The traitor led his gullible Sovereign into his brother’s home, as if into a den of robbers, and locked the door so that the princely squad could not enter after them: there two mercenaries of the Varangian tribe pierced Yaropolkov’s chest with swords...” N.M. Karamzin).

Thus, the eldest son of the famous Svyatoslav, having been the ruler of Kyiv for four years and the head of all Rus' for three years, “left for history one memory of a good-natured but weak man.”

Yaropolk was married under his father, but also wooed Rogneda: polygamy was not considered lawlessness in pagan Rus'.

Prince Vladimir

Vladimir soon proved that he was born to be a great sovereign. He showed excellent zeal for the pagan gods, building a new Perun with a silver head. On the banks of the Volkhov, the newly rebuilt rich city of Perunov was erected.

Vladimir was not afraid of wars. He took the cities of Cherven, Przemysl and others in 982 - 983. conquered Galicia. He pacified the rebellion of the Vyatichi, who did not want to pay tribute, and conquered the country of the Yatvingians - the courageous Latvian people. Further, the possessions of Rus' were expanded all the way to the Varangian (Baltic) Sea. In 984, the Radimichi rebelled, and Vladimir conquered them. In 985, the Kama Bulgars were defeated, who promised to live with the Russians in peace and friendship.

Vladimir long ago rejected his first wife, Rogneda. She decided to take revenge - to kill her husband, but she failed to do this: Vladimir sent Rogneda and her son Izyaslav to a city built for them and called Izyaslavl.

Rus' became a prominent state in Europe. Mohammedans, Jews, Catholics, and Greeks offered their faith. Vladimir sent ten prudent men to different countries, so that they study different faiths and suggest the best one. In their opinion, the Orthodox faith turned out to be the best.

In 988, having gathered a large army, Vladimir went on ships to the Greek Kherson (on the site of Sevastopol) to accept the Christian faith, but in a unique way - using force of arms. They laid siege to the city; exhausted by thirst (after Vladimir damaged the water pipeline that began outside the city walls), the townspeople surrendered. Vladimir then announced to the Byzantine emperors Vasily and Constantine that he wished to be the husband of their sister, the young princess Anna. In case of refusal, he promised to take Constantinople. The marriage took place.

In the same year 988, Christianity was adopted in Rus' - an important milestone in the history of our state. The first church of St. Basil was erected in Kyiv. Schools were opened for children (church books were translated by Cyril and Methodius back in the 9th century), which were the first educational institutions in Rus'.

To protect the country in the south from the Pechenegs, Vladimir built cities along the Desna, Oster, Trubezh, Sula, and Stugna rivers and populated them with Novgorod Slavs, Krivichi, Chudya, and Vyatichi. He fortified Kyiv with a white wall, because he loved this city very much.

In 993, the Russians fought with the white Croats who lived on the borders of Galicia, as well as with the Pechenegs. The war with the Pechenegs ended in single combat between a Russian youth of small stature but great strength and a giant Pecheneg. “We chose a place: the combatants grappled. The Rusich crushed the Pecheneg with his strong muscles and hit the dead man on the ground...” (from the chronicle). Joyful Vladimir, in memory of this incident, founded a city on the banks of Trubezh and named it Pereyaslavl: for the young man “took over” the “glory” from his enemies (possibly a legend).

For three years (994 - 996) there was no war in Rus'. The first stone church dedicated to the Mother of God was built in Kyiv.

Fate did not spare Vladimir in his old age: before his death, he had to see with grief that the lust for power arms not only brother against brother, but also son against father. Yaroslav (who ruled Novgorod) rebelled in 1014. To pacify the rebellious Yaroslav, Grand Duke He placed his beloved son Boris, Prince of Rostov, at the head of the army.

During these events, Vladimir died in Berestov (near Kiev) in a country palace, without choosing an heir and leaving the helm of the state to the will of fate... Despite his naturally weak health, he lived to old age.

Prince Vladimir has earned in history the name of the Great, or Saint. His reign was marked by the adoption of the Orthodox faith and the expansion of the state. He introduced education, built cities, established schools, including art schools.

The glory of Vladimir remained in epics and fairy tales about Dobrynya of Novgorod, Alexander with a golden mane, Ilya Muromets, strong Rakhday.

Literature

1. Kostomarov N.I. “Russian history in the biographies of its main figures”

2..Soloviev S.M. “Essays. Book I"

3. Karamzin N.M. “Tales of the Ages: Tales, Legends, Stories from the “History of the Russian State”, M.: ed. "Pravda", 1989.

4. Klyuchevsky V.O. “A short guide to Russian history”, M.: ed. "Dawn", 1992.

Prince Oleg (879-912), according to legend, was a very enterprising and warlike ruler. As soon as power fell into his hands, he conceived a big deal - to take control of the entire course of the Dnieper, to take into his hands the entire waterway to rich Greece, and for this he had to conquer all the Slavs who lived along the Dnieper. Here one princely squad was not enough. Prince Oleg recruited a large army from the Ilmen Slavs, from the Krivichs subordinate to him, and from the Finnish tribes and moved with them and their squad to the south.

Prince Oleg first of all took possession of Smolensk, the city of those Krivichi, which were not yet subject to anyone, then took Lyubech, the city northerners, left detachments of his squad in these cities under the command of reliable, experienced commanders, and he himself moved on. Finally Kyiv appeared. Oleg knew that it would not be easy to take this city by force: Askold and Dir, experienced leaders, reigned there, and their squad was brave and experienced. I had to resort to a trick: the army was left behind, and Oleg with several boats sailed to Kyiv, stopped not far from the city and sent to tell Askold and Dir that their fellow countrymen, Varangian merchants, were going to Greece, wanted to see them and asked them to come to boats.

Prince Oleg's fleet goes to Constantinople along the Dnieper River. Engraving by F. A. Bruni. Before 1839

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