In the Russian language, additional expressive means are widely used, for example, tropes and figures of speech.
Paths are like this figures of speech, which are based on the use of words in a figurative meaning. They are used to enhance the expressiveness of the speech of the writer or speaker.
The tropes include: metaphors, epithets, metonymy, synecdoche, comparisons, hyperbole, litotes, periphrasis, personification.
Metaphor is a technique in which words and expressions are used in a figurative meaning based on analogy, similarity or comparison.
And my tired soul is enveloped in darkness and cold. (M. Yu. Lermontov)
An epithet is a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, or characteristics. Usually an epithet is a colorful definition.
Your thoughtful nights are transparent twilight. (A S. Pushkin)
Metonymy is a means that is based on replacing one word with another based on contiguity.
The hiss of foamy glasses and the blue flame of punch. (A.S. Pushkin)
Synecdoche is one of the types of metonymy - transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.
And you could hear the Frenchman rejoicing until dawn. (M.Yu. Lermontov)
Comparison is a technique in which one phenomenon or concept is explained by comparing it with another. Typically comparative conjunctions are used.
Anchar, like a formidable sentinel, stands alone in the entire universe. (A.S. Pushkin).
Hyperbole is a trope based on excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon.
For a week I won’t say a word to anyone, I keep sitting on a stone by the sea... (A. A. Akhmatova).
Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole, an artistic understatement.
Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no more than a thimble... (A.S. Griboyedov)
Personification is a means based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones.
The silent sadness will be consoled, and the joyful joy will reflect. (A.S. Pushkin).
Periphrasis is a trope in which the direct name of an object, person, or phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive phrase in which the characteristics of an object, person, or phenomenon not directly named are indicated.
"King of beasts" instead of lion.
Irony is a technique of ridicule that contains an assessment of what is being ridiculed. Irony always has a double meaning, where the truth is not what is directly stated, but what is implied.
Thus, the example mentions Count Khvostov, who was not recognized as a poet by his contemporaries due to the mediocrity of his poems.
Count Khvostov, a poet beloved by heaven, was already singing in immortal verses the misfortunes of the Neva banks. (A.S. Pushkin)
Stylistic figures- these are special phrases that go beyond the necessary norms for creating artistic expressiveness.
It is necessary to emphasize once again that stylistic figures make our speech informationally redundant, but this redundancy is necessary for the expressiveness of speech, and therefore for more strong impact to the addressee
These figures include:
And you, arrogant descendants... (M.Yu. Lermontov)
A rhetorical question is a structure of speech in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement.
And will the desired dawn finally rise over the fatherland of enlightened freedom? (A S. Pushkin)
Anaphora - repetition of parts of relatively independent segments.
It’s as if you curse days without light,
As if gloomy nights scare you...
(A. Apukhtin)
Epiphora - repetition at the end of a phrase, sentence, line, stanza.
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me
I can't find a place in a quiet house
Near the peaceful fire. (A.A. Blok)
Antithesis is an artistic opposition.
And day, and hour, and in writing, and orally, for the truth, yes and no... (M. Tsvetaeva)
An oxymoron is a combination of logically incompatible concepts.
You, who loved me with the falsehood of truth and the truth of lies... (M. Tsvetaeva)
Gradation is a grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or decreasing emotional and semantic significance
I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry... (With A. Yesenin)
Silence is a deliberate interruption of speech based on the guesswork of the reader, who must mentally complete the phrase.
But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus... (A.S. Pushkin)
Polyunion - repetition of a conjunction, perceived as redundant, creates emotionality in speech.
And for him they were resurrected again: deity, inspiration, life, tears, and love. (A.S. Pushkin)
Non-union is a construction in which unions are omitted to enhance expression.
Swede, Russian, chops, stabs, cuts, drumming, clicks, grinding... (A.S. Pushkin)
Parallelism is the identical arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text.
Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon.. (V.V. Mayakovsky).
Chiasmus is a cross arrangement of parallel parts in two adjacent sentences.
Automedons (coachman, driver - O.M.) are our fighters, our troikas are indomitable... (A.S. Pushkin). Two parts complex sentence in the example, according to the order of arrangement of the members of the sentence, they are, as it were, in a mirror image: Subject - definition - predicate, predicate - definition - subject.
Inversion - reverse order words, for example, the location of the definition after the word being defined, etc.
At the frosty dawn, under the sixth birch tree, around the corner, near the church, wait, Don Juan... (M. Tsvetaeva).
In the example given, the adjective frosty is in the position after the word being defined, which is inversion.
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Paths,
Lexical means
Syntactic means.
Let us consider which specific language means are included in each group. Don’t be intimidated by the volume of theoretical material; I’m sure you are familiar with these concepts. It is only necessary to systematize knowledge on this topic.
TRAILS:
TROPES is a generalized name for stylistic devices that consist of using a word in a figurative meaning.
METAPHOR - a type of allegory, transfer of meaning from one word to another based on similarity of characteristics, a hidden comparison in which there is no comparative phrase. For example: The bird cherry tree is pouring snow. (snow is like blooming bird cherry brushes). The red sun rolled down like a wheel behind the blue mountains (the sun is like a wheel).
Meaning: increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness.
METONYMY - replacement of one word or concept with another that has a causal or other connection with the first. For example: Here on new waves All flags will visit us. (the metonymy "all flags" replaces the verbose expression "ships of all countries flying different flags")
Meaning: technique of short expressive speech, saving lexical means.
IRONY (pretense) - the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule. For example: Ay, Moska, I know she is strong, That she barks at an elephant.
Meaning: creating a comic effect.
HYPERBOLE (exaggeration) - a figurative expression consisting of exaggeration of size, strength, beauty, etc. For example: ... the rocks trembled from their blows, the sky trembled from the menacing song.
Meaning: the imagery of satirical works is built on hyperboles. Hyperbolization is a source of humor, a means of ridicule.
PERSONIFICATION is a type of metaphor, the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts. For example: Evening illuminated a star with a blue candle Above my road.
Meaning: increases the emotional expressiveness of the text.
SYNECDOCHE (generalization) - special case metonymy, designation of the whole through its part. For example: Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.
Meaning: gives speech brevity and expressiveness, enhances the expression of speech and gives it a deep generalizing meaning.
LITOTA (simplicity) is a figurative expression that downplays the size, strength, or significance of the described object or phenomenon. For example: Your Pomeranian, a lovely Pomeranian, is no bigger than a thimble.
Meaning: the simultaneous use of litotes and hyperbole sharply and strongly emphasizes the created image. Stylistic device of double negative. Serves as a means to create a satirical and humorous effect.
EPITHET - a figurative definition of an object or action. For example: On the shore of desert waves He stood full of great thoughts.
Meaning: Creates a visible image of an object, phenomenon, forms an emotional impression, conveys a psychological atmosphere, mood. Characterizes, explains some property, quality of a concept, object or phenomenon; the writer's worldview is embodied. An epithet in the description of nature as a means of expressing feelings, mood. An expression of a person's inner state.
ANTONOMASY (renaming) is a trope consisting in the use of a proper name in the meaning of a common noun, a type of metonymy. For example: in the Russian language, the use of the words Donquixote, Don Juan, Lovelace, etc. in a figurative sense has been established.
Meaning: This trope is often used in journalism. It is based on a rethinking of the names of historical figures, writers, and literary heroes. In fiction it is used as a means of figurative speech.
ALLEGORY - an allegorical image of an object or phenomenon with the aim of most clearly showing its essential features (in fables, riddles). The expression of an abstract concept or idea in a specific artistic image. For example: in fables and fairy tales, stupidity, stubbornness are embodied in the image of a Donkey, cowardice - a Hare, cunning - a Fox. The allegorical meaning can receive an allegorical expression: “autumn has come” can mean “old age has come.”
Meaning: widely used in Aesopian language - a manner that reveals resourcefulness in the invention of reservations, omissions and other deceptive means. Used to bypass censorship. With the help of allegory, ideas of deep philosophical content are expressed figuratively.
PERIPHRASE or PERIPHRASE (descriptive expression) is a stylistic device consisting of replacing the usual one-word name of an object or phenomenon with a descriptive expression. For example: Leo is the king of beasts. A sad time, the charm of the eyes (instead of “autumn”).
Meaning: essential aspects are emphasized, characteristic features object or phenomenon.
ARTISTIC SYMBOL - figurative words that replace the name of a life phenomenon, the concept of an object with its conventional designation, reminiscent of this phenomenon and giving it a new, deeper meaning. For example: Rain is a symbol of sadness and tears. The cuckoo is a symbol of a lonely, yearning woman. Birch is a symbol of Russia.
Meaning: gives the word a new, deeper meaning.
LEXICAL MEANS:
1. HOMONYMS are words that have different meanings, but are identical in pronunciation and spelling. For example, the water supply system systematically fails, and the repairmen do not have any system to work with.
Meaning: add liveliness and expressiveness to the language. They can give a comic coloring, ambiguity, and the nature of a pun. For example: A person with good command of the language is required to apply stamps.
2. SYNONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, to feel fear, to be afraid, to be apprehensive, to be frightened, to be afraid, to be horrified, to be cowardly.
Meaning: indicate the richness of the language, serve to more accurately express thoughts and feelings.
3. ANTONYMS are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning. For example, early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.
Meaning: make speech bright, emotional. Serve to create contrast.
4. PARONYMS - words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning. For example: fingerprints and typos (have different consoles), unrequited and irresponsible (have different suffixes).
5. COMMON VOCABULARY - words known to all speakers of Russian, used in all styles of speech, stylistically neutral. For example, spring, water, earth, night.
Meaning: denotes vital objects, actions, signs, phenomena.
5. DIALECTISM - these are words belonging to a specific dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects that include significant amount original words known only in a certain area. For example: kochet - rooster, gutarit - talk, beam - ravine.
Meaning: they evoke in the reader more vivid ideas about the place where the described events develop for the purpose of the character’s speech characteristics.
6. PROFESSIONALISM - these are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become generally used; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science. For example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics); window - free time between lessons in the teacher's speech.
Meaning: used in fiction and journalism as means of expression to describe the situation, create a production landscape, speech characteristics of a certain sphere of human activity.
7. JARGONISM - words limited in their use to a certain social or age environment. For example, they distinguish between youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - undershooting the landing sign), and camp jargon.
Meaning: jargon is used in works of fiction for the purpose of verbal characterization of characters and creating the desired flavor.
8. ARGO - a dialect of a certain social group people (originally the thieves' language - "Fenya"), created for the purpose of linguistic isolation (Argonisms are used as a conventional sign, as an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words). For example: ballerina - master key; kipish - disorder, shu; nix - danger; raspberry - stash.
Meaning: used in works of fiction for the purpose of verbal characterization of a character or creating a special flavor.
9. EMOTIONALLY COLORED WORDS - words expressing attitudes towards objects, signs, actions, etc. For example: a nag (not just a horse, but a bad horse), to lie (not just to tell a lie, but to tell it brazenly), to crave (not just to desire, but to desire passionately).
Meaning: serve to express the speaker’s attitude to what he is talking about, as well as to characterize the speaker.
10. ARCHAISMS - obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language. For example: young - young, gold - gold; eye - eye, mouth - lips, behold - see.
Meaning: used to create the flavor of antiquity when depicting antiquity. They perform a vivid stylistic role, acting as a means of creating civil-patriotic pathos of speech. They are the source of the sublime sound of speech.
11. HISTORISM - words that served as the name of disappeared objects. concepts, phenomena. For example: tivun - executive V ancient Rus', hryvnia - monetary unit Kievan Rus, footman - a person who served in rich houses.
Meaning: they serve to create the flavor of antiquity, a bygone era, and give the description of past times historical authenticity.
12.NEOLOGISM - new words that appear in the language. For example: video phone, airbus, Internet.
Meaning: serve to denote those new concepts. which appeared in connection with the development social relations, science, culture, technology. They are a kind of technique for enhancing expressiveness.
13. BORROWED WORDS - words that came into the Russian language from other languages. For example: charter, sail, cedar (from Greek); sandwich, sprats, landscape (from German); veil, coat, taxi (from French); tenor, opera, flute (from Italian); sailor, cabin, boat (from Dutch); basketball, coach, comfort (from English).
Meaning: source of dictionary replenishment.
14. OLD SLAVANisms - borrowings from a closely related language associated with the baptism of Rus' and the development of spiritual culture.
Peculiarities:
a) combinations RA, LA, LE, corresponding to the Russian ORO, OLO, ERE. For example: temper - temper, gate - gate, gold - gold, shore - shore, captivity - full.
b) a combination of ZhD, corresponding to the Russian Zh. For example: leader, clothes, need.
d) suffixes STVIE, CHY, YNYA, TVA, USH, YUSCH, ASH, YASCH. For example: action, helmsman, pride, battle, burning, carrying.
e) prefixes IZ, IS, NIZ. For example: go away, overthrow. Meaning: they recreate the flavor of the era, giving an ironic touch.
15. TRADITIONAL POETIC WORDS - a group of words that was formed at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and was used mainly in poetry. The main source is Slavicisms. For example: breg, voice, right hand, forehead, cheeks, fire, bush, lily, roses, myrtle, hand, golden, mellifluous, tree, spring, star.
Meaning: in the past, highly expressive vocabulary, without which not a single poetic work could do. IN modern language ironic use, stylization.
16. FOLK POETIC WORDS - words characteristic of oral folk poetry. For example: baby, share, little road, azure, sad, mediocre, ant, dumushka.
Meaning: create an emotional impression, serve as a means of expressing the national Russian character.
17. CONVERSATIONAL VOCABULARY - these are words. which are used in everyday speech, have a casual character and therefore are not always appropriate in written and book speech. For example: soda (sparkling water), blond (blonde, person with very blond hair), bubblegum (chewing gum).
Meaning: in book speech, this context is given a colloquial tone. Used in works of fiction for the purpose of speech characterization of characters.
18. COLLAR WORDS - words. expressions characterized by simplicity, a touch of rudeness and usually serving to express harsh assessments. Colloquial words stand on the border literary language, are often not desirable even in normal conversation. For example: bashka (head), dreary (unpleasant), get confused (strengthen your consciousness).
Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes.
19. BOOK VOCABULARY - words that are used primarily in writing, used in scientific works, official and business documents, journalism. For example: hypothesis (scientific assumption), genesis (origin), addressee (person to whom the letter is sent).
Meaning: a means of speech characterization of heroes and phenomena.
20. TERMS - words or combinations of words denoting special concepts used in science, technology, and art. For example: leg, hypotenuse, morphology, conjugation, verb.
Meaning: serve for an accurate, strictly scientific definition of scientific and special concepts. Used to characterize the depicted environment and language.
21. PHRASEOLOGISTS - stable combinations of words that usually have a holistic meaning. For example: work with your sleeves rolled up, take care of it like the apple of your eye, put a spoke in your wheel.
Meaning: add brightness and expressiveness to speech.
22. WINGED WORDS - bright and apt expressions of writers, scientists, public figures, as well as folk proverbs and sayings. For example: Not for horse feed. How little has been lived, how much has been experienced.
Meaning: as a figurative means of revealing the inner appearance of a character, characteristics of his speech manner.
23. EMOTIONAL-EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY - words that are evaluative in nature (as opposed to neutral vocabulary). For example: words with a positive connotation - valiant, radiant; words with a negative connotation - upstart, nonsense.
Meaning: the use of emotionally expressive vocabulary is associated with a specific task, a certain stylistic orientation of the text.
SYNTACTIC MEANS
Rhetorical appeal- a conditional address to someone within the framework of a monologue. This request does not open a dialogue and does not require a response. In reality, this is a statement in the form of an address. So, instead of saying, “My city is mutilated,” a writer might say, “My city! How they mutilated you!”
This makes the statement more emotional and personal.
Syntactic means can be divided into 2 groups:
1. related to repetitions
multi-union,
asyndeton,
syntactic parallelism,
gradation
2. not related to repetitions
a rhetorical question,
rhetorical exclamation
rhetorical appeal
parcellation,
inversion,
paraphrase,
LEXICAL-SYNTACTIC MEANS
1. Oxymoron is a technique when one concept is defined through its impossibility. As a result, both concepts partially lose their meaning, and a new meaning is formed. The peculiarity of an oxymoron is that it always provokes the generation of meaning: the reader, faced with a blatantly impossible phrase, will begin to “complete” meanings. Writers and poets often use this technique to say something briefly and succinctly. In some cases, the oxymoron is striking (“The Living Corpse” by L. N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev), in others it may be less noticeable, revealing itself upon a more thoughtful reading (“ Dead Souls"N.V. Gogol - after all, the soul has no death, the “dead green branches” of Pushkin’s anchar - after all, the green foliage of a tree is a sign of life, not death).
2. Catachresis is a deliberately illogical statement that has an expressive meaning. “Yes, she’s a fish! And her hands are kind of white, like fish.” It is clear that a fish cannot have arms; the metaphor is based on catachresis.
3. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of something, emphasized syntactically. A classic example of antithesis is Pushkin’s characterization of the relationship between Lensky and Onegin:
They got along. Wave and stone
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different from each other.
Let us note that in Pushkin the emphasized antithesis is partially removed by the next line, which makes the situation ambiguous.
Secondly, analyze the list of terms listed in the task. Group them:
Mark the trails with the letter "T"
lexical means - "L",
syntactic means - "C".
Here's what we came up with (list of terms from the 2013 demo project):
1. anaphora - C
2. metaphor - T
3. hyperbole - T
4. professional vocabulary - L
5. parcellation - C
6. lexical repetition - C
7. opposition - C
8. epithets - T
9. contextual synonyms - L
Thus, the search area for the specified language tool has narrowed noticeably.
The assignment says that the first 3 means are paths.
There are 3 of them in the list: metaphor, hyperbole, epithets.
All we have to do is arrange them in the right order.
We recall the definitions of these linguistic means and re-read the examples indicated in brackets.
We compare definitions with examples.
We arrange the numbers in the correct order: 2,8,3.
It remains to determine the last linguistic means. It is not specified which group it belongs to. Therefore, we exclude only trails from the list, because... There should be no repetition of numbers.
We have 6 concepts left. Let's re-read the examples again. The situation becomes clearer when we turn to these proposals. This is about language means at number 6.
Mission accomplished!
2. Find the words in the text of the review: tropes, lexical means, syntactic means.
4. Group concepts.
5. Remember the definitions of these concepts and compare them with examples.
6. Arrange the numbers in the correct order.
Translated from the Greek “τρόπος”, trope means “revolution”. What do tropes mean in literature? Definition taken from the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova says: a trope is a word or figure of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Thus, we are dealing with the transfer of the meanings of concepts from one word to another.
Formation of tropes in historical context
The transfer of meanings becomes possible due to the polysemy of certain concepts, which, in turn, is determined by the specific development of the vocabulary of the language. So, for example, we can easily trace the etymology of the word “village” - from “wooden”, that is, indicating a building material made of wood.
However, finding the original meaning in other words - for example, such as “thank you” (original meaning: “God save”) or the word “bear” (“Knowing, knowing where the honey is”) - is more difficult.
Also, some words could retain their spelling and spelling, but change their meaning. For example, the concept of “everyman”, understood in modern perception as a tradesman (that is, limited by material, consumer interests). In the original, this concept had no relation to human values - it indicated the territory of residence: “urban inhabitant”, “rural inhabitant”, that is, it designated a resident of a certain area.
Paths in literature. Primary and secondary meanings of the word
A word can change its original meaning not only over a long period of time, in the context of a socio-historical context. There are also cases when a change in the meaning of a word is due to a specific situation. For example, in the phrase “a fire is burning” there is no trope, since fire is a phenomenon of reality, and burning is an inherent property, a trait. Such properties are usually called primary (basic).
Let's take another example for comparison:
“The East is burning with a new dawn”
(A.S. Pushkin, “Poltava”).
In this case, we are not talking about the direct phenomenon of combustion - the concept is used in the sense of brightness, colorfulness. That is, the colors of dawn resemble fire in color and saturation (from which the property of “burning” was borrowed). Accordingly, we observe the replacement of the direct meaning of the concept “on fire” with an indirect one, obtained as a result of the associative connection between them. In literary criticism this is called a secondary (transferable) property.
Thus, thanks to the trails, the phenomena of the surrounding reality can acquire new properties, appear from an unusual side, and look more vivid and expressive. The main types of tropes in literature are the following: epithet, comparison, metonymy, metaphor, litotes, hyperbole, allegory, personification, synecdoche, periphrase(s), etc. They can be used in the same work different types tropes. Also, in some cases, mixed paths take place - a kind of “fusion” of several types.
Let's look at some of the most common tropes in the literature with examples.
Epithet
An epithet (translated from Greek “epitheton” - attached) is a poetic definition. In contrast to the logical definition (aimed at highlighting the basic properties of an object that distinguish it from other objects), an epithet indicates more conditional, subjective properties of the concept.
For example, the phrase “cold wind” is not an epithet, since we're talking about about an objectively existing property of a phenomenon. In this case, this is the actual wind temperature. At the same time, we should not take the phrase “the wind blows” literally. Just like the wind is an inanimate being, it therefore cannot “blow” in the human sense. It's just about moving air.
In turn, the phrase “cold gaze” creates a poetic definition, since we are not talking about the real, measured temperature of the gaze, but about its subjective perception from the outside. In this case we can talk about an epithet.
Thus, a poetic definition always adds expressiveness to the text. It makes the text more emotional, but at the same time more subjective.
Metaphor
Tropes in literature are not only a bright and colorful image, they can also be completely unexpected and not always clear. A similar example is a type of trope such as metaphor (Greek “μεταφορά” - “transfer”). Metaphor occurs when an expression is used in figuratively, to make it resemble another object.
What are the tropes in literature that correspond to this definition? For example:
"Plants rainbow outfit
Kept traces of heavenly tears"
(M.Yu. Lermontov, “Mtsyri”).
The similarities outlined by Lermontov are clear to any ordinary reader and do not come as a surprise. When the author takes as a basis more subjective experiences, which are not characteristic of every consciousness, the metaphor can look quite unexpected:
"The sky is whiter than paper"
turns pink in the west,
as if they were folding crumpled flags there,
sorting slogans into warehouses"
(I.A. Brodsky “Twilight. Snow..”).
Comparison
L.N. Tolstoy singled out comparison as one of the most natural means of description in literature. Comparison as artistic trope implies the presence of a comparison of two or more objects/phenomena in order to clarify one of them through the properties of the other. Similar tropes are found very often in literature:
“Station, fireproof box.
My separations, meetings and separations"
(B. L. Pasternak, “Station”);
“It hits like a bomb,
takes it like a hedgehog,
like a double-edged razor...”
(V.V. Mayakovsky “Poems about the Soviet passport”).
Figures and tropes in literature tend to have a composite structure. Comparison, in turn, also has certain subtypes:
- formed using adjectives/adverbs in comparative form;
- using phrases with conjunctions “exactly”, “as if”, “as”, “as if”, etc.;
- using phrases with adjectives “similar”, “reminiscent”, “similar”, etc.
In addition, comparisons can be simple (when the comparison is carried out based on one characteristic) and expanded (comparison based on a number of characteristics).
Hyperbola
Represents an excessive exaggeration of the values and properties of objects. “..Over there is the most dangerous, big-eyed, tailed Sea Girl, slippery, malicious and tempting” (T. N. Tolstaya, “Night”). This is not at all a description of some sea monster - so main character, Alexey Petrovich, sees his neighbor in a communal apartment.
The technique of hyperbolization can be used to ridicule something, or to enhance the effect of a certain feature - in any case, the use of hyperbole makes the text more emotionally rich. So, Tolstaya could give a standard description of the girl who is her hero’s neighbor (height, hair color, facial expression, etc.), which, in turn, would form a more specific image in the reader. However, the narration in the story “Night” is primarily from the hero himself, Alexei Petrovich, mental development which does not correspond to the age of an adult. He looks at everything through the eyes of a child.
Alexey Petrovich has his own special vision of the world around him with all its images, sounds, smells. This is not the world we are used to - it is a kind of alloy of dangers and miracles, bright colors day and the frightening blackness of night. House for Alexey Petrovich - big ship who went on a dangerous journey. The ship is ruled by mommy - the great, wise one - the only stronghold of Alexei Petrovich in this world.
Thanks to the technique of hyperbolization used by Tolstoy in the story “Night,” the reader also gets the opportunity to look at the world through the eyes of a child, to discover an unfamiliar side of reality.
Litotes
The opposite of hyperbole is the technique of litotes (or reverse hyperbole), which consists in excessively understating the properties of objects and phenomena. For example, “little boy”, “the cat cried”, etc. Accordingly, such tropes in literature as litotes and hyperbole are aimed at a significant deviation of the quality of an object in one direction or another from the norm.
Personification
“The beam darted along the wall,
And then he slid over me.
“Nothing,” he seemed to whisper, “
Let’s sit in silence!”
(E.A. Blaginina, “Mom is sleeping..”).
This technique becomes especially popular in fairy tales and fables. For example, in the play “The Kingdom of Crooked Mirrors” (V. G. Gubarev), the girl talks to the mirror as if it were a living being. In the fairy tales of G.-H. Andersen is often brought to life various items. They communicate, quarrel, complain - in general, they begin to live their own life. own life: toys (“Pig Piggy Bank”), peas (“Five from One Pod”), slate board, notebook (“Ole-Lukoie”), coin (“Silver Coin”), etc.
In turn, in fables, inanimate objects acquire the properties of a person along with his vices: “Leaves and Roots”, “Oak and Cane” (I.A. Krylov); “Watermelon”, “Pyatak and Ruble” (S.V. Mikhalkov), etc.
Literary tropes in literature: the problem of differentiation
It should also be noted that the specifics of artistic techniques are so diverse and sometimes subjective that it is not always possible to clearly differentiate certain paths in literature. Confusion often arises with examples from a particular work due to their correspondence to several types of tropes at the same time. For example, metaphor and comparison are not always amenable to strict differentiation. A similar situation is observed with metaphor and epithet.
Meanwhile, the domestic literary critic A. N. Veselovsky identified such a subtype as epithet-metaphor. In turn, many researchers, on the contrary, considered the epithet as a type of metaphor. This problem is due to the fact that some types of tropes in literature simply do not have clear boundaries of differentiation.
In tasks 24-26 of the Unified State Exam in the Russian language, the same linguistic phenomena may occur. In task 24 they act as lexical means of expression. We present to you these lexical means with a large number of examples of their use in speech.
Task formulation:
From sentences 44–47, write down antonyms (antonymic pair).
(44) But there are no huts that would be on the edge.(45) We are all responsible for what is happening around us. (46) Responsible for all the bad and all the good.(47) And one should not think that a real test comes to a person only in some special, fatal moments: in war, during some kind of disaster.
To complete task 24, you need to know lexical means of expression and find them in the text.
Synonyms– words of the same part of speech, close in meaning: sensitive and responsive, pity and compassion, hurry and hurry, etc.
Antonyms- words of the same part of speech, opposite in meaning: begin - end, clearly - vague, voluntary - forced, etc. The words with the same root are not antonyms: beautiful - ugly.
Note: synonyms and antonyms in the text may appear in different forms: good - bad, finished - will begin. Do not pay attention to the form (ending) - you are interested in the lexical meaning of the word.
Harder to find in text contextual synonyms and antonyms.
CONTEXT is a relatively complete semantically complete part of a text or statement. The overall meaning of the context is made up of the meanings of individual words; in turn, the context itself helps clarify the meaning of each word. That is, words live in the context, acquiring a specific meaning in it.
Compare offers:
1) Respect is manifested in the fact that you try to cover another person with your attention in order to understand him, to feel the best in him.
2) Here it is necessary to show sensitivity and attentiveness, sincerity and firmness.
In sentence 2 there were synonyms sensitivity - attentiveness. Taken out of context, they still remain close in meaning; they can be found in a dictionary of synonyms.
In sentence 1 there are contextual synonyms: understand - feel.
Imagine not knowing the context. These words are not perceived as synonyms; in another context they will take on different meanings: to understand your neighbor - to feel the cold.
You see, there is nothing in common between these words. Each of them has its own set of synonyms. The word feel has synonyms - experience, feel, experience, sense.
The word understand means to comprehend, understand, comprehend, realize, etc.
Contextual synonyms help avoid repetition of words (writer - author, home - apartment) or make the text more expressive. In this case, contextual synonyms are created like this: direct meaning words - figurative meaning(proud - eagle look, swim - glide on the water).
Examples of sentences with contextual synonyms:
1) Only hummocks and gullies indicated the direction of the path. And even then this thin thread did not lead far. (path - thread)
2) Daytime flowers awaken when dawn begins. The chicory flowers open the blue stars of their flowers, the rose hips spread their wide petals, and the bright lights of the poppies flash.
(awaken - opens - straightens - flares up) All these verbs describe one action - awakening flowers in the morning.
Example sentences with contextual antonyms.
1) An inferiority complex can ruin human soul. Or it can lift you to the skies.
Finding contextual antonyms: ruin - raise. Each of them has its own direct antonym: ruin - save, elevate - humiliate, lower. These words became antonyms only in this context.
2) He was a strange man: in front of his superiors he trilled like a ringing nightingale, but in front of his subordinates he roared like a wild bear. ( nightingale - bear)
As you can see, contextual antonyms also add expressiveness to the text and provide figurative characteristics.
Phraseologisms- stable combinations of words, understood not literally, but figuratively. Phraseologisms are not created anew each time; they live in the language in a ready-made form, enshrined in our memory and in dictionaries. As a rule, they are equal in meaning to one word, but have special expressiveness. Phraseologisms are stable; words in them cannot be changed or rearranged.
Examples of phraseological units: there is nowhere for the apple to fall, the chickens don’t peck, at the end of the world, to be sick in soul, in one spirit, to bring people out, to shed light, to stand like a mountain, to lose one’s head, in the order of things, etc.
Outdated words- words that have fallen out of use. Used in modern texts, they help recreate the flavor of a historical era. They often have a bright stylistic and emotional coloring.
Examples: trust in chance, see and listen, splendor, daring, malice, etc.
Neologisms- new words created to give names to new objects, life phenomena. A very mobile group: some neologisms take root in the language and cease to be neologisms, others become redundant and are forced out: copywriter, cleaner, retailer, multiplex, cluster, headliner, creative, trend, ombudsman, dress code, message, innovation, monitoring...
Colloquial words
The linguistic space where colloquial words live is Speaking. In the examination text they can appear at the will of the author if he reproduces someone else’s speech (this will be a means of characterizing a person) or uses a colloquial word in an ironic sense, emphasizing the author’s attitude to the subject of conversation.
Vernaculars are not always rude words of low style. These can be words that are incorrectly formed, having deviations from the norm in their grammatical characteristics: come in handy - come in handy, inside - inside, theirs - theirs, put - put, for free - for free. The colloquial word has commonly used stylistically neutral synonyms: newspaperman - journalist, crowd - crowd, a lot - a lot, work hard - work, yell - shout, lanky - tall, brainy - smart.
Let's complete the task:
Antonyms: bad - good
Note! Another formulation of task 24 has appeared: you may be asked to find a word in the text that has a certain meaning.
(19) It was a difficult path! (20) It was dark, and at every step the swamp opened its greedy mouth, swallowing people, and the trees blocked the road with a mighty wall.
(21) They walked for a long time... (22) The forest became more and more dense, their strength was less and less! (23) And so they began to grumble against Danko, saying that it was in vain that he, young and inexperienced, led them somewhere. (24) And he walked ahead of them and was cheerful and clear.
From sentences 19–24, write down the word that means “not quite openly express dissatisfaction or protest.”
IN in this example The correct answer is the word “murmur.”
March 22, 2015Every day we come across a lot of means of artistic expression; we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; We are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All of these are tropes, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in the oral speech of every person.
What are means of artistic expression?
The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which translated into Russian means "turn of speech." They are used to give figurative speech; with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.
Lexical means of the Russian language
Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid tropes, examples of which are countless in works of art, are no less important than lexical means.
- Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
- Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
- Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
- Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
- Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
- Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.
Tropes in Russian (examples)
Currently, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and tales. They decorate speech and give it imagery.
- Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: On New Year's midnight the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
- Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
- Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying at the Faculty of International Relations.
- Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
- Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
- Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.
Tropes in literature (examples)
The presented means of artistic expression are used less often in speech modern man, but this does not diminish their importance in literary heritage great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Periphrasis is used to avoid repetition in a literary text or speech.
- Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
- Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
- Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
- Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.
Rhetorical figures
The idea of every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problem posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of work of art rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, omissions. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is encouraged, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.
A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.
The incentive sentence ends with a rhetorical exclamation. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.
Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in Pushkin (“To Chaadaev,” “To the Sea”), in Lermontov (“The Death of a Poet”), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.
Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning. 
Syntactic figures
Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they make for an intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.
- Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
- Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
- Syntactic parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
- Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
- Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
- Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.
Figures of speech
The paths in the Russian language, examples of which are given above, can be continued endlessly, but we should not forget that there is another conventionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.
Table of all tropes with examples
It is important for high school students, graduates of humanities faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what types of tropes there are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles.
Lexical means and examples |
|
Synonyms | We may be humiliated and insulted, but we deserve a better life. |
Antonyms | My life is nothing but black and white stripes. |
Phraseologisms | Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise they will give you a pig in a poke. |
Archaisms | Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently. |
Historicisms | Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today. |
Dialectisms | There were roes (snakes) in this area. |
Stylistic tropes (examples) |
|
Metaphor | You have nerves of iron, my friend. |
Personification | The foliage sways and dances with the wind. |
The red sun sets below the horizon. |
|
Metonymy | I've already eaten three plates. |
Synecdoche | The consumer always chooses quality products. |
Periphrase | Let's go to the zoo to see the king of beasts (about a lion). |
Allegory | You are a real ass (about stupidity). |
Hyperbola | I've been waiting for you for three hours already! |
Is this a man? A little guy, and that's all! |
|
Syntactic figures (examples) |
|
There are so many people with whom I can be sad, |
|
We'll go through the raspberries! |
|
Gradation | I think about you, I miss you, I remember, I miss you, I pray. |
Pun | Because of you, I began to drown my sadness in wine. |
Rhetorical figures (appeal, exclamation, question, silence) | When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh, what a wonderful day it is today! And you say that you know the material perfectly? You'll come home soon - look... |
Multi-Union | I know algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, geography, and biology very well. |
Asyndeton | The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, and banana cookies. |
Ellipsis | Not so (it was)! |
Inversion | I would like to tell you one story. |
Antithesis | You are everything and nothing to me. |
Oxymoron | Living Dead. |
The role of means of artistic expression
The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates every person, makes him more literate and educated. You can encounter a variety of means of artistic expression in any literary work, poetic or prosaic. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to study this area of the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.