At the height of the Roman Empire, its rule extended over vast territories - their total area was about 6.51 million square kilometers. However, in the list of the largest empires in history, the Roman Empire ranks only nineteenth.
What do you think, which one is the first?
The largest empire in the world in history
Mongolian
294 (21.8 % )
Russian
213 (15.8 % )
Spanish
48 (3.6 % )
British
562 (41.6 % )
Mongolian
118 (8.7 % )
Turkic Khaganate
18 (1.3 % )
Japanese
5 (0.4 % )
18 (1.3 % )
Macedonian
74 (5.5 % )
Now we find out the correct answer...
Thousands of years of human existence have passed under the sign of wars and expansions. Great states arose, grew and collapsed, which changed (and some continue to change) the face of the modern world.
An empire is the most powerful type of state, where various countries and peoples are united under the rule of a single monarch (emperor). Let's look at the ten largest empires that have ever appeared on the world stage. Oddly enough, in our list you will not find either the Roman, or the Ottoman, or even the empire of Alexander the Great - history has seen more.
10. Arab Caliphate
Population: -
State area: - 6.7
Capital: 630-656 Medina / 656 - 661 Mecca / 661 - 754 Damascus / 754 - 762 Al-Kufa / 762 - 836 Baghdad / 836 - 892 Samarra / 892 - 1258 Baghdad
Beginning of rule: 632
Fall of an Empire: 1258
The existence of this empire marked the so-called. “The Golden Era of Islam” - the period from the 7th to the 13th centuries AD. e. The caliphate was founded immediately after the death of the creator of the Muslim faith, Muhammad in 632, and the Medina community founded by the prophet became its core. Centuries Arab conquests increased the area of the empire to 13 million square meters. km, covering territories in all three parts of the Old World. By the middle of the 13th century, the Caliphate, torn apart by internal conflicts, was so weakened that it was easily captured first by the Mongols and then by the Ottomans, the founders of another great Central Asian empire.
9. Japanese Empire
Population: 97,770,000
State area: 7.4 million km2
Capital: Tokyo
Beginning of rule: 1868
Fall of the Empire: 1947
Japan is the only empire on the modern political map. Now this status is rather formal, but 70 years ago it was Tokyo that was the main center of imperialism in Asia. Japan, an ally of the Third Reich and fascist Italy, then tried to establish control over the western coast of the Pacific Ocean, sharing a vast front with the Americans. This time marked the peak of the territorial scope of the empire, which controlled almost everything. maritime space and 7.4 million sq. km of land from Sakhalin to New Guinea.
8. Portuguese Empire
Population: 50 million (480 BC) / 35 million (330 BC)
State area: - 10.4 million km2
Capital: Coimbra, Lisbon
Since the 16th century, the Portuguese have been looking for ways to break Spanish isolation on the Iberian Peninsula. In 1497, they discovered a sea route to India, which marked the beginning of the expansion of the Portuguese colonial empire. Three years earlier, the Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded between the “sworn neighbors,” which actually divided the then-known world between the two countries, on unfavorable terms for the Portuguese. But this did not stop them from collecting more than 10 million square meters. km of land, most of which was occupied by Brazil. The handover of Macau to the Chinese in 1999 ended Portugal's colonial history.
7. Turkic Khaganate
Area - 13 million km2
one of the largest ancient states in Asia in the history of mankind, created by a tribal union of Turks (Turkuts) led by rulers from the Ashina clan. During the period of greatest expansion (end of the 6th century) it controlled the territories of China (Manchuria), Mongolia, Altai, East Turkestan, West Turkestan ( Central Asia), Kazakhstan and the North Caucasus. In addition, the tributaries of the Kaganate were Sasanian Iran, the Chinese states of Northern Zhou, Northern Qi from 576, and from the same year the Turkic Kaganate seized the Northern Caucasus and Crimea from Byzantium.
6. French Empire
Population: -
State area: 13.5 million square meters. km
Capital: Paris
Beginning of rule: 1546
Fall of the Empire: 1940
France became the third European power (after Spain and Portugal) to become interested in the overseas territories. Since 1546 - the time of foundation New France(now Quebec, Canada) - begins the formation of Francophonie in the world. Having lost the American confrontation with the Anglo-Saxons, and also inspired by the conquests of Napoleon, the French occupied almost all of West Africa. In the middle of the twentieth century, the area of the empire reached 13.5 million square meters. km, more than 110 million people lived in it. By 1962, most of the French colonies had become independent states.
Chinese Empire
5. Chinese Empire (Qing Empire)
Population: 383,100,000 people
State area: 14.7 million km2
Capital: Mukden (1636–1644), Beijing (1644–1912)
Beginning of rule: 1616
Fall of the Empire: 1912
The most ancient empire of Asia, the cradle of oriental culture. The first Chinese dynasties ruled from the 2nd millennium BC. e., but a unified empire was created only in 221 BC. e. During the reign of the Qing, the last monarchical dynasty of the Celestial Empire, the empire occupied a record area of 14.7 million square meters. km. This is 1.5 times more than the modern Chinese state, mainly due to Mongolia, now independent. In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution broke out, putting an end to the monarchical system in China, turning the empire into a republic.
4. Spanish Empire
Population: 60 million
State area: 20,000,000 km2
Capital: Toledo (1492-1561) / Madrid (1561-1601) / Valladolid (1601-1606) / Madrid (1606-1898)
Fall of the Empire: 1898
The period of world domination of Spain began with the voyages of Columbus, which opened new horizons for Catholic missionary work and territorial expansion. In the 16th century, almost the entire Western Hemisphere was “at the feet” of the Spanish king with his “invincible armada.” It was at this time that Spain was called “the country where the sun never sets,” because its possessions covered a seventh of the land (about 20 million sq. km) and almost half sea routes in all corners of the planet. Greatest Empires The Incas and Aztecs fell to the conquistadors, and in their place a predominantly Spanish-speaking Latin America emerged.
3. Russian Empire
Population: 60 million
Population: 181.5 million (1916)
State area: 23,700,000 km2
Capital: St. Petersburg, Moscow
Fall of the Empire: 1917
The largest continental monarchy in human history. Its roots reach back to the times of the Moscow principality, then the kingdom. In 1721, Peter I proclaimed the imperial status of Russia, which owned vast territories from Finland to Chukotka. IN late XIX century, the state reached its geographical apogee: 24.5 million square meters. km, about 130 million inhabitants, over 100 ethnic groups and nationalities. Russian possessions at one time included the lands of Alaska (before its sale by the Americans in 1867), as well as part of California.
2. Mongol Empire
Population: more than 110,000,000 people (1279)
State area: 38,000,000 sq. km. (1279)
Capital: Karakorum, Khanbalik
Beginning of rule: 1206
Fall of the Empire: 1368
The greatest empire of all times and peoples, whose raison d'être was one thing - war. The Great Mongolian State was formed in 1206 under the leadership of Genghis Khan, expanding over several decades to 38 million square meters. km, from the Baltic Sea to Vietnam, killing every tenth inhabitant of the Earth. By the end of the 13th century, its Uluses covered a quarter of the land and a third of the planet's population, which then numbered almost half a billion people. The ethnopolitical framework of modern Eurasia was formed on the fragments of the empire.
1. British Empire
Population: 458,000,000 people (approximately 24% of the world's population in 1922)
State area: 42.75 km2 (1922)
Capital London
Beginning of rule: 1497
Fall of the Empire: 1949 (1997)
The British Empire is the largest state that has ever existed in the history of mankind, with colonies on all inhabited continents.
Over the 400 years of its formation, it withstood competition for world domination with other “colonial titans”: France, Holland, Spain, Portugal. During its heyday, London controlled a quarter of the world's landmass (over 34 million sq. km) on all inhabited continents, as well as vast expanses of ocean. Formally, it still exists in the form of the Commonwealth, and countries such as Canada and Australia actually remain subject to the British crown.
The international status of the English language is the main legacy of Pax Britannica.
Something else interesting for you from history: remember, or for example. Here you go. maybe you didn't know that there was
The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy was made -
The word "empire" in Lately everyone knows it, it has even become fashionable. It bears a reflection of its former grandeur and luxury. What is an empire?
Is this promising?
Dictionaries and encyclopedias offer the basic meaning of the word “empire” (from the Latin word “imperium” - power), the meaning of which, without going into boring details and without resorting to dry scientific vocabulary, comes down to the following. Firstly, an empire is a monarchy headed by an emperor or empress (Roman However, for a state to become an empire, it is not enough for its ruler to simply be called an emperor. The existence of an empire presupposes the presence of sufficiently vast controlled territories and peoples, strong centralized power (authoritarian or totalitarian). And if tomorrow Prince Hans-Adam II calls himself emperor, this will not change the essence of the state structure of Liechtenstein (whose population is less than forty thousand people), and it will not be possible to declare that this small principality is an empire (as a form of state).
Not less important
Secondly, countries that have impressive colonial possessions are often called empires. In this case, the presence of an emperor is not at all necessary. For example, the English kings were never called emperors, but for almost five centuries they led the British Empire, which included not only Great Britain, but also big number colonies and dominions. The great empires of the world forever etched their names in the tablets of history, but where did they end?
Roman Empire (27 BC - 476)
Formally, the first emperor in the history of civilization is considered to be Gaius Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC), who was previously a consul and then declared dictator for life. Realizing the need for serious reforms, Caesar passed laws that changed the political system Ancient Rome. The role of the People's Assembly was lost, the Senate was replenished with Caesar's supporters, which granted Caesar the title of emperor with the right to pass it on to his descendants. Caesar began minting gold coins with his own image. His desire for unlimited power led to a conspiracy of senators (44 BC), organized by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius. In fact, the first emperor was Caesar's nephew, Octavian Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD). The title of emperor in those days denoted the supreme military leader who achieved significant victories. Formally, it still existed, and Augustus himself was called princeps (“first among equals”), but it was under Octavian that the republic acquired the features of a monarchy similar to the eastern despotic states. In 284, Emperor Diocletian (245 - 313) initiated reforms that finally turned the former Roman Republic into an empire. From then on, the emperor began to be called dominus - master. In 395, the state was divided into two parts - Eastern (capital - Constantinople) and Western (capital - Rome) - each of which was headed by its own emperor. Such was the will of Emperor Theodosius, who, on the eve of his death, divided the state between his sons. In the last period of its existence, the Western Empire was subject to constant invasions of barbarians, and in 476 the once powerful state would be finally defeated by the barbarian commander Odoacer (about 431 - 496), who would rule only Italy, renouncing both the title of emperor and others. possessions of the Roman Empire. After the fall of Rome, great empires would arise one after another.
Byzantine Empire (IV - XV centuries)
The Byzantine Empire originated from the Eastern Roman Empire. When Odoacer overthrew the latter, he took away the dignity of power from him and sent them to Constantinople. There is only one Sun on earth, and there should also be one emperor - this is approximately the meaning attached to this act. located at the junction of Europe, Asia and Africa, its borders extended from the Euphrates to the Danube. Christianity played a major role in the strengthening of Byzantium, which in 381 became the state religion of the entire Roman Empire. The Fathers of the Church argued that thanks to faith, not only a person is saved, but also society itself. Consequently, Byzantium is under the protection of the Lord and is obliged to lead other nations to salvation. Secular and spiritual power must be united in the name of a single goal. The Byzantine Empire is a state in which the idea of imperial power took on its most mature form. God is the ruler of the entire Universe, and the emperor presides over the Earthly Kingdom. Therefore, the power of the emperor is protected by God and is sacred. The Byzantine emperor had practically unlimited power, he determined domestic and foreign policy, was the commander-in-chief of the army, the highest judge and at the same time a legislator. The Emperor of Byzantium is not only the head of state, but also the head of the Church, so he had to set an example of exemplary Christian piety. It is curious that the power of the emperor here was not hereditary from a legal point of view. The history of Byzantium knows examples when a person became its emperor not because of a crowned birth, but based on the results of his real merits.
Ottoman (Ottoman) Empire (1299 - 1922)
Usually historians count its existence from 1299, when the Ottoman state arose in the north-west of Anatolia, founded by its first Sultan Osman, the founder of the new dynasty. Soon Osman would conquer the entire west of Asia Minor, which would become a powerful platform for the further expansion of the Turkic tribes. We can say that the Ottoman Empire is Türkiye during the sultanate period. But strictly speaking, the empire here emerged only in the 15th - 16th centuries, when Turkish conquests in Europe, Asia and Africa became very significant. Its heyday coincided with the collapse of the Byzantine Empire. This, of course, is not accidental: if it has decreased somewhere, then it will certainly increase elsewhere, as the law of conservation of energy and power on the Eurasian continent says. In the spring of 1453, as a result of a long siege and bloody battles, the troops of the Ottoman Turks under the leadership of Sultan Mehmed II occupied the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. This victory would ensure that the Turks would secure a dominant position in the eastern Mediterranean for many years to come. The capital of the Ottoman Empire will be Constantinople (Istanbul). The Ottoman Empire would reach its highest point of influence and prosperity in the 16th century - during the reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent. By the beginning of the 17th century, the Ottoman state would become one of the most powerful in the world. The Empire controlled almost all of South-Eastern Europe, North Africa and Western Asia, it consisted of 32 provinces and many tributary states. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire will occur as a result of the First World War. Being allies of Germany, the Turks would be defeated, the sultanate would be abolished in 1922, and Turkey would become a republic in 1923.
British Empire (1497 - 1949)
The British Empire is the largest colonial state in the entire history of civilization. In the 30s of the twentieth century, the territory of the United Kingdom accounted for almost a quarter of the earth's landmass, and its population was a quarter of those living on the planet (it is no coincidence that English language has become the most authoritative language in the world). England's European conquests began with the invasion of Ireland, and intercontinental ones with the capture of Newfoundland (1583), which became a springboard for expansion in North America. The success of British colonization was facilitated by the successful imperialist war that England waged with Spain, France, and Holland. At the very beginning of the 17th century, Britain's penetration into India began, later England would take on Australia and New Zealand, Northern, Tropical and Southern Africa.
Britain and the colonies
After World War I, the League of Nations would give the United Kingdom a mandate to govern some of the former Ottoman colonies (including Iran and Palestine). However, the results of World War II significantly shifted the emphasis on the colonial issue. Britain, although it was among the winners, was forced to take out a huge loan from the United States to avoid bankruptcy. The USSR and the USA - the largest players in the political arena - were opponents of colonization. Meanwhile, liberation sentiments intensified in the colonies. In this situation, it was too difficult and expensive to maintain colonial rule. Unlike Portugal and France, England did not do this and transferred power to local governments. At the moment, Great Britain continues to maintain dominance over 14 territories.
Russian Empire (1721 - 1917)
After the end of the Northern War, when new lands and access to the Baltic were secured, Tsar Peter I accepted the title of All-Russian Emperor at the request of the Senate, the highest body state power, established ten years earlier. In terms of area, the Russian Empire became the third (after the British and Mongolian empires) to ever exist. state entities. Before the emergence of the State Duma in 1905, the power of the Russian emperor was not limited by anything other than Orthodox norms. Peter I, who strengthened the country, divided Russia into eight provinces. During the time of Catherine II there were 50 of them, and by 1917, as a result of territorial expansion, their number increased to 78. Russia is an empire that included a number of modern sovereign states(Finland, Belarus, Ukraine, Transcaucasia and Central Asia). As a result of the February Revolution of 1917, the reign of the Romanov dynasty of Russian emperors ended, and in September of the same year Russia was proclaimed a republic.
Centrifugal tendencies are to blame
As we see, all the great empires collapsed. The centripetal forces that create them are sooner or later replaced by centrifugal tendencies, leading these states, if not to complete collapse, then to disintegration.
September 19, 2006
"Foreign Policy", USA
http://www.inosmi.ru/translation/230004.html
The imperial states of the mid-20th century largely dug their own grave
Empires are the locomotives of history. But in the last century they turned out to be very short-lived - not a single empire saw the beginning of a new century. Today there are no empires on the political map - at least officially. But this situation may soon change if the United States - and even China - follows the call of its imperial destiny. Will they be able to avoid the fate that befell their predecessors?
The course of events in the world has always been determined by empires, not nation states. What we call the history of mankind is in many ways a chronicle of the deeds of 50-70 empires, in different time who ruled vast areas and many peoples in different regions planets. However, over time, their “lifespan” began to decrease. Compared to their predecessors in antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times, the empires of the last century turned out to be surprisingly short-lived. Reduction " life cycle"Empires have a profound influence on the events of our days.
Officially, empires do not exist today - there are only 190-odd “ordinary” states. However, the ghosts of the empires of the past still roam the planet. Regional conflicts on different continents - from Central Africa and the Middle East to Central America and the Far East - are easily - and often demagogically - explained by the sins of previous empires: there the border was drawn incorrectly, here they sowed inter-ethnic strife, following the principle of “divide and conquer”.
Moreover, in many influential states of today's world, the features of the empires that gave birth to them are unmistakably discerned. Take the Russian Federation: Russians make up less than 80% of its population. And Great Britain today is essentially an “empire of the British.” Modern Italy and Germany were born not of national movements, but of the expansion of Piedmont and Prussia. The legacy of empires is even more evident outside Europe. Today's India, for example, was largely shaped by the Mughal era and British colonial rule. (An Indian officer once told me: “The Indian Army today is more “English” than the British Army.” As we passed through the cantonment at Madras, I realized that he was right: hundreds of khaki-clad infantrymen stood at attention at the sight of the officer. line and saluted). Today's China is a direct descendant of the Middle Kingdom. In the New World, the legacy of empire is visible from Canada in the North to Argentina in the South: in Canada the British monarch remains the official head of state, and the Falkland Islands still belong to England.
In short, in today's world former empires or their colonies occupy the same place as nation states. Even organizations created in 1945 to rebuild international system, bear a clear imperial imprint. Doesn't the institution of permanent members of the UN Security Council resemble a "gentlemen's club" of former empires? And what are “humanitarian interventions” if not a more politically correct formulation of the concept of the “civilizing mission” of the former Western empires?
How long do empires last?
It is generally accepted that the “life cycle” of empires, great powers and civilizations follows certain predictable patterns. However, what is most striking about the empires of the past is the enormous variation not only in the size of their possessions, but also in the duration of their existence. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the “life” of modern empires turns out to be much shorter than that of their ancient and medieval predecessors.
Take, for example, the three Roman Empires. The Western Roman Empire arose in 27 BC, when Octavian called himself Caesar Augustus and became emperor in all respects except the title itself. Its end came with the death of Emperor Theodosius in 395, when Constantinople officially became the "rival" capital of the Roman state: it thus existed for 422 years. At the same moment, the Eastern Roman Empire was born, which lasted 1058 years - until the defeat of Byzantium by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Holy Roman Empire existed from 800, when Charlemagne was crowned, until 1806, when Napoleon nailed its coffin the last nail. Thus, the "average life expectancy" for the Roman Empires is 829 years.
Such calculations, while approximate, make it possible to compare the “life cycles” of different empires. The three Roman empires in this sense turned out to be “long-livers.” Thus, the average for the Middle Eastern empires (Assyria, the Abbasid state, the Ottoman Empire) is a little more than 400 years, in Egypt and Eastern Europe the empires existed on average for 350 years, for China - if you separate each of the main dynasties into a separate “imperial cycle” - a similar figure is more than 300 years. The various empires in Persia, India and Western Europe "lived" generally from 200 to 300 years.
After the capture of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire lasted the longest - 469 years. The Eastern European empires of the Habsburgs and Romanovs lasted for more than three centuries. The Mughals ruled most of what is now India for 235 years. The reign of the Safavid dynasty in Persia lasted almost as long.
The exact dating of the “maritime” empires with metropolises in Western Europe is a more difficult task, since there are different points of view regarding the chronology of their existence. However, it is safe to say that the British, Dutch, French and Spanish empires lasted approximately 300 years each, and the Portuguese - almost 500.
The empires that emerged in the 20th century, by contrast, had a relatively short “life cycle.” The Bolshevik USSR existed for less than 70 years (1922-1991) - by historical standards, not long at all; however, the People's Republic of China has not yet overcome even this milestone. The Japanese colonial empire, which began with the annexation of Taiwan in 1895, barely lasted half a century. Hitler's Third Reich turned out to be the most short-lived of the empires of the 20th century: its expansion beyond the borders of Germany began in 1938, but by the beginning of 1945 it was expelled from all occupied territories. Formally, the Third Reich existed for 12 years, but it was an empire in the true sense - i.e. a state governing other nations - he was only half of this term. Only Benito Mussolini turned out to be an even more unlucky “imperialist” than Hitler.
Why were the empires of the 20th century so fragile? The answer is partly due to their desire for unprecedented centralization of power, control of the economy and social homogeneity.
The new empires that emerged after the First World War were dissatisfied with the efficient but improvised administrative systems characteristic of traditional colonial empires, including the indiscriminate mixing of imperial and local laws and the delegation of certain powers and status to certain indigenous ethnic groups in the colonies. From the builders nation states in the 19th century they inherited an insatiable thirst for uniformity; as a result, these entities are more likely to be defined as “imperial states” rather than classical empires. The new empires discarded traditional religious and legal norms that limited state violence. They stubbornly built a new hierarchical system in place of existing social structures and took pleasure in breaking down old political institutions. But most importantly, they turned cruelty into the highest virtue. In pursuit of their goals, they waged “total” wars, directed not only against armed and specially trained representatives of the enemy state, but also against entire social or ethnic groups. Here is one fact typical of the new generation of “emperor candidates”: Hitler accused the British of being “soft” towards the Indian national movement.
The imperial states of the mid-20th century largely dug their own grave. The Germans and Japanese asserted their power over other peoples with such cruelty that they completely undermined the possibility of cooperation with the local population and created the preconditions for the development of the Resistance Movement. This was a reckless policy, since many of those whom the Axis powers had “liberated” from previous rulers (Stalin in Eastern Europe, European empires in Asia) initially welcomed their new masters. At the same time, the territorial ambitions of these imperial states were so limitless - and their overall strategy so illusory - that they very quickly gave birth to an indestructible coalition of rival empires - Britain, the USA and the USSR.
Why are we fighting
An empire cannot survive for long if it does not have a long-term base among the local population, or if it allows rival empires to unite into a hostile coalition that is superior in strength. The critical question is: have the behavior of today's world powers changed compared to their imperial predecessors?
Publicly, the leaders of the American and Chinese republics deny that they have any imperial aspirations. Both states were born during revolutions, and have long “anti-imperialist” traditions. But at some point the mask is dropped. Thus, the cards that US Vice President Dick Cheney sent to friends for Christmas in 2003 contained an eloquent quote from Benjamin Franklin: “If a sparrow does not fall to the ground without God noticing it, is it possible for an empire to arise without His help?” ?". In 2004, a senior adviser to President Bush told journalist Ron Suskind, "We are an empire now, and by our actions we shape man-made reality... We move history." Perhaps similar thoughts come to Chinese leaders. But even if this does not happen, nothing prevents the republic from behaving “imperially” in practice, continuing to swear allegiance to republican virtues.
By historical standards, the United States is still a very young empire. Its expansion on the American continent itself in the 19th century was overtly imperialistic in nature. However, the relative ease with which the initial federation of states absorbed vast but sparsely populated territories prevented the formation of a truly imperial mentality and did not pose any problems for the existence of republican political institutions. On the contrary, the overseas expansion of the United States, the beginning of which can be considered the Spanish-American War of 1898, was accompanied by much greater difficulties, and it is for this reason that during this period the specter of the transformation of the presidential seat into the “imperial throne” more than once appeared on the horizon. If we leave out American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and American Virgin Islands, which became dependent territories of the United States on a permanent basis, American interventions abroad, as a rule, lasted relatively short.
In the 20th century, the United States occupied Panama for 74 years, the Philippines for 48 years, Palau for 47 years, Micronesia and the Marshall Islands for 39 years, Haiti for 19 years, and Dominican Republic- 8 years. The official occupation of West Germany and Japan after World War II lasted 10 and 7 years, respectively, although in these countries, as in South Korea, American troops are still deployed. In addition, starting in 1965, an impressive American contingent was sent to South Vietnam, but by 1973 it was withdrawn.
Such historical experience reinforces the widespread belief that the American military presence in Iraq and Afghanistan will not last long after the end of George W. Bush's presidency. Today's empires - especially if they do not recognize themselves as such - are fragile, but special reasons that distinguishes our era from previous ones.
In the case of the American empire, its ephemerality is associated primarily not with the hostility of the conquered peoples or the threat from rival powers (which caused the collapse of other empires of the 20th century), but with internal political restrictions. These limitations come in three main forms. The first can be called a “troop shortage.” When Britain successfully crushed a major uprising in Iraq in 1920, it deployed a sizeable force: there was one British soldier for every 23 people in the country. Today the United States is clearly unable to ensure such a balance of forces: there are 210 Iraqis for every American soldier.
The problem, contrary to popular belief, is not purely demographic in nature. The United States has plenty of healthy young people (the number of men aged 15 to 24 is many times larger than Iraq or Afghanistan). The fact is that the size of the US armed forces is a very small proportion of the population - 0.5%. In addition, only a small, best-trained part of these armed forces takes part in combat operations in overseas theaters.
Soldier from elite units they are too protective to send them to their deaths without hesitation. And replacing the dead is not easy. Every time I read in the newspapers about the tragic death of another American soldier in battle, the lines of Rudyard Kipling, the greatest of the British “imperial” poets, come to mind:
Random battle in Afghanistan,
In the gorge of the mountains there is a damp dawn,
Two thousand education
He dumped the jezail for five coins -
The beauty and pride of the squadron
In the saddle, shot like a crow.
["Arithmetic of the Afghan border", translation by F. Tolstoy]
The second limiting factor for the American “unofficial” empire is the US budget deficit. The cost of the war in Iraq has been far greater than the administration predicted: it has already totaled $290 billion since the invasion began in 2003. In relation to the volume of US GDP, this figure does not look so impressive - only 2.5%, but the treasury was not able to allocate more funds for the accelerated post-war reconstruction of Iraq, but this could have prevented a civil war flaring up in the country. Other spending priorities - such as funding the government's Medicare obligations - prevented the Marshall Plan for the Middle East from being realized, as some Iraqis had hoped.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the American public is less enthusiastic about imperial policies. Empires of the past had no trouble generating public support for even the most protracted military conflicts. Their descendant - the United States - has clearly lost such skills. Just a year and a half after the invasion of Iraq, the majority of American voters, according to polls from the polling service Gallup, considered it a mistake. By comparison, disappointment in Vietnam War reached the same proportions only in August 1968 - when three years had already passed since the entry of a large American contingent into the country, and US losses in killed were approaching 30,000 people.
There are a lot of hypotheses designed to explain the shortening of the “life cycle” of empires in our era. Some argue that because of the ubiquity of the news media, would-be "emperors" are no longer able to secretly abuse power. Others insist that advanced military technology no longer gives the United States an undeniable advantage: homemade landmines - like the primitive nickel guns of Kipling's day - reduce it to zero, since the most powerful and cutting-edge weapons are often simply unsuitable for fighting guerrillas.
However, the real reasons for the fragility - and indeed the very “unofficialness” - of modern empires are not connected with this. Whether we like it or not, empires become driving force history, since this format allows for “economies of scale”. Thus, most nation states can only put a limited number of people under arms. The empire, in this regard, has greater “free hands”: one of its most important functions is the mobilization and equipment of powerful armed forces consisting of representatives of many nations, as well as the collection of taxes and the provision of loans to finance them - again supported by the resources of numerous colonies.
But why are these wars needed at all? The answer, again, has to do with economics. Among the “selfish” goals of imperial expansion are the vital need to ensure the security of the metropolis by defeating external enemies, replenishing the treasury through taxes and other payments levied on conquered peoples, and, of course, material “trophies” - new lands for colonization, raw materials , precious metals. To justify the costs of conquering and colonizing new lands, an empire must typically obtain all of these resources at lower prices than would be possible through free trade with independent peoples and other empires.
At the same time, the empire often provides its citizens with “public goods” - i.e. benefits that extend not only to the colonialists themselves, but also to the conquered peoples - and third countries too. This could be peace and order in the sense we understand of the Pax Romana, increased trade and investment, improved education (sometimes, but not always, associated with conversion to a particular religion), or improved material living conditions.
Imperial rule rests not only on bayonets. Not only soldiers, but also civil servants, settlers, public organizations, businessmen and local elites different ways ensure the implementation of the decisions of the center on the periphery. Moreover, the benefits of empire extend beyond its rulers and their “clients.” Colonists from low-income sections of the population of the metropolis also often take advantage of its benefits. Even for those who do not go overseas, the victories of the Imperial Legions in foreign lands become a source of pride. Among those who benefit from the empire are often local elites in the colonies.
Thus, an empire arises and exists if, in the eyes of the imperialists themselves, the benefits of ruling other peoples exceed the costs associated with it, and in the eyes of the conquered peoples themselves, the benefits of subordination to a foreign power outweigh the “costs” associated with resistance to the colonialists. Indirectly, such calculations also include “lost profits” in the event of the transfer of power over a particular territory to another empire.
All things considered, the costs of running Iraq and Afghanistan today seem "excessive" to most Americans, the benefits dubious at best, and no rival empire able or willing to test them there. own strength. And because America's republican institutions, while under pressure, remain intact, today's United States bears little resemblance to 1st century BC Rome. And the current president, although he strives to expand the powers of the executive branch, is not like Octavian.
However, all this could change. On our increasingly overpopulated planet, where sooner or later there will inevitably be a shortage of certain types of raw materials, all the main prerequisites for imperial rivalry remain. Look at the energy with which China has recently been pursuing “special relationships” with resource-rich countries in Africa and other regions. Or ask yourself the question: even if “neo-isolationism” prevails in America, how long will it be able to distance itself from events in the Muslim world in the face of new attacks by Islamist terrorists?
Let us admit: today empires are not only embarrassed to be called such, but they are also not in “demand.” However, the experience of history suggests that tomorrow the pendulum of the balance of power may swing again towards them.
Incredible facts
Throughout human history, we have seen empires rise and fall into oblivion over decades, centuries, and even millennia. If it is true that history repeats itself, then perhaps we can learn from the mistakes and better understand the achievements of the world's most powerful and longest-lived empires.
Empire is compound word for determining. Although this term is thrown around very often, it is nevertheless often used in the wrong context and misrepresents the political location of the country. The simplest definition describes a political unit that exercises control over another political body. Basically, these are countries or groups of people who control the political decisions of a smaller unit.
The term "hegemony" is often used along with empire, but there are significant differences between the two, just as there are obvious differences between the concepts of "leader" and "bully". Hegemony operates as an agreed upon set of international rules, while empire produces and implements those same rules. Hegemony represents the dominant influence of one group over other groups, however, it requires the consent of the majority in order for that leading group to remain in power.
Which empires in history lasted the longest, and what can we learn from them? Below we will look at these past kingdoms, how they formed, and the factors that ultimately led to their downfall.
10. Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire is remembered for having one of the strongest navies the world has ever seen. A lesser-known fact is that it did not “disappear” from the face of the earth until 1999. The kingdom lasted for 584 years. It was the first global empire in history, spanning four continents, and began in 1415 when the Portuguese captured the Muslim North African city of Cueta. Expansion continued as they moved into Africa, India, Asia and the Americas.
After World War II, decolonization efforts intensified in many areas, causing many European countries to "embark" from their colonies around the world. This did not happen to Portugal until 1999, when it finally gave up Macau in China, signaling the "end" of the empire.
The Portuguese Empire was able to expand so much because of its superior weapons, naval superiority, and ability to quickly build ports to trade sugar, slaves, and gold. She also had enough strength to conquer new peoples and gain lands. But, as is the case with most empires throughout history, the conquered areas eventually sought to reclaim their lands back.
The Portuguese Empire collapsed for several reasons, including international pressure and economic tension.
9. Ottoman Empire
At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire spanned three continents, encompassing a wide range of cultures, religions and languages. Despite these differences, the empire was able to flourish for 623 years, from 1299 to 1922.
The Ottoman Empire got its start as a small Turkish state after the weakened Byzantine Empire left the region. Osman I pushed the boundaries of his empire outward, relying on strong judicial, educational, and military systems, as well as a unique method of transferring power. The empire continued to expand and eventually conquered Constantinople in 1453 and spread its influence deep into Europe and North Africa. The civil wars of the early 1900s that immediately followed World War I, as well as the Arab Revolt, signaled the beginning of the end. At the end of World War I, the Treaty of Sèvres divided much of the Ottoman Empire. The final point was the Turkish War of Independence, as a result of which Constantinople fell in 1922.
Inflation, competition and unemployment are cited as key factors in the demise of the Ottoman Empire. Each part of this massive empire was culturally and economically diverse, and their inhabitants ultimately wanted to break free.
8. Khmer Empire
Little is known about the Khmer Empire, however, its capital city of Angkor was said to be very impressive, thanks in large part to Angkor Wat, one of the world's largest religious monuments, built at the zenith of its power. The Khmer Empire began in 802 AD when Jayavarman II was proclaimed king of the region that is now Cambodia. 630 years later, in 1432, the empire came to an end.
Some of what we know about this empire comes from stone murals found in the region, and some information comes from Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan, who traveled to Angkor in 1296 and published a book about his experiences. Almost the entire existence of the empire, it tried to capture more and more new territories. Angkor was the main home of the nobility during the second period of the empire. When the power of the Khmers began to weaken, neighboring civilizations began to fight for control of Angkor.
There are many theories as to why the empire collapsed. Some believe that the king converted to Buddhism, which led to the loss of workers, degeneration of the water system, and ultimately very poor harvests. Others claim that the Thai kingdom of Sukhothai conquered Angkor in the 1400s. Another theory says that the last straw was the transfer of power to the city of Oudong, while Angkor remained abandoned.
7. Ethiopian Empire
Considering the duration of the Ethiopian Empire, we know surprisingly little about it. Ethiopia and Liberia were the only ones African countries, who managed to resist the European “scramble for Africa”. The long existence of the empire began in 1270, when the Solomonid dynasty overthrew the Zagwe dynasty, declaring that they owned the rights to this land, as King Solomon bequeathed. From then on, the dynasty subsequently grew into an empire by uniting new civilizations under its rule.
All this continued until 1895, when Italy declared war on the empire, and that’s when the problems began. In 1935, Benito Mussolini ordered his soldiers to invade Ethiopia and the war raged there for seven months, leading to Italy being declared the winner of the war. From 1936 to 1941, Italians ruled the country.
The Ethiopian Empire did not greatly expand its borders or exhaust its resources, as we saw in previous examples. Rather, Ethiopia's resources became more powerful, particularly we're talking about about huge coffee plantations. Civil wars contributed to the weakening of the empire, however, at the head of everything, it was still Italy's desire to expand, which led to the fall of Ethiopia.
6. Kanem Empire
We know very little about the Kanem Empire and how its people lived, most of our knowledge comes from a text document discovered in 1851 called Girgam. Over time, Islam became their main religion, however, as expected, the introduction of religion could cause internal strife in the early years of the empire. The Kanem Empire was created around 700 and lasted until 1376. It was located in what is now Chad, Libya and part of Nigeria.
According to a document found, the Zaghawa people founded their capital in 700 in the city of N'jimi. The history of the empire is divided between two dynasties - Duguwa and Sayfawa (which was the driving force that brought Islam). Its expansion continues. and during the period when the king declared a holy war, or jihad, on all the surrounding tribes.
The military system designed to facilitate jihad was based on state principles hereditary nobility, in which soldiers received part of the lands they conquered, while the lands remained with them for many years, even their sons could dispose of them. This system led to a civil war that weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to attack by external enemies. The Bulala invaders were able to quickly seize control of the capital and eventually take control of the empire in 1376.
The lesson of the Kanem Empire shows how poor decisions create internal conflict that leaves once powerful people defenseless. Similar developments are repeated throughout history.
5. Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was seen as a revival of the Western Roman Empire, and it was also considered a political counterweight to the Roman Empire catholic church. Its name, however, comes from the fact that the emperor was chosen by voters, but he was crowned by the pope in Rome. The empire lasted from 962 to 1806 and occupied a fairly vast territory, which is now Central Europe, primarily including most of Germany.
The Empire began when Otto I was proclaimed King of Germany, however, he later became known as the first Holy Roman Emperor. The Empire consisted of 300 different territories, however, after the Thirty Years' War in 1648, it was fragmented, thereby planting the seeds of independence.
In 1792, there was an uprising in France. By 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte forced last emperor The Holy Roman Empire of Francis II abdicated the throne, after which the empire was renamed the Confederation of the Rhine. Like the Ottoman and Portuguese Empires, the Holy Roman Empire was made up of various ethnic groups and smaller kingdoms. Ultimately, the desire of these kingdoms to gain independence led to the collapse of the empire.
4. Silla Empire
Little is known about the beginnings of the Silla Empire, but by the sixth century it was a highly complex society based on descent, in which lineage decided everything from the clothes a person could wear to the work activities he was allowed to do. . Although this system helped the empire initially acquire large amounts of land, it ultimately led to its demise.
The Silla Empire began in 57 BC. and occupied territory that currently belongs to North and South Korea. Kin Park Hyeokgeose was the first ruler of the empire. During his reign, the empire continually expanded, conquering more and more kingdoms on the Korean Peninsula. Eventually, a monarchy was formed. The Chinese Tang Dynasty and the Silla Empire were at war in the seventh century, however, the dynasty was defeated.
A century of civil war among high-ranking families, as well as among the defeated kingdoms, left the empire doomed. Eventually, in 935 AD, the empire ceased to exist and became part of the new state of Goryeo, with which it fought a war in the 7th century. Historians do not know the exact circumstances that led to the demise of the Silla Empire, however, the general view is that neighboring countries were unhappy with the continued expansion of the empire through the Korean Peninsula. Numerous theories agree that smaller kingdoms struck to gain sovereignty.
3. Venetian Republic
The pride of the Venetian Republic was its massive navy, which allowed it to quickly prove its power throughout Europe and the Mediterranean by conquering such important historical cities as Cyprus and Crete. The Republic of Venice lasted an amazing 1,100 years, from 697 to 1797. It all started when the Western Roman Empire fought Italy, and when the Venetians declared Paolo Lucio Anafesto their duke. The empire went through several significant changes, however, it gradually expanded and became what is now known as the Republic of Venice, feuding with the Turks and the Ottoman Empire, among others.
A large number of wars significantly weakened defensive forces empires. The city of Piedmont soon submitted to France, and Napoleon Bonaparte captured part of the empire. When Napoleon issued an ultimatum, Doge Ludovico Manin surrendered in 1797, and Napoleon began to rule Venice.
The Republic of Venice is a classic example of how an empire that extends over vast distances is unable to defend its capital. Unlike other empires, it was not civil wars that killed it, but wars with its neighbors. The highly prized Venetian navy, which was once invincible, was spread too far and was unable to defend its own empire.
2. Kush Empire
The Kush Empire lasted from approximately 1070 BC. to 350 AD and occupied territory that currently belongs to the Republic of Sudan. Throughout its long history, very little information has survived about the political structure of the region, however, there is evidence of monarchies in the last years of its existence. However, the Kush Empire ruled over several smaller countries in the region and managed to retain power. The empire's economy was heavily dependent on the trade in iron and gold.
Some evidence suggests that the empire was attacked by desert tribes, while others believe that over-reliance on iron led to deforestation, forcing the people to disperse.
Other empires fell because they exploited their own people or neighboring countries, however, the deforestation theory believes that the Kush Empire fell because it destroyed its own lands. Both the rise and fall of the empire turned out to be fatally connected with the same industry.
1. Eastern Roman Empire
The Roman Empire is not only one of the most famous in history, it is also the longest lasting empire. It went through several eras, but, in fact, lasted since 27 BC. to 1453 AD – a total of 1480 years. The republics that preceded it were destroyed by civil wars, and Julius Caesar became dictator. The empire expanded into modern-day Italy and much of the Mediterranean region. The empire had great power, but Emperor Diocletian in the third century "introduced" a key factor to ensure the long-term success and prosperity of the empire. He determined that two emperors could rule, thereby easing the stress of taking over large quantity territories. Thus, the foundations were laid for the possibility of the existence of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires.
The Western Roman Empire dissolved in 476 when German troops rebelled and overthrew Romulus Augustus from the imperial throne. The Eastern Roman Empire continued to flourish after 476, becoming better known as the Byzantine Empire.
Class conflicts led to civil war 1341-1347, which not only reduced the number of small states that were part of the Byzantine Empire, but also allowed the short-lived Serbian Empire to rule for a short period of time in some territories of the Byzantine Empire. Social upheaval and plague contributed to the further weakening of the kingdom. Combined with growing unrest in the empire, plague and social unrest, it eventually fell when the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453.
Despite the strategy of co-emperor Diocletian, which undoubtedly greatly increased the "lifespan" of the Roman Empire, it suffered the same fate as other empires whose massive expansion eventually provoked various ethnic peoples to fight for sovereignty.
These empires lasted the longest in history, but each had its own weak points, be it the use of land or people, none of the empires was able to contain social unrest caused by class divisions, unemployment or lack of resources.
To the question “In what year did Russia become an empire?” not everyone will be able to give an accurate answer. Someone forgot that the country was proudly called by it, someone may not know this at all. But it was precisely at that time that it was recognized as one of the most powerful powers in the world, and there was a significant economic and cultural rise of the state. Therefore, you need to know when this path, rich in historical events, began.
General information
The Russian Empire is a state that existed from 1721 until the February Revolution, when the existing political system collapsed and Russia became a republic. The country became an empire after the Northern War during the reign of Peter the Great. The capital changed - it was St. Petersburg, then Moscow, then St. Petersburg, renamed Leningrad after the revolution.
The borders of the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean on the northern borders to the Black Sea on the southern borders, from the Baltic Sea on the western borders to the Pacific Ocean on the eastern borders. Thanks to such a vast territory, Russia was considered the third largest power in the world by area. The head of the state was the emperor, who was an absolute monarch until 1905.
The Russian Empire was founded by Peter the Great, who completely changed the state structure during his reforms. Russia turned from a class-monarchal empire into an absolutist empire. Absolutism is introduced into the Military Regulations. Peter, taking the countries of Western Europe as a model, decided to proclaim it an imperial power.
To achieve an absolute monarchy, they are abolished Boyar Duma and the Patriarchate, which could influence royal decisions. After the introduction of the Table of Ranks, the main support of the monarch is the nobility, and the church becomes synodal, which is subordinate to the emperor. Russia has a permanent army and navy, which allows it to expand Russian borders to the west; access to the Baltic Sea has been won. Peter founded St. Petersburg, which later became the capital of the empire.
On October 22 (November 2), 1721, after the end of the Northern War, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and Peter the Great himself became emperor. In the eyes of European rulers, Russia thus showed everyone that it has great political influence and that it must be taken into account. Not all powers recognized the increased influence of Russia; the last to submit was Poland, which laid claim to part of the territories of Kievan Rus.
The period of "enlightened absolutism"
After the death of Peter the Great, the era began palace coup- a time when there was no stability in the country, therefore, there was no significant government growth. Everything changed when, during the next coup, Catherine the Second ascended the throne. During her reign, Russia makes another breakthrough both in foreign policy, and in the internal structure of the state.
During Russian-Turkish wars Crimea is conquered, Russia takes an active part in the division of Poland, and Novorossiya is being developed. During the colonization of Transcaucasia, Russian interests collided with Persian and Ottoman ones. In 1783 it was signed Treaty of Georgievsk about patronage over Eastern Georgia.
There were also popular unrest. Catherine the Great created a “Charter of Grant to the Nobility,” which exempted them from compulsory military service, but the peasants were still obliged to perform military service. The reaction of the peasantry and Cossacks, from whom the empress took away their liberties, was the “Pugachevshchina.”
Catherine's reign proceeds in the spirit of enlightened absolutism; she personally corresponds with famous French philosophers of that time. The Free Economic Society is founded, the development of science and art is encouraged. But at the same time, the Empress understands that the large territory of the Russian Empire requires strict control and an absolute monarchy.
During the reign of Emperor Nicholas II, events took place that revolutionized and completely changed Russian history. Despite the fact that the emperor favored industrial growth and demographic growth, the number of peasants and workers dissatisfied with working conditions is growing: the latter demand an 8-hour working day, and the peasantry wants the division of landowners' lands.
At that time, Russia was trying to expand its Far Eastern borders, this led to a clash of interests with Japan, which resulted in war and defeat, which was a consequence of the revolution. After this, Russia stopped expanding its influence on Far East. The revolution was suppressed, the emperor made concessions - he created a Parliament that allowed political parties. But this did not help: discontent continued to grow, including with the Russification policy in Finland, the Poles were outraged by the loss of Poland's autonomy, and the Jews were outraged by the repressive policies that had increased since the 1880s.
The Russian Empire took part in the First World War, which led to enormous tension for all countries involved. Due to large military expenditures, a huge number of peasants are mobilized, which leads to an aggravation of the food problem. Growing difficulties are causing dissatisfaction with politics and the prevailing state structure of all segments of the population, which results in February revolution 1917, and in 1924 the USSR appears.
Why was the reign of these two emperors and empress discussed? In what year did Russia become an empire? That's right, in 1721, during the reign of Peter the Great, during the reign of the Russian Empire made a big leap in its development, and Nicholas II became the last Russian emperor, and it was necessary to write about the reasons that led to the collapse of the empire. Russian state had great influence in world politics, the emperors sought to expand their borders, but did not take into account the interests of the common population, who were dissatisfied with the policy, which led to the creation of the republic.