Russian language is one of the most diverse, rich and multifaceted in the world. A large vocabulary, variety of word forms and combinations are its distinctive features. What types of dialects does the Russian language contain?

What is a dialect

Dialect is a language system that is a means of communication between people living in the same territory. For the most part, speakers of dialects are representatives of rural areas who live in one or several nearby settlements. A synonym for the word “dialect” is the more familiar word “dialect”.

Types of dialects

There are social and territorial dialects. Social words are used by a group of people united by common conditions, interests, and skills. A striking option is professional terms or criminal fenya. Such language variants arise due to the isolation of a group of people who communicate with each other. Social dialects have mainly lexical features.

Territorial dialects - varieties historically developed in a specific territory spoken language. They have a number of features - in meaning, sound, grammar.

The Russian language includes two large communities of dialects - northern and southern dialects. There are also a number of Central Russian dialects that occupy an intermediate position.

Northern dialect

It is found in areas located north of the line connecting the borders of St. Petersburg - Novgorod - Borovichi - Bezhetsk - Kalyazin - Rostov. There is a division here into Ladoga-Tikhvin, Kostroma, and Vologda dialect communities.

The northern dialect has a number of special features. The most characteristic of them is okaniya: the inhabitants of these places clearly pronounce the sound “o” in an unstressed position. Also characteristic are the stop “g”, the pronunciation of “mm” instead of “bm” (“deception” - “omman”), the replacement of the combination “st” with the sound “s” at the end of words - “mos”, “tail” instead of “bridge” , "tail". In a significant number of words of the northern dialect, you can hear the clicking sound - “tsashka”, “tsai”. The plural often implies the same word forms in the instrumental and dative cases.

Speakers of the northern dialect are characterized by a questioning intonation in sentences that imply narration. This feature gives speech laconicism and melodiousness.

In the conversations of residents of northern cities, you can hear the words “ladle” - a utensil used for scooping; “frying pan” - something that holds pans; “shaky” - a cradle for babies. In this group there are often words that come from the Finno-Ugric group.

Southern dialect

It occurs on the southern side of the trajectory passing along the borders of Sebezh - Velikiye Luki - Rzhev - Naro-Fominsk - Kolomna - Kasimov. It is divided into groups of dialects: Western, Upper Dnieper, Kursk-Oryol, Upper Desna, Eastern.

Southerners are characterized by acanting, the pronunciation of the sound “g” is aspirated, smoothed. Speakers of this dialect use a soft "t" sound at the end of verbs - he "go", she "sing". In the dialects of this group, the disappearance of words in the neuter gender and their partial replacement with words of the feminine gender are noted - “large” herd, milk “spilled”.

Southerners use the words “korets” - what they draw from; “chaplya” - a device for holding frying pans; "cradle" - cradle. In conversations, words and expressions borrowed from Turkic languages ​​are used.

Central Russian dialects

Geographically they are found in the space located between the territories of the northern and southern dialects. They can be heard in the speech of Novgorodians, Pskovites, Muscovites, residents of Tver, Vladimir and Nizhny Novgorod.

In this group there is isolation and unification of Western Okaya and Akaya dialects; eastern Akaya Central Russian and Akaya Central Russian.

Intermediate dialects appeared due to the establishment of close communication between speakers of northern and southern dialects. This happened in the 14th century after the centralized Moscow state arose. This is how transitional dialects appeared, combining the linguistic features of both dialects. The Moscow dialect, which became the basis of the language of Russian literature, originates in transitional variants.

Central Russian dialects are characterized by the alternation of a voiced “g” with a dull sound “k” in endings, and the widespread use of the words “ukvat”, “kvashnya”, “kaftan”.

Dialects in our time

And now dialects exist within their own territorial communities. A city dweller, finding himself in a village, will hear a number of words and expressions, the meanings of which will be unclear to him.

Most often these are words denoting the realities of rural life. But there are also dialects relating to all known subjects. A striking example of this is the word “mittens”. In the regions of Smolensk, Bryansk, Kaluga, Kursk, Belgorod they are called “vyazenki”, and in the villages of Pskov and Novgorod - “dyanki”.

One dialect word can have several meanings and be used in different contexts. In general, there is now a downward trend in the number of dialects. This is due, first of all, to the widespread spread of literacy and the introduction of mass media - radio, television, and the printed press.

Most often he uses dialect words older generation, while young people use them extremely rarely in their speech. Adverbs also penetrate into literary language; many authors use them to give their works original folk features. Researchers of the Russian language believe that it is works like these that will help descendants learn about the existence of dialect words.

AVANESOV RUBEN IVANOVICH (1902-1982)

One of the founders of the Moscow Phonological School. Founder of the national school of dialectologists. The original concept of dialect language he created formed the basis of a new method of descriptive and historical dialectology. R.I. Avanesov developed the theory of linguistic geography, which was embodied in dialectological atlases of Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages, in the General Slavic linguistic atlas of Europe, as well as in the atlases of non-Slavic languages ​​of the peoples of Russia.

Peru R.I. Avanesova belongs a large number of school and university textbooks and curricula. He is the author of the first textbook on dialectology, “Essays on Russian dialectology” (M., 1949). Book by R.I. Avanesova “Russian Literary Pronunciation” is an authoritative guide to modern orthoepy.

AKANYE. One of the two main types of unstressed vocalism in Russian dialects, contrasted Okanyu (see), the most characteristic feature of the southern dialect and the southern part of Central Russian dialects, also characteristic of the literary language. AKANYE – not the distinction of unstressed sounds in place of the letters O and A, their coincidence in one sound: in the first pre-stressed syllable they coincide in the sound [a], and in the remaining unstressed ones - in the sound [ъ]. There are two types of akanya: dissimilative and non-dissimilative. Dissimilative akanye is common in the western part of the southern dialect. The rest of the Akan dialects and the literary language are characterized by non-dissimilative Akan.

With non-dissimilative akan, O and A coincide in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, always in the sound [a], regardless of which vowel sound is under stress: [vada], [vady], [vad'e], [vadu], [vadoi ], [vad'it]. With dissimilative akan in the 1st pre-stressed syllable in place of letters A And O the sound [a] or [ъ] is pronounced depending on which vowel is stressed: if it is stressed [a], then there is no [a] in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, and if it is stressed [ne-a], then in The 1st pre-stressed syllable sounds [a]: [vada], [vady], [vadu], [vadoy], [vad'it].

Akanye in the broad sense - non-distinction of vowel phonemes of non-high rise in unstressed syllables - also includes types of such non-distinction after soft consonants : yak (cm.), hiccups (cm.), yuck (cm.).

Some linguists consider okanya to be a more ancient type of vocalism and associate the emergence of akanya with the reduction of unstressed vowels. The archaism of the dissimilative type is recognized as the most archaic.

ANTHROPONYMY (from the Greek anthropos “man” and onyma “name”). Chapter onimastics (see), studying anthroponyms (proper names of people), patterns of their occurrence and development, structure, social functioning and geographic distribution. The proper names of a person in the Russian anthropological system include personal name, patronymic, surname, nickname, pseudonym.

AREA (from Latin area “area”, “space”). The area of ​​distribution of certain linguistic phenomena: phonetic, lexical, grammatical.

ARGO. JARGON. Both of these terms are used in linguistics to designate special “languages” spoken by people of one profession (professional argot or jargon) or a certain social group(social argots or jargons), these are not languages ​​in the literal sense of the word: the grammar in them is generally the same as in the national language. Their whole “specialness” is in their vocabulary: many words in jargon have a special meaning: there are those that differ in form from the commonly used ones. In pre-revolutionary Russia there was a “language” of ofeni - wandering traders of small goods, peddlers (the same ones about whom N.A. Nekrasov wrote: “Eh, my little box is full ...”). The Ofeni constituted both a professionally and socially isolated group. Peddlers were forced to hide their intentions and actions from outsiders, trusting only each other and maintaining relationships only among themselves. They were helped in this by a socially developed argot, incomprehensible to those around them. House ofeni called - eye, milk – melech, money – Sarah, product – shivar, instead of build They talked tinker, instead of speak - mind you and so on. (cm. Secret language ).

ASSIMILATION (from Latin assimilatio “likening”). Similarity of sounds to each other within one word or phrase. There are two main types of assimilation, depending on which of the combined sounds is assimilated.

At regressive assimilation, the subsequent sound influences the previous one, which becomes similar to it: tra VC a – tra[fk]a (assimilation by deafness), Sat ezhat – [zb’]ezhat (assimilation by voicing). Regressive assimilation is the most common in the Russian literary language. At progressive Assimilation, the preceding sound influences the subsequent one, which becomes similar to it.

Progressive assimilation does not occur in the Russian literary language.

Russian dialects know progressive assimilative softening of consonants. This is mainly characteristic of back-lingual consonants: Wa[n'k']a, tea[k']u, sver'[x']u, pech[k']a, o[l'h']a, etc. . Progressive assimilation occurred in combinations of front-lingual consonants with ј: svi[n'n']ya, gn[l'l']e, other[z'z']ya, but[chch]u, etc. Such pronunciation is noted in Western South Russian and Central Russian dialects. There are examples of such pronunciation in the territory of the northern dialect.

In Russian dialects there is also assimilation of consonants by nasality. In the combinations [bm], [b’m’] and [dn], [d’n’] the consonants differ only in the position of the velum. In some dialects, the velum palatine began to fall when articulating these sound combinations not some time after the lips or tongue connected with the teeth, but immediately. And in place of [bm], [b'm'] began to be pronounced [mm], [m'm']: [ommak], [ommorok], and in place of [dn], [d'n'] began to sound [ nn], [n'n']:

Meh NN the bucket fell on NN O,

But it’s hard to get NN O,

And obi NN oh and dosa NN O,

Well yes la NN oh everything about NN O...

In a number of dialects, assimilation by nasality also affected the combination [vn], which changed as a result of this process into [pl]. But such pronunciation occurs only in individual words and is a lexicalized phenomenon: vn ok, yes vn oh dear vn I, bre vn o®[ pl uk], [yes pl o], [dere pl i], [bre pl O].

DIALECTOLOGICAL ATLAS. A systematic collection of maps showing the distribution of dialectal features of a given language in the territory occupied by its speakers. The material for the atlas is collected according to a special program covering all aspects of the language: phonetics, morphology, syntax, vocabulary (“Program for collecting information for compiling a dialectological atlas of the Russian language.” - M., 1945. Introductory and methodological articles were written by R.I. Avanesov) . The first published “Atlas of Russian folk dialects of the central regions east of Moscow” (1957) mapped approximately 1/5 of the entire surveyed territory of Russia, where the Russian nationality was formed and the literary language was formed. On each of the atlas maps, using a special system of symbols (icons) different color and different configurations or different types of shading and color fills) shows the distribution of dialect variants of any one linguistic phenomenon (dialect differences).

Since 1986, the “Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language” (DARY) has been published - a linguogeographical work created by dialectologists of the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now - Russian Academy sciences). DARIA consists of three issues: Issue 1. Phonetics. – M., 1986; Vol. 2. Morphology. – M., 1989; Vol. 3. Syntax. Vocabulary (in press). Each issue contains about 100 maps and commentaries on them. Based on the materials of the atlas, large monographs have been prepared on the dialect division of the Russian language (authors V. R. Orlova and P. F. Zakharova)

AFFRICATE (from Latin affricata “ground”). A complex consonant sound, which is a combination of a plosive sound with a fricative of the same place of formation. In the Russian literary language there are two affricates – hard [ts] and soft [ch’]. The affricate [ts] is a combined pronunciation of [t’] and [w’].

Affricates appeared back in the common Slavic period as soft pairs to the hard back-lingual [k]. In modern literary language, this phenomenon has been preserved as a historical alternation of the back language To With h And ts : k // h (hand - little hand), k // c (face - face).

Consequently, they are both originally soft in origin. The affricate [h’] in literary language still retains its softness. The affricate [ts] hardened by the 15th century. In modern literary language it is only solid, although spelling is not always maintained (number, compass, circus, But birds, sisters).

In modern dialects there are four affricates – hard [ts] and soft (primordial) [ts’], soft [ch’] and hard (hardened) [h]. The pronunciation of affricates is associated with such dialect phenomena as clicking (mass media clinking glasses (cm.).

INTERNAL FORM OF A WORD. This is the original meaning of the word, which is based on a specific feature or phenomenon (motivator). VFs have words in which, through their appearance, through their structure, the motivation for the name shines through: why exactly an object, action or sign is named that way (window sill - “under the window”; snowdrop - a flower that appears “under the snow”; Tuesday and Friday - second and fifth days of the week).

Previously, in ancient times, names were often given to objects based on the characteristics of their shape, material, proximity to other objects, etc. For example, if we turn to the etymology of Russian names for dishes, we can find out that, say, cup named after the material: in the old days, glasses were made from boards (originally dostokan); bucket turns out to be related to the word water(bucket - a vessel for water); blueberry has a black color; strawberries– ascends to the earth, since its ripe berries often touch the ground; sour– because it’s sour; stone berry– because its berries have large and hard seeds; blackberry– grows as a thorny (hedgehog) bush.

With the development of language, the principle of naming an object according to its function and purpose begins to prevail. The word seems to signal for what purpose the object it denotes serves: switch, vacuum cleaner…

Over time, a word may lose its VF. This may be caused by the loss of the original motivator, i.e. the word from which it is derived (wheel - colo, bag - fur), with the loss of a feature by the object that was previously characteristic of it (city - fence), significant changes in the appearance of the word (braid - scratch, pole - fence, price - repent, beetle - talk).

VOCALISM (from Latin vocalis “vowel sound”). The system of vowel phonemes of a language or dialect at a given stage of its development.

The Old Russian language until the middle of the 10th century had 11 vowel phonemes: И, ы, У, О, Е, А, Ĕ (ђ), ъ, ь (see: Reduced vowels ), O and E (nasal vowels).

All 11 phonemes acted as independent ones. In a modern literary language, the vocalism system is formed by 5 (according to another point of view, 6) vowel phonemes, which are in certain relationships with each other and the surrounding consonants: I, Y, U, O, E, A. In modern dialects, the largest number of vowel phonemes is 8 : literary 6 + [ô] closed (see) and [ê] closed (see: Yat ).

VOSTOKOV ALEXANDER KHRISTOFOROVICH (1781 - 1864)

Vostokov's greatest scientific fame was brought to him by his research on the history of Slavic languages. In “Discourse on the Slavic Language” (1820), he compares different Slavic dialects, determines sound correspondences between them, and shows the natural nature of these correspondences. Based on these correspondences, he first guesses about the sound meanings of ancient letter symbols. He discovered [ъ] and [ь] as short vowel sounds, figured out the meaning of the letters “yus big” and “yus small” (and). These letters stood for nasal vowels. Vostokov worked a lot on dialect vocabulary and Church Slavonic. Under his editorship, the voluminous “Experience of a Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1852) and “Dictionary of the Church Slavonic Language” (1858) were published.

LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY. Cm. Linguistic geography.

SPEAK. The smallest unit of dialect division of a language. The minimum territorial variety of a language used as a means of communication by residents of one or more neighboring settlements. For example: the dialect of the village of Deulino Ryazan region, reflected in the “Dictionary of modern Russian folk dialect” (1969). Here the subtlest systemic connections are revealed in the vocabulary of the Deulin dialect, one of the dialects of the Ryazan Meshcheryta part, which belongs to the South Russian dialect.

The term can also be used to denote dialect dialect (cm.). The conversations are combined into adverbs – larger territorial units (see).

SPEAKS OF THE BRYANSK REGION. The geographical position of the Bryansk region, bordering Ukraine in the south and Belarus in the west, made it both ethnographically and linguistically a unique territory.

The first recordings of local speech were made in 1860 by a native of the Bryansk region, which was part of the Oryol province. The archives of the Geographical Society contain two manuscripts by A. Spolokhov:

1. Ethnographic description of the Oryol province, Trubchevsky, Bryansk and Karachevsky districts, part 1 (dictionary);

2. Local dictionary of the common language of the Oryol province, Trubchevsky, Bryansk and Karachevsky districts (1850).

IN different years Bryansk dialects were studied by E.F. Budde, P.N. Tikhonov, E.F. Karsky, I.R. Golanov, N.N. Sokolov, A.A. Shakhmatov, A.I. Sobolevsky and others. The main goal that the researchers set for themselves was to determine the relationship of the Bryansk dialects with the dialects of adjacent territories (primarily the Belarusian language). In the history of dialectology, there is a well-known controversy in which famous linguists E.F. took part. Buddha and E.F. Karsky, on the question of the belonging of Bryansk dialects (Buddha E.F. “Which of the Russian dialects does the dialect of modern residents of the Bryansk district of the Oryol province belong to?” - Izvestia ORYAS, vol. 10, book 4 - St. Petersburg, 1905; Karsky E. F. “On the issue of the folk dialect of the Bryansk district of the Oryol province.” - St. Petersburg, 1905). The place of this dialect on the branched linguistic tree of the Slavs was determined: it is closest to the Belarusian, and it goes back to the dialect of the northerners - the tribe that once inhabited our region.

An in-depth study of the dialects of the western regions of the Bryansk region. taught by student A.A. Shakhmatova, native of Starodub, professor Rastorguev P.A. (cm.). He defined the dialects of the Western Bryansk region as southern Great Russian, which developed in the past and are developing in the present on a Belarusian basis, identified them in a separate group, calling them “Northern-Belarusian”, because they occupied the northern part of the old settlements of the chronicle Slavs. In 1973, it was compiled by P.A. Rastorguev “Dictionary of folk dialects of Western Bryansk region”, which included 8 thousand words.

Since 1951, in connection with the compilation of the “Dialectological Atlas of Russian Folk Dialects,” a targeted and systematic study of Bryansk dialects began. For the purpose of an expeditionary survey of dialects and subsequent work on a regional dictionary, the territory of the Bryansk region was assigned to the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute (now: St. Petersburg Pedagogical University) named after. A.I. Herzen. Professor headed the work IN AND. Chagisheva (see), who devoted more than 30 years of her life to the study of dialects. The entire set of studied phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical phenomena characterizing the dialect speech of the Bryansk region allowed her to classify the dialects of this region as a special group of the South Great Russian dialect, which has a certain unity, but at the same time does not represent uniformity.

At the Department of Russian Language LRPI named after. A.I. Herzen under the leadership of Professor Chagisheva, a Card Index of the Bryansk Dictionary was compiled and continues to be compiled. 1 issue was published in 1968 “Dictionary of Bryansk dialects” (edited by V.I. Chagisheva) (see). Now there are 5 editions. Teachers from the Bryansk State University named after. Academician I.G. Petrovsky. The dictionary belongs to the type of explanatory non-differential dictionaries, i.e. includes all vocabulary recorded as a result of the survey. Work on the dictionary continues.

Coursework and diploma theses, master's theses, and scientific articles are written using the material from the SBG Card Index. They are published in the collections “Bryansk dialects” (1976 - 1985).

DAL VLADIMIR IVANOVYCH (1801 -1872)

Russian lexicographer, writer, ethnographer, corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Finished Faculty of Medicine Dorpat (now Tartu) University, was a doctor. For over 50 years he worked on compiling “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” (see), for which he was awarded the Lomonosov Prize of the Academy of Sciences and the title of honorary academician (1863). Dahl also acted as a linguist-theorist. In his work “On the dialects of the Russian language” (1852), he proposed a classification of Russian dialects. As a writer he acted under the pseudonym Cossack Lugansky (“Soldier’s Leisure”, 1843; “Sailor’s Leisure”, 1853, etc.). Author of a number of articles on ethnography and folklore.

DENOTATION (from Latin denotare - to mark, designate). An object or phenomenon of the reality around us, with which a given linguistic unit correlates.

DEETYMOLOGIZATION (from the Latin prefix de, meaning “separation, abolition” + Greek etymologia from etymon - “the main meaning of the word” + logos “concept”, “teaching”). The loss of the word’s previous etymological connections, i.e. loss of semantic connection with the producing basis, as a result of which a word from a motivated name of an object of objective reality becomes an unmotivated name: bag (fur), powder (gunpowder), porch (wing), blue (dove), paint (krasa), like (temper) , get angry (heart), be able to (mind). The modern word loses its connection with its derivative. The phenomenon of de-etymologization is characteristic of words in different languages.

IN Ancient Rus' there were two words for the name of the small furry animal: squirrel And veritsa. Squirrel they called animals only with white skin. During the history of language, the word veritsa was lost, and the word squirrel began to be used to refer to all animals of this genus, regardless of their color. It is extremely rare for squirrels to be white, so the VF of the word has ceased to be recognized: the connection with the adjective white has been lost. As a result of this, the word squirrel ceased to highlight the root bel-. In modern language, the root of this word is protein. The suffix -k- merged with the root. So, with de-etymologization, the word loses its internal form.

Adverb Today in modern language it is not divided into component parts, although historically this is a form of the genitive case singular. combination numbers for this day: Today. The adjective (this) is obsolete; the combination of this day was previously used to mean “on this day.” During private use, the two parts merged into one integral, indivisible word.

Changes in the composition of a word may be associated with the loss of words that served as the basis for the given one. So, in modern Russian there is no word kolo. As a result of this the word ring(originally a diminutive of colo, containing the suffix -ts-, compare: senzo, vintso, myastso) has lost its diminutive meaning, and the suffix has ceased to stand out in it.

The process of re-decomposition - de-etymologization - is facilitated by a change in the phonetic composition of the word. Modern word sense of smell occurred as a result of simplification of the group of consonants from smelling, it included the prefix ob and the root -stench- (smell). The root - stink - has ceased to stand out. In addition, the meaning of the producing word has also changed. In modern language, stink means not just a smell, but a bad odor.

DZEKANYE. The pronunciation of the soft affricate [d’z] instead of [d’], characteristic of some dialects of the Russian language.

DIALECT (from the Greek dialektos “talk, adverb, conversation”). A variety of language (a colloquial version of a given language), used by a relatively limited number of people connected by a territorial, social, and professional community.

All modern languages in different territories of their distribution they are represented by local dialects (in our time - only in rural areas), reflecting the ancient disunity of the population of different regions. During the era of tribalism, there were tribal dialects. The era of feudalism is associated with the emergence of territorial dialects. In our time, there is decomposition, deformation, leveling of dialects, bringing them closer to the norms of the literary language. There are:

1. The dialect is territorial. The dialect is local, regional. Distributed in a certain area. Territorial version of the national language.

2. The dialect is social. The dialect of a separate social group (professional and various kinds of special languages ​​are meant: the language of hunters, the language of the Ophens: see Argo ).

There is a significant difference between territorial and social dialects: the features of the former concern the entire structure of the language, therefore they are part of a more general linguistic formation; the features of the latter cover only the laws of vocabulary and phraseology.

A dialect always represents a part of a whole, i.e. is part of a larger linguistic formation and therefore can be contrasted with at least one more dialect. Dialects are combined into larger ones. In this regard, in dialectology, along with such general concept, like a dialect, concepts are used adverbs (cm.), dialect (cm.). Dialects are usually distinguished by a set of correlative linguistic features.

DIALECTISM. A word or expression belonging to a dialect, used in a text spoken or written in a standard language. Depending on what features are reflected in the dialect word, dialectisms are divided into accentological (cloud, alphabet, library, youth, children), phonetic (vosty, kumpol, radivo, let, moget, khvamiliya), word-formative (pen, forge, murashiny ), morphological (chair, life, walk, to taba), actually lexical (stitch, joke, beetroot, hello, scraper, sit down), semantic (bridge - “floor”, yell - “plow”, guess - “find out”, painful – “very”, freckle – “fever”, thin – “bad”), ethnographic (paneva, makhotka, zaveska, rybnik, dezhka), phraseological (wheezing to bend – “hard to work”, looking for the bast of a belt – “ look for benefits”, a quitter from the butt - “lazy from birth”, gnawing on a bitter radish - “live in difficult conditions”, whiskey on end - “to be very scared”), syntactic (the wolves are walking; the bathhouse is heating up; no one came, as I was ill ).

In Russian literature, dialectisms were introduced into the language of their works by D. Grigorovich, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, M. Sholokhov, V. Tendryakov, V. Belov, V. Rasputin and others to convey local color, as a means of speech characterization, for enhancing the comic effect.

Smells like loose dragon fruits

There is kvass on the doorstep.

Over chiseled stoves

Cockroaches crawl into the groove.

Soot curls over the damper,

There are threads of ashtrays in the stove,

And on the bench, behind the curtain, -

Raw egg husks.

The mother can't cope with the grips,

Bends low.

An old cat sneaks up to the makhotka

For fresh milk...

(S. Yesenin. In the house.)

DIALECTOLOGY (From the Greek dialektos “conversation, adverb, speech” and the Greek logos “word, concept, teaching”). A branch of linguistics that deals with the study of dialects, adverbs and dialects of a language. Russian dialectology originated in the depths of ethnography in connection with the study of the material and spiritual culture of the people and their rituals. Local linguistic features were considered as one of the ethnographic characteristics. The origins of Russian dialectology go back to the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov, in his “Russian Grammar,” first identified “the main Russian dialects.” In the second half of the 19th century, intensive work was carried out to collect, describe and study materials from various Russian dialects. Much work in this direction was carried out by the “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature,” which published dialect materials in its “Ponds.” Later, similar work was carried out by “Russian geographical society" Thanks to the organizational activities and works of A.Kh. Vostokov and I.I. Srednevsky’s “Experience of a Regional Great Russian Dictionary” was published in 1852, and in 1858 the “Addition” to it was published. A significant milestone in Russian dialectology was “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl (1863 - 1866), which contained a lot of dialect material. The works of A.A. were of great importance. Potebny devoted to the description and explanation of the origin of phonetic phenomena. A.I. Sobolevsky was the first to introduce the teaching of Russian dialectology at universities and published a course on this subject. Academician A.A. Shakhmatov contributed to the organization of the Moscow Dialectological Commission (MDC) at the Academy of Sciences, which published “An Experience of a Dialectological Map of the Russian Language in Europe” with the appendix “Essays on Russian Dialectology” (1915, authors – N.N. Durnovo, N.N. Sokolov, D. N. Ushakov).

In the 20-30s of the 20th century. works by R.I. appear Avanesova, L.N. Gvozdeva, N.P. Grinkova, P.S. Kuznetsova, B.A. Larina, V.N. Sidorova, F.P. Filin and others, which examine dialectological materials at all levels of the language system - phonology, morphology, word formation, syntax, vocabulary. Appear dialect dictionaries (cm.).

In 1935, under the leadership of Professor B.A. Larin organized the first dialectological expedition with the participation of students. She went to the area of ​​Lake Seliger. To record dialect materials, it was created special transcription (simplified) (see), preserving the main features of the literary. B.A. worked on it. Larin, N.P. Grinkova, F.P. Owl.

In 1944, the 1st conference of dialectologists met in Vologda, which summed up the work previously done and adopted the “Program for collecting information for compiling a dialectological atlas” (1945).

In 1949, the first textbook on dialectology, “Essays on Russian dialectology,” part 1, was published. Author – R.I. Avanesov.

In May 1959, at the 7th All-Russian Dialectological Meeting in Moscow, the director of the Russian Language Institute, Academician V.V. Vinogradov put forward as one of the primary tasks of Russian dialectological science the compilation of regional dictionaries.

There are descriptive, historical, and social dialectologies.

DESCRIPTIVE dialectology studies the current state of dialects, describes the structure of a dialect language at a certain stage of development.

HISTORICAL dialectology studies the structure of dialect language in its historical development.

SOCIAL dialectology studies social-class, professional, age differentiation of language. The subject of social dialectology is jargons , argot (cm.).

Of great importance in the history of dialectology as a science was the development linguistic geography (cm.).

Dialectology has turned into a widely ramified linguistic discipline with its own research methods. It has retained a close connection with the history of language, and, among non-linguistic disciplines, with ethnography.

DIACHRONY(from Greek dia “through, through” and chronos “time”). The study of the historical development of language, individual linguistic facts and the language system as a whole (Cf.: Synchrony)(cm.).

Language is in constant motion and change. Some phenomena in language disappear, others appear. These processes make up the path of language through time. Dialects often preserve phenomena that, for one reason or another, were not retained in the literary language during the process of its formation. By studying them, diachronic linguistics establishes the causes of language changes and the time of their development in different dialects of the language.

The structure of a dialect language in its historical development is studied by historical dialectology.

In the 13th – 14th centuries. in the Russian language there was a process of changing final voiced consonants into voiceless ones. After the fall of reduced vowels in the Russian language, voiced consonants appeared at the end of the word, which were pronounced loudly: moroz - frost, sad - garden. Gradually, slowly, step by step, the process of stunning occurred: [z] turned into [s], [d] turned into [t]. At first, such pronunciation appeared rarely, in the form of slips of the tongue. Gradually it became widespread among frequently used words and only then covered others. Gradually, pronunciation with voiceless consonants at the end prevailed, which also exists in the modern language.

The diachronic pattern is that all voiced consonants at the end of a word have become voiceless.

DISSIMILATION (lat. dissimilation - dissimilarity). Replacing one of two similar or identical sounds with another, less similar in terms of articulation to the one that remained unchanged. Dissimilation is a rare phenomenon in literary language; it usually occurs in irregular speech:

kolidor (lit. corridor),

tranway (lit. tram),

February (February).

OLD RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. A generalized name for the East Slavic dialects of the times of tribal and feudal fragmentation (approximately from the 9th to the 13th centuries). Old Russian (Old East Slavic) dialects formed the basis of 3 East Slavic national languages ​​- Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian. Treaties, bills of sale, chronicles, charters and some other secular (non-church) monuments were written in the Old Russian language (in its various dialects - Kiev, Novgorod, Rostov-Suzdal, Smolensk-Polotsk, etc.). Many features of Old Russian dialects have been preserved in modern East Slavic dialects.

DURNOVO NIKOLAY NIKOLAEVICH (1876 - 1937)

Linguist, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences, professor. He has works on the history and dialectology of the Russian language. In the book “Introduction to the History of the Russian Language” (1927), he described 280 manuscripts of East Slavic origin, indicating their dialect affiliation and qualifying them by origin. He outlined his dialectological research in the works: “A Brief Essay on Russian Dialectology” (1914). Dialectological research in the field of Great Russian dialects (part 1, v. 1 - “Southern Great Russian dialect”) (1979), etc. Participated in the creation of a dialectological map of the Russian language (1915) together with D.N. Ushakov and N.N. Sokolov, thereby laying the foundation for the cartographic study of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

EKANYE (or screaming ). Non-distinction in the 1st pre-stressed syllable of sounds corresponding to stressed [e], [o] and [a] after soft consonants, their coincidence in [e] or sounds similar to it [e and], [and e], but different from [and] (see hiccups ): for example, [l’esa], [l’e and sa], [l’i e sa]; [n'esu], [n'e and su], [n'i e su]. Yekanye (ekanye) is characteristic of many Central Russian and some Northern Russian dialects. It, along with hiccups, is an orthoepic norm of the Russian literary language. Ekanye is a type yakanya (cm.).

[ê] CLOSED . Cm.: Yat.

YOKANYE. Pronunciation in some dialects of unstressed [o] after soft consonants: [v´osna], [s´olo], [platjo], [p´ol´o], [b´ud´ot]. For dialects with full okany, unstressed yokany is characteristic - the pronunciation of unstressed [o] after soft consonants, usually at the end of the word and before the hard consonant of the final syllable: [pol΄], [vyn΄os] and more rarely in a non-final syllable [oz΄oro ].

JARGON. Cm. Argo .

HIATUS. The combination of vowels in the word: red, blue, eo (lit. his), deushka, korowushka. This is due to the weakening of the articulation of the intervocalic consonant and its loss.

ISOGLOSS (from the Greek isos “equal, identical” and glossa “tongue, speech”). A line drawn on a geographical map and showing the territorial distribution of a particular linguistic phenomenon (isogloss acaña, isogloss ocaña, isogloss of the verb to yell in the sense of “plow”, etc.). Isoglosses of different phenomena can come together, forming bundles of isoglosses. The zones located between such bundles are characterized by relative linguistic unity. In this way (with the help of isogloss bundles), the dialects (see) or others units of dialect division of language (cm.).

HICCUP . A type of unstressed vocalism. Non-distinction in the 1st pre-stressed syllable of sounds corresponding to stressed [i], [e], [o], [a] after soft consonants and their coincidence in the sound [i]: forest - [l΄isa], carry - [n Tisu], nickel - [pitak]. Hiccup is found in Akaya dialects, mainly in Central Russian dialects. It began to penetrate into the literary language in the 19th century. and is currently the norm of literary language.

INTERVOCALIC consonant sound (from Latin inter “between” and vocalis “vowel”) . A consonant sound between two vowels. In modern dialects there are 2 of them: [v] and [j]. The northern Great Russian dialect is characterized by the loss of intervocalic consonants [deushka, koroushka, znat, chitat], while the southern Great Russian dialect is characterized by the appearance in words of foreign origin [for the sake of V oh pi V onya, stage V he, pa th this, spy th He].

IOTATION . A dialectal phenomenon with the appearance of the sound [j] before a vowel sound at the beginning of a word (usually in pronouns): [jona], [jana], [jana]. Caused by the influence of indirect cases (cf.: he, his, him).

INSTITUTE OF RUSSIAN LANGUAGE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (now the Russian Academy of Sciences ). Central scientific research institution for the study of the Russian language and the promotion of scientific knowledge about it. Founded in 1944. Located in Moscow, the dictionary sector is in St. Petersburg. Leading directions in the work of the institute: preparation of academic grammar of modern literary language, academic historical grammars; development of issues of speech culture, study of literary language and dialects in their current state and history; scientific publication of written monuments, the study of the Russian language using structural methods, the creation of a complex of various dictionaries (explanatory, orthographic, orthoepic, synonymous, phraseological, dialectological, historical). Since 1967, the institute has been publishing a popular science magazine "Russian speech" (cm.).

DIALECTOLOGICAL MAP . Back in the mid-19th century, I.I. Srednevsky wrote about the “first urgent need” of the new science of dialectology - drawing up a dialectological map: “The first accessory of linguistic geography should be a map of languages, dialects, dialects, on which the place of the boundaries of political, religious and all other things is taken by the boundaries of the linguistic diversity of peoples...”

In 1915, “The Experience of a Dialectological Map of the Russian Language in Europe” was published. As an appendix to the map, an “Essay on Russian dialectology” was given, prepared by N.N. Durnovo, N.N. Sokolov. and Ushakov D.N. The boundaries of modern East Slavic languages ​​were plotted on the map, two main Great Russian dialects were identified (Northern Great Russian and South Great Russian), between which a zone of transitional dialects - Central Great Russian - was outlined. Adverbs, in turn, were divided into groups.

The classification of adverbs was not based on big number dialect phenomena. These were mainly phonetic and grammatical features:

1 – the pronunciation of O and A in unstressed syllables (okane, yokanye, akanye, yakanye) was taken into account;

2 – pronunciation G (plosive or fricative);

3 – the presence of hard or soft [t] in verbs in the 3rd person singular. and many more date present And Bud. time;

4 – declination of personal and reflexive pronouns(Gen. and Dat. cases);

5 – the fate of the old ђ.

However, such a classification seemed schematic, general, and preliminary to many linguists, because it was incomplete and not thorough enough, since it was built on a small number of dialect features.

In 1965, a new “Dialectological map of the Russian language” was published. It differs significantly from the first “Experience...” primarily in the source material that its compilers had at their disposal. The collection of material was carried out according to a specific program, including the study of all phenomena of the Russian language known by that time. The material was collected by specialists - philologists, and the leading role was played by the country's linguistic departments, which took upon themselves the organization of annual dialectological expeditions and their leadership. This was carried out systematically using linguistic geography methods (survey, questionnaires...). On the 1965 map, the territory of the South Russian dialect is larger than on the 1915 map. This is explained by the fact that many dialects, defined in the “Experience ...” as dialects of the Belarusian language or as “transitional from Belarusian to South Great Russian”, are included on the 1965 map in composition of the South Russian dialect. The territory of the Northern Russian dialect is narrowing, but compared to the 1915 map, the territory of Central Russian dialects is expanding in the northern and northwestern direction. There are no new names for groups of dialects, but among the main units of dialect division a new concept has appeared - dialect zone.

CONSONANTISM (from Latin consonans “consonant”). The system of consonant phonemes of a given language or dialect at a given stage of its development. The consonantism system of the modern literary language has 37 consonant phonemes (according to another point of view - 34), which are in certain relationships with each other. This system is the result of a long historical development.

The consonantism system of modern Russian dialects may be different both quantitatively and qualitatively. Unlike literary language, it can be characterized by:

1 – the presence of not a plosive, but a fricative G [ γ ] (γ ara, but γ And);

2 - not labial-dental, but labial-labial character B [W] (pravda), which is pronounced in dialects as [ŷ] non-syllabic [traŷka], [kl’oŷ];

3 – the absence of [f] and the pronunciation in its place [khv] (khvartuk), [kh] (kokhta), [kv] (kvasol);

4 – clinking or clinking, i.e. non-discrimination h And ts and the pronunciation in their place is either [ch] (street), (chely), or [ts] (tsai), (tsashka).

KUZNETSOV PETER SAVVICH (1899 – 1968).

Professor at Moscow University. He was one of the most versatile linguists of his time. One of the founders of the Moscow phonological school. He has works on phonology, dialectology, history of the Russian language, Slavic studies, etc. He owns research on the history of phonetic alternations in the Russian language, which examines their development since the Proto-Slavic era. He described a number of other dialects. His university courses in Russian dialectology and historical morphology of the Russian language are widely known. Kuznetsov is the author of the textbook “Russian Dialectology” (1951, 3rd edition, 1960).

LARIN BORIS ALEXANDROVICH (1883 - 1964).

Professor of Leningrad University, Honored Scientist, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences. The works are devoted to the history of the Russian language, historical lexicology and lexicography, the stylistics of Russian literary speech, and the study of argot. In a number of articles he raised the problem of sociolinguistic language learning separate groups population of towns and villages. While dealing with issues of Russian linguistic geography, B. A. Larin put forward a position on the close connection of dialectology with dialectography and with the history of language. Under Larin’s leadership, a card index of the Old Russian dictionary was created (kept at the Russian Language Institute in Moscow), and he wrote the “Project of the Old Russian Dictionary.” Larin initiated the compilation of dictionaries for individual works of fiction, and organized the Interfederal Dictionary Cabinet (now named after B. A. Larin) at the Faculty of Philology of Leningrad State University (1960).

LEXICALIZATION. In dialectology there is the concept of “lexicalization of a phonetic or morphological phenomenon.” This means that a certain phonetic or morphological feature in a dialect does not have the character of a pattern, but is limited to only a few words (a limited range of vocabulary). Lexicalized phenomena are often those associated with remnants of past phonetic and morphological changes and that are important for the study of the history of a language. For example, the pronunciation of [a] between soft consonants under stress differs from the pronunciation of [a] between hard consonants: the vowel changes its articulation, moves to a higher position, closer to the middle rise. By ear this is perceived as [e]:

lit. five– dialect. [Pat'];

lit. dirt– dialect. [gr'es];

lit. son-in-law– dialect. [z'et];

This [e] is called a variant of the phoneme [a]. The phenomenon is widely found in the Northern Great Russian dialect. In the southern dialect this phonetic feature appears as lexicalized, i.e. captured in separate words: breed e nickname, m e chick, scream e t.

LEXICOGRAPHY (from Greek leksikos “dictionary” and grafos “write”). Theory and practice of compiling dictionaries (lexicons). The collection and description of Russian regional vocabulary begins around the 30s. 18th century The “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature”, which emerged in 1811, played a significant role in organizing the collection of dialect words. In the middle of the 19th century. Two more scientific institutions began collecting materials on Russian folk dialects: the Second Branch of the Academy of Sciences and the Russian Geographical Society. In 1852, on the initiative of Srednevsky I.I. with the participation and editing of Vostokov A.Kh. and Korkunova A.M. “The Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” is published, which includes 18,011 words. In 1858, an “Addition” to it was published, which included another 22,895 words.

The series of dialect terminological dictionaries opens with the two-volume dictionary by V. Burnashev “Experience of a terminological dictionary of agriculture, manufacturing, crafts and folk life” (St. Petersburg, 1843 - 1844). The traditions of dialect lexicography continue to develop dialect dictionaries of the late 19th – early 20th centuries: “Dictionary of the regional Arkhangelsk dialect in its everyday and ethnographic application” by A. Podvysotsky (St. Petersburg, 1885), “Dictionary of the regional Olonets dialect in its everyday and ethnographic application” by G. AND. Kulikovsky (St. Petersburg, 1898), “Materials for an explanatory regional dictionary of the Vyatka dialect” N.M. Vasnetsova (Vyatka, 1907), “Smolensk Regional Dictionary” by V.N. Dobrovolsky (Smolensk, 1914) and many others.

A special place in lexicography of the 19th century. occupies the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl (St. Petersburg, 1863 - 1866). Dahl collected materials for the dictionary for 53 years (from 1819 to 1872), i.e. all my adult life. According to his own calculations, the dictionary contains 70–80 thousand words collected by him personally. In addition, the dictionary includes selections from various lexicographic sources: primarily from the “Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian Language”, ed. OH. Vostokov (about 100 thousand words), from the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” and from the “Addition” to it (about 30 thousand). The total volume of the Dalevsky dictionary exceeds 200 thousand units. This is the largest dictionary of the Russian language in terms of vocabulary volume. The author included in his dictionary all bookish and colloquial, national and local, foreign and colloquial, everyday and professional words used in his contemporary language. According to the composition of the vocabulary, the dictionary of V.I. Dal is not actually a dictionary of a literary language, nor a dialect dictionary, but represents thesaurus (see), reflecting the vocabulary of the Russian language (literary, colloquial and dialects) of the mid-19th century.

To date, a large number of different dictionaries have been created that describe dialect vocabulary in full and from different sides: “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects” (edited by F.P. Filin), Arkhangelsk Regional Dictionary (edited by O.G. Getsova, 1980), Dictionary of modern Russian folk dialect (village of Deulino, Ryazan district, Ryazan region, edited by N.A. Ossovetsky, 1962); “Pskov Regional Dictionary” (1967); “Dictionary of Russian dialects of Transbaikalia” L.E. Eliasova (1980), “Concise Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary” by G.G. Melnichenko (1961), “Dictionary of dialects of the Moscow region” A.F. Ivanova (1969); “Dictionary of Russian dialects of the Middle Urals” (1964, 1971); “Dictionary of dialects of the Solikamsk region of the Perm region” O.P. Belyaeva (1973); “Dictionary of Smolensk dialects” (edited by A.I. Ivanova, 1974); “Dictionary of Oryol dialects” (edited by T.V. Bakhvalova); “Dictionary of Bryansk dialects” (edited by V.I. Chagisheva, 1976 - 1985) and many others.

The first experience in creating a dictionary of the dialect of one person is “Dialect Dictionary of Personality” by V.P. Timofeeva (1971). It includes dialect words recorded from a resident of the village of Usoltseva, Shatrovsky district, Kursk region, Evdokia Timofeeva (b. 1897). The conversation was recorded over a period of 20 years. 2705 ​​words and 87 phraseological units were recorded. The meanings of words and phraseological units are illustrated with examples from oral speech, proverbs, sayings, and ditties.

Rich in content is the “Phraseological Dictionary of Russian Dialects of Siberia”, ed. A.N. Fedorov (1983). It contains about 7 thousand phraseological units. This is a differential type dictionary. The dictionary includes phraseological units, proverbs, and sayings.

LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY (linguistic geography ) (from Latin lingua “language” and geographia “geography”). A branch of linguistics whose task is to study the territorial distribution of linguistic phenomena. LG emerged from dialectology at the end of the 19th century. The creators of LG were the German scientist R. Wenker and the French scientist J. Gillieron. The goal of their work was to compile linguistic maps. The main theme of the cards is the word.

In Russian linguistics, the idea of ​​LG was formulated in the mid-19th century. in the works of academician Srednevsky N.N.

In 1903, the Moscow Dialectological Commission (MDC) was created, headed by F.E. Korsh, and the real inspirer was A.A. Shakhmatov. The commission published and distributed the “Program for collecting information necessary to compile a dialectological map of the Russian language.” This program included detailed questions about all linguistic phenomena, mainly phonetic and morphological. Hundreds of responses were received to this program, mainly from representatives of the rural intelligentsia - teachers, doctors, and clergy. In 1915 the work was published “The experience of a dialectological map of the Russian language in Europe” (see), in which the boundaries of the dialects of the East Slavic languages ​​were outlined, the territories of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages ​​were outlined for the first time, the division of these languages ​​into dialects and groups of dialects was given, and transitional dialects between dialects and languages ​​were identified. As an appendix to the map, an “Essay on Russian dialectology” was given, prepared by members of the IDC N.N. Durnovo, N.N. Sokolov, D.N. Ushakov.

The development of modern LG is associated with the works of R.I. Avanesov and Moscow linguogeographers of the Leningrad direction B.A. Larin, F.P. Filin etc.

The object of mapping is not individual isolated facts of language, but linguistic phenomena as elements of the language system.

Released in 1957 “Atlas of Russian folk dialects of the central regions east of Moscow” (edited by R.I. Avanesov and S.V. Bromley) (see). The detailed classification of the isoglasses of this atlas served as the basis for a new dialect division, developed by representatives of the Moscow dialectological school K.F. Zakharova and V.G. Orlova.

In 1965 a new one was published "Dialectological map of the Russian language" (cm). It differs significantly from the first “Experience” (in the source material, the study of all language phenomena, the involvement of specialists, the use of systematic LG methods, etc.).

FALSE ETYMOLOGY. Cm.: Folk etymology.

LOMONOSOV MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH (1711 - 1765).

The first Russian scientist is a naturalist, linguist and literary critic, a champion of domestic education and the development of independent Russian science. In 1746, for the first time at the academy, he began to give lectures in Russian. From the mid-40s Along with research in the field of exact sciences, he systematically studied the problems of philology. “Russian Grammar” (1755), the first truly scientific grammar, was normative in nature; it consolidated living norms of word usage and swept away outdated forms and constructions. In the “Preface on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language” (1758) M.V. Lomonosov holds the idea that the main part of the Russian literary language should be the speech of the people; from book sources and from the Church Slavonic language, what is understandable to the people and what has been mastered by them in the process of centuries-old practice should remain in the literary language. Lomonosov expressed thoughts about the stability of the main vocabulary of the Russian language, about the peculiarities of its history, about the great cohesion of the dialects of the Russian language.

Lomonosov was one of the first to draw attention to the heterogeneity of the Russian language throughout the territory of its distribution. He noticed that the residents of his native Arkhangelsk province live where the residents of Moscow live. He saw that in place of the literary [i e ] (carry, lead, carry) in his homeland they pronounce [o] [n'osu], [v'odu], and to the south of Moscow - ['a] ([n 'asu], [v'adu], [v'azu]). Lomonosov also drew attention to other finetic phenomena, which not only differ from the literary language, but are also different in different dialects. At the same time, he noted the most significant thing: although there is a difference in pronunciation, Russian people understand each other, which means that the language has more in common than difference. Lomonosov was the first to point out the dialect division of the East Slavic languages. In the note “On dialects” he writes: “ Russian language can be divided into three dialects:

1) Moscow (= South Russian + transitional Akaya);

2) Pomeranian (= Northern Russian);

3) Little Russian (= Ukrainian);

The first is the main one, used both at court and among the nobility, and especially in cities near Moscow. The other is somewhat inclined closer to the old Slovenian and occupied a large part of Russia. The third is most different and mixed with Polish.”

Lomonosov defined the Moscow dialect as the basis of the literary language. Speaking about this in his “Russian Grammar,” he drew attention to akanya as a characteristic feature of this dialect: “The Moscow dialect is rightly revered not only for the importance of the capital city, but also for its excellent beauty; and especially the reprimand [o] without emphasis as [a] is very pleasant” (paragraph 113).

Lomonosov used the noted dialect differences to justify certain spelling rules. He believed that a literary language serving various dialects should not have words written that correspond to the phonetic norms of only one Moscow dialect. This provision is also basic in modern Russian orthography. Lomonosov's rough sketches contain rich material on living Russian vocabulary and phraseology. He wrote down many words, expressions, proverbs, and sayings.

MOSCOW PRONUNCIATION. A method of pronunciation characteristic of Moscow residents, recognized as the pronunciation norm of the Russian literary language.

Moscow pronunciation has evolved over centuries. Its original basis was the pronunciation of the East Slavic Krivichi tribe (close to the pronunciation of the Novgorod Slavs), i.e. had a North Russian character. Muscovites until the 16th century. not only preserved the northern system of consonantism, but also the Okali. However, in Moscow, among the population who came from the south and east, acacia pronunciation was also common, which gradually strengthened in the 18th century. became dominant. In the 18th century there were 2 norms of pronunciation: one - when reading books, poems..., the other - characteristic colloquial speech. In the 19th century pronunciation norms lit. The language is already completely determined by living Moscow speech. These norms are characterized by akan, pronunciation [g] of plosive formation, pronunciation [‘e] after soft consonants before hard consonants in place ђ under stress and a number of other features.

From the end of the 19th century. and to this day, Moscow pronunciation has gone through many changes, retaining, however, all the main features.

According to the norms of old Moscow pronunciation, it is allowed to pronounce the letter G How [ γ ] in a few more church words (Lord, God), but is no longer allowed in other words, in a similar phonetic position (almshouse, prosperous, favorable); [ γ ] also occurs when positionally voiced X(they would [and γ would]) and in individual words. In reflexive forms of the verb, there is a fluctuation in pronunciation between stage with hard and colloquial with soft [s’]; This hesitation began in the Pushkin era. In the field of vocalism, the main feature of Moscow pronunciation is akanye, i.e. sharply contrasting emphasis on the stressed syllable and different reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables [gъл / \ва].

MOTIVATION. Cm. Internal form of a word .

METATHESIS (from Greek metathesis “rearrangement”). Rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation: plate (from a taler), witch (lit. bear).

The Northern Russian dialect is contrasted with the Southern Russian dialect by a whole complex of features at all levels of the language.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHERN AND SOUTH ADVERB OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

CENTRAL RUSSIAN (MIXED, TRANSITIONAL) DIALS combine southern and northern features. Here akanye can be combined with [g] plosive, soft [t’] in the 3rd person of the verb with the forms “at my sister”. The originality of these dialects is not in the presence of any special linguistic phenomena, but rather in the combination of southern and northern dialect phenomena, therefore these dialects do not constitute a special dialect.

FOLK ETYMOLOGY . Cm.: Etymology.

NORM AND DIALECTS. A linguistic norm is what is customary to say and write in a given society in a given era. In other words: a norm is a set of rules for the selection and use of linguistic means (in a given society in a given era). The norm is inextricably linked with the concept of literary language, which is otherwise called normative.

The norm stands guard over integrity and general understanding of what is right and what is wrong, it recommends some language means and modes of expression as “legitimate” and rejects others as contrary to linguistic custom.

Linguistic norms are not invented by someone, but are objectively formed in the process of centuries-old language practice.

Literary language is formed on the basis of folk speech in all its diversity. He scoops means of expression from dialects, vernacular, professional jargons. The norm plays the role of a filter: it lets into literary use the brightest, juiciest of what is in living folk speech, and delays and weeds out everything random, faded, inexpressive. Is there a norm in dialects?

The difference between the norm of a literary language and the norm of a dialect is that the literary norm is consciously cultivated: it is promoted in books, on television, and radio. In dialects this is not the case: there are traditions of dialect means, but a conscious deviation from lit. norms must be justified.

OBNORSKY SERGEY PETROVICH (1888 – 1962).

Linguist, academician, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. Student A.A. Shakhmatova. Founder and first director of the Russian Language Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He has works on the modern Russian language, its history, dialectology, lexicology and lexicography. He paid great attention to the analysis of the forms of the Nominative and Genitive cases of the singular and plural, their diverse inflections in the past, the history of all forms and categories of the Russian verb. A number of works Obnorsky S.P. devoted to etymology, culture of speech. He made a great contribution to the development of Russian vocabulary.

[Ô ] CLOSED. Labialized vowel sound of the middle-upper rise of the non-anterior formation, tense, long. Opened at the beginning of the twentieth century. Pronounced as a sound between [o] and [u]. It was first heard by the learned Slavist and expert on Slavic languages ​​Olaf Brok in the Totem dialect. In 1912, it was recorded by academician A.A. Shakhmatov in the dialect of the village of Leka, Ryazan province. In the pronunciation of local residents, this [Ô] was heard as a diphthong [uo]: [kuofta], [poushta], [narod]. They called it [o] fake. A.A. Shakhmatov noticed that the sound is pronounced in those words in which O. Brock noticed [Ô] in the Totem dialect. The old [o] was described with great accuracy and in all its varieties by S.S. Vysotsky. An expert in Russian dialects, Vasiliev discovered: the sound [Ô] is located where in ancient times there was an ascending stress: on the stressed vowel tone.

The distinction between [o] and [Ô] has been preserved only in a few Russian dialects. Mark it:

1-- In monosyllabic words with the original [o] (kÔt, vÔt, knife, rÔy, tail, place);

2-- in noun Wed kind with stressed [o] (selÔ, oknÔ);

3-- in full agreement with the stressed 2nd [o] (crow, cow, swamp).

OKANYE. One of the 2 main types of unstressed vocalism in Russian dialects. Discrimination after firm acc. in unstressed syllables there are sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a], i.e. pronunciation of the unstressed sound [o] in

[water] - [water]

[sheaf] - [sheaves].

At completely ok[o] and [a] differ in all unstressed syllables: [head], [milk], [molodos’t’], [drum]. At incomplete- only in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, and in the rest there is a strong reduction: [gъlova], [molld’s’t’], [miloko], [baraban]. Okanye is opposed to Akanya (see). Characteristic of Northern Russian dialects.

ONOMASTICS (from the Greek onomastike - the art of giving names). A branch of linguistics that studies any proper names, the history of their origin and transformation, as well as the totality of all proper names.

Toponymy studies proper names of geographical objects (Russia, White Sea, Bryansk, Starodub, Rognedino).

Anthroponymy studies people's own names (Sveta, Andrey).

Theonymics studies the proper names of gods and deities of any pantheon (Stribog).

Zoonymics studies animal names (Squirrel).

Cosmonymics studies the names of zones of outer space, galaxies, constellations (Milky Way, Ursa Major).

Astronomy studies the names of individual celestial bodies (Earth, Moon, Mars).

PROSTHESIS (from the Greek prothesis “standing in front”). The appearance at the absolute beginning of a word of a consonant sound, not justified entymologically, but caused by phonetic reasons (Old Russian *Idra => Russian otter). A consonant sound added at the beginning of a word before a vowel to facilitate pronunciation is called prosthetic (art, sl. lamb - other Russian lamb, modern lit. lamb; old. eighteen - Russian lit. eighteen; dial. window, street, lake, vutka).

DIALECT DIFFERENCES . Concepts that exist to define a territorial dialect as part of a whole language. There are 2 types of differences:

1 = = non-opposed – phenomena that exist only in 1 dialect or group of dialects; most often in vocabulary;

2 = = opposed – phenomena that in other dialects or in the literary language correspond to any other similar phenomena; most often in phonetics, grammar and vocabulary.

Examples of dialect differences can be OKANYE (see) and AKANYE (see), the difference between the sounds [ts] and [h] and their non-distinction (see tsokanye); presence of sound [d] explosive formation and sound [ γ ] fricative formation; forms of the genitive case singular. h. no longer, at my sister's And at my wife's at my sister's; rooster And kochet for naming the same poultry, etc.

RASTORGUEV PAVEL ANDREEVICH (1881 –1959).

Famous Soviet linguist. Native of Starodub b. Chernigov province (now Bryansk region). Student of Professor Brandt R.F., Shakhmatov A.A. I spent a lot of time studying the dialects of the Smolensk region and the northern districts of B. Chernigov province. He was one of the first to begin dialectological work in Belarus. Special attention Rastorguev P.A. focuses on the study of dialects of the territory where the zones of distribution of the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages ​​touch. In 1927, his work “Dialects of the eastern districts of the Gomel province in their current state” was published, which examines the phonetic and morphological features of the dialects of the Novozybkovsky, partly Mglinsky, Starodubsky and Surazhsky districts. An honorable place among the works of Rastorguev P.A. occupied by the work “Seversk - Belarusian dialect. Research in the field of dialectology and history of Belarusian dialects" (1927), dedicated to the memory of academician A.A. Shakhmatov, at whose insistence P.A. Rastorguev began studying his native dialect. Here the language of the population of the same Starodubsky, Mglinsky, Surazhsky and Novozubkovsky districts is studied. Chernigov province and the western strip of Trubchevsky district b. Oryol province. The work is based on extensive material, which included notes made by the scientist himself during his trips for more than 20 years, printed and handwritten sources (special descriptions, responses to programs, folklore records, etc.). In addition, archeological and historical data and documents of the 17th and 18th centuries, written on the territory of the studied dialect, were involved.

Based on a thorough analysis of these materials, P.A. Rastorguev came to the conclusion that the dialect being studied was a special dialect of the Belarusian language, and introduced the name “Seversk-Belarusian” for it, since he saw in it a descendant of the dialect of the ancient tribe of northerners who once inhabited a significant part of the Chernigov, Kursk and Poltava provinces. According to the author, the northerners became closer to the Radimichi and Vyatichi, and their dialect was generally Belarusian.

In 1928 for the monograph “Seversk-Belarusian dialect” the Russian Geographical Society in Leningrad awarded P.A. Rastorguev a gold medal.

At the end of the 30s P.A. Rastorguev arrives in Novozybkov, Bryansk region. Here at the pedagogical institute at the department of Russian language, he gives lectures on the history and dialectology of the Russian language, leads a dialectological circle, organizes trips for students to collect materials for the future dictionary of folk dialects of the Western Bryansk region, works on a draft program for collecting information for a dialectological atlas of Belarusian dialects, the compilation of which was entrusted to him in 1940. Institute of Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences of the SSR.

March 29, 1941 P.A. Rastorguev was awarded for many years of fruitful scientific activity academic degree Doctor of Philological Sciences without defending a dissertation.

P.A. pays a lot of attention. Rastorguev editing the manuscript of the “Dictionary of Folk Dialects of the Western Bryansk Region,” which he conceived in 1903. The dictionary was compiled on the basis of material collected by the researcher himself and students of the Novozybkov Pedagogical Institute in 267 settlements, as well as printed folklore records made in the Western Bryansk region (works of A.N. Afanasyev, M.N. Kosich, A.D. Nechaev, A. F. Polevoy, M.V. Ushakov, etc.). In total, the dictionary contains about 8 thousand words. By the end of 1954, the dictionary was basically ready for publication. The dictionary was published in 1973. The dictionary is the final stage of the frontal study of dialects, called Seversk-Belarusian by scientists. It provides valuable material for clarifying the problem of the relationship between the Belarusian and Russian languages, on the one hand, and Belarusian and Ukrainian, on the other.

Gradually, the dialects of modern Western Bryansk region are losing the features of their old basis and, in continuous change, acquiring a South Russian character, being under the increased influence of South Great Russian folk dialects and the Russian literary language. Based on this, the dialects of modern Western Bryansk subsequently Rastorguev P.A. calls them southern Great Russian (developed in the past and developing in the present) on a Belarusian basis. There is a gradual displacement of Belarusian phenomena by Southern Great Russian ones.

VOWEL REDUCTION (from Latin redutio"reduction, decrease") A change in vowel sounds, consisting in their less distinct articulation, shorter duration of sound. In transcription, including dialectal, the letters b (er) and b (er') are used to denote reduction: [maloko], [vda], [v'sna].

REDUCED VOWELS.

1. Vowels resulting from reduction, i.e. less clearly articulated, having lost in length, strength or sound quality: [gаlΛva], dial. [vda], [milk]. 2. In historical phonetics, the vowels [ъ] and [ь] are of incomplete formation, which in a strong position were subsequently clarified (сънъ – sleep; дн – day), and in a weak position were lost

.

RUSSIAN SPEECH.

A popular scientific magazine, organ of the Russian Language Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now the Russian Academy of Sciences). Published since 1964. Publishes entertaining materials on the history of the Russian language, dialectology, history of words and expressions. The magazine features famous linguists, writers, artists, and teachers. The magazine is designed for a wide range of readers interested in the Russian language.

SYNCHRONY (from Greek syn– together +chronos– time, i.e. simultaneity). The state of a language at a certain stage of historical development as an integral system of lexical, grammatical and phonetic elements as a subject of linguistic study. Synchronous language learning is a subject of descriptive linguistics.

DICTIONARY OF BRYANSK DIALS. A lexicographic description of Bryansk dialects is presented in the “Dictionary of Bryansk dialects” (edited by V.I. Chagisheva) and in the “Dictionary of folk dialects of the Western Bryansk region” by P.A. Rastorgueva.

DICTIONARY OF BRYANSK DIALS (SBG) is a collective work of the Russian language department of the Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) State Pedagogical University named after. A.I. Herzen. Work on the dictionary was carried out under the guidance and with the participation of Doctor of Philology, Professor Vera Ivanovna Chagisheva (see), who headed the first dialectological expedition to the Bryansk region in 1951. IN AND. Chagisheva was the leader of the problem group she created for the study of Bryansk dialects and the compilation of the SBG, and the editor of its first three issues.

“The Dictionary of Bryansk Dialects” is compiled on the basis of a unique card index, formulated by materials from annual dialectological expeditions in the period from 1951 to the present. Materials on the western regions of the Bryansk region were mainly collected and provided to the compilers of the SBG by employees of the Russian language department of the Novozybkovsky PI under the leadership of Assoc. Nebery K.M. At the next stage of work on the SBG (5th issue), teachers from the Russian Language Department of the Bryansk State Pedagogical University took part in the compilation of dictionary entries. acad. I.G. Petrovsky under the leadership of Assoc. Kurganskaya N.I.

“Dictionary of Bryansk dialects” is a full-type, non-differential dictionary. It reflects, if possible, the entire vocabulary of Bryansk dialects of the second half of the 20th century. It includes the vocabulary of dialects on the territory of modern Bryansk region. (according to the administrative-territorial division of 1973). 5 issues of SBG (1968-1988 edition), containing 8,067 dictionary entries and 491 reference lines. Work on the dictionary continues.

“DICTIONARY OF FOLK DIALOGS OF THE WESTERN BRYANSHIC REGION” P.A. Rastorguev (1973 ed.) includes local vocabulary of dialects of the western regions of the Bryansk region. The author has been using dialect records since 1903, as well as published and handwritten materials (folklore and dialect) since 1862. The dictionary contains about 8 thousand dialect words.

Have any incidents ever happened to you when, while reading the works of Russian classics, you did not understand what they were writing about? Most likely, this was not due to your inattention to the plot of the work, but because of the writer’s style, which included outdated words and dialectisms.

V. Rasputin, V. Astafiev, M. Sholokhov, N. Nekrasov, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, V. Shukshin, S. Yesenin liked to express themselves in words of this type. And this is only a small part of them.

Dialectisms: what is it and how many types are there?

Dialects are words whose distribution and use are limited to a certain territory. They are widely used in the vocabulary of the rural population.

Examples of dialectisms in the Russian language show that they are characterized by individual characteristics relating to phonetics, morphology, and vocabulary:

1. Phonetic dialectisms.

2. Morphological dialectisms.

3. Lexical:

• actually lexical;
• lexical-semantic;

4. Ethnographic dialectisms.

5. Word-forming dialectisms.

Dialectisms also occur at the syntactic and phraseological levels.

Types of dialectisms as individual features of the original Russian people

In order to find out the original features of the dialect of the Russian people, it is necessary to consider dialectisms in more detail.

Examples of dialectisms:

• Replacing one or more letters in a word is typical for phonetic dialectisms: pshono - millet; Khvedor - Fedor.
• Changes in words, which are not the norm from the point of view of the agreement of words in sentences, are characteristic of morphological dialectisms: in mene; I spoke with smart people(substitution of cases, plural and singular).
• Words and expressions that are found only in a certain area and have no phonetic or word-forming analogues. Words whose meaning can only be understood from the context are called lexical dialectisms. In general, in the known vocabulary they have equivalent words that are understandable and known to everyone. For southern regions Russia is characterized by the following dialectisms (examples): beet - beet; cibula - bow.
• Words that are used only in a specific region and have no analogues in the language due to their correlation with the characteristics of the life of the population are called “ethnographic dialectisms.” Examples: shanga, shanga, shaneshka, shanechka - a dialectic denoting a certain type of cheesecake with a top potato layer. These delicacies are widespread only in a certain region; they cannot be described in one word from common usage.
• Dialectisms that arose due to a special affixal design are called word-formative: guska - goose, pokeda - bye.

Lexical dialectisms as a separate group

Due to their heterogeneity, lexical dialectisms are divided into the following types:

• Actually lexical: dialectisms that have a common meaning with general literary ones, but differ from them in spelling. They can be called peculiar synonyms of generally understood and well-known words: beets - sweet potatoes; stitch - path.
• Lexico-semantic. Almost the complete opposite of lexical dialectisms themselves: they have a common spelling and pronunciation, but differ in meaning. Correlating them, they can be characterized as homonyms in relation to each other.

For example, the word "cheerful" can have two meanings in different parts of the country.

1. Literary: energetic, full of strength.
2. Dialectal meaning (Ryazan): elegant, neat.

Thinking about the purpose of dialectisms in the Russian language, we can assume that, despite the differences with common literary words, they replenish the Russian literary word fund on an equal basis with them.

The role of dialectisms

The role of dialectisms for the Russian language is varied, but first of all they are important for the inhabitants of the country.

Functions of dialectisms:

1. Dialectisms are one of the most important means of oral communication for people living in the same territory. It was from oral sources that they penetrated into written ones, giving rise to the following function.
2. Dialectisms used at the level of district and regional newspapers contribute to a more accessible presentation of the information provided.
3. Fiction takes information about dialectisms from the colloquial speech of residents of specific regions and from the press. They are used to convey local features of speech, and also contribute to a more vivid transmission of the character of the characters.

Some expressions slowly but surely find their way into the general literary stock. They become known and understandable to everyone.

Researchers studying the functions of dialectisms

P.G. Pustovoit, exploring the work of Turgenev, focused on dialectisms, examples of words and their meaning, he names the following functions:

• characterological;
• educational;
• dynamization of speech;
• cumulation.

V.V. Vinogradov based on the works of N.V. Gogol identifies the following series of functions:

• characterological (reflective) - it helps color the characters’ speech;
• nominative (nominal) - manifests itself when using ethnographisms and lexical dialectisms.

The most complete classification of functions was developed by Professor L.G. Samotik. Lyudmila Grigorievna identified 7 functions for which dialectisms in a work of art are responsible:

Modeling;

Nominative;

Emotive;

Culminative;

Aesthetic;

Phatic;

Characterological.

Literature and dialectisms: what are the dangers of abuse?

Over time, the popularity of dialectisms, even at the oral level, decreases. Therefore, writers and correspondents should use them sparingly in their works. Otherwise, it will be difficult to perceive the meaning of the work.

Dialectisms. Examples of inappropriate use

When working on a work, you need to think through the appropriateness of each word. First of all, you should think about the appropriateness of using dialect vocabulary.

For example, instead of the dialect-regional word “kosteril” it is better to use the common literary word “scold”. Instead of “promised” - “promised”.

The main thing is to always understand the line between moderate and appropriate use of dialect words.

Dialectisms should help the perception of the work, and not complicate it. To understand how to correctly use this figure of the Russian language, you can ask for help from word masters: A.S. Pushkina, N.A. Nekrasova, V.G. Rasputina, N.S. Leskova. They skillfully, and most importantly, used dialectisms moderately.

The use of dialectisms in fiction: I.S. Turgenev and V.G. Rasputin

Some works by I.S. Turgenev is difficult to read. When studying them, you need to think not only about the general meaning of the literary heritage of the writer’s work, but also about almost every word.

For example, in the story “Bezhin Meadow” we can find the following sentence:

“With quick steps I walked through a long “square” of bushes, climbed a hill and, instead of this familiar plain ˂...˃ I saw completely different places unknown to me.”

An attentive reader has a logical question: “Why did Ivan Sergeevich put the seemingly usual and appropriate word “square” in brackets?”

The writer personally answers it in another work, “Khor and Kalinich”: “In the Oryol province, large continuous masses of bushes are called “squares.”

It becomes clear that given word widespread only in the Oryol region. Therefore, it can safely be attributed to the group of “dialectisms”.

Examples of sentences using terms of a narrow stylistic focus, used in the speech of residents of certain regions of Russia, can be seen in the stories of V.G. Rasputin. They help him show the character's originality. In addition, the hero’s personality and character are reproduced precisely through such expressions.

Examples of dialectisms from Rasputin’s works:

• To become cold - to cool down.
• To make a fuss is to rage.
• Pokul - for now.
• Engage - get in touch.

It is noteworthy that the meaning of many dialectisms cannot be understood without context.

Dialects and literary language. The atlas “The Language of the Russian Village” is unusual. This is not a geographical or historical atlas, like the ones you get acquainted with at school during geography and history lessons. This is a dialectological atlas. By reading it, you can learn about the differences in the pronunciation of words, grammatical forms, names of the same objects and concepts in different regions of Russia where Russian is spoken. Probably, many of you yourself have encountered the fact that residents of even nearby villages differ from each other in their dialect. Peculiarities of pronunciation are often fixed in nicknames. So, you can hear: “Yes, we call them shchimyaki, they are on sch They say; here, for example, tickling(Now)". The science that studies territorial varieties of language - local talk, or dialects, is called dialectology(from the Greek dialektos “talk, adverb” and logos “word, teaching”).

Each national language includes a standard language and territorial dialects. Literary, or “standard”, is the language of everyday communication, official business documents, school education, writing, science, culture, and fiction. His distinguishing feature – normalization, i.e. the presence of rules (you learn them at school from year to year), compliance with which is mandatory for all members of society. They are enshrined in grammars, reference books and dictionaries of the modern Russian language. Dialects also have their own language laws. However, they are not clearly understood by the speakers of dialects - rural residents, much less have a written embodiment in the form of rules. Russian dialects are characterized only by oral form existence, in contrast to a literary language, which has both oral and written forms.

Speak, or dialect, is one of the main concepts of dialectology. A dialect is the smallest territorial variety of a language. It is spoken by residents of one or more villages. The scope of the dialect is the same as the scope of the literary language, which is a means of communication for everyone who speaks Russian.

How to treat dialects? Literary language and dialects constantly interact and influence each other. The influence of the literary language on dialects is, of course, stronger than that of dialects on the literary language. His influence spreads through schooling, television, radio. Gradually, dialects are destroyed and lose their character traits. Many words denoting rituals, customs, concepts, and household items of a traditional village have gone and are leaving along with the people of the older generation. That is why it is so important to record the living language of the village as completely and in detail as possible.

In our country, for a long time, a disdainful attitude towards local dialects as a phenomenon that needs to be combated prevailed. But it was not always so. On mid-19th V. In Russia there is a peak of public interest in folk speech. At this time, the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1852) was published, where dialect words were specially collected for the first time, and the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl in 4 volumes (1863–1866), also including a large number of dialect words. Lovers of Russian literature actively helped collect materials for these dictionaries. Magazines and provincial newspapers of that time published various kinds of ethnographic sketches, dialect descriptions, and dictionaries of local sayings from issue to issue.

The opposite attitude towards dialects was observed in the 30s. of our century. In the era of the breakdown of the village - the period of collectivization - the destruction of old ways of farming, family life, peasant culture, i.e., all manifestations of the material and spiritual life of the village was proclaimed. A negative attitude towards dialects has spread in society. For the peasants themselves, the village turned into a place from which they had to flee in order to save themselves, to forget everything connected with it, including the language. An entire generation of rural residents, having deliberately abandoned their language, at the same time failed to perceive a new language system for them - the literary language - and master it. All this led to the decline of language culture in society.

A respectful and careful attitude towards dialects is characteristic of many nations. For us, the experience of Western European countries is interesting and instructive: Austria, Germany, Switzerland, France. For example, in schools in a number of French provinces, an elective in the native dialect has been introduced, a mark for which is included in the certificate. In Germany and Switzerland, literary-dialectal bilingualism and constant communication in the dialect in the family are generally accepted. In Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. educated people, coming from the village to the capital, spoke the literary language, and at home, on their estates, communicating with neighbors and peasants, they often used the local dialect.

Nowadays, people who speak a dialect have an ambiguous attitude towards their language. In their minds, the native dialect is assessed in two ways: 1) through comparison with other, neighboring dialects and 2) through comparison with the literary language. The emerging opposition between “one’s own” (one’s own dialect) and “alien” has different meanings. In the first case, when “foreign” is a different dialect, it is often perceived as something bad, ridiculous, something you can laugh at (see examples of teases in the comments to cards and), and “ours” – as correct, pure. In the second case, “one’s own” is assessed as bad, “gray”, incorrect, and “alien” - literary language - as good. This attitude towards the literary language is completely justified and understandable: thereby its cultural value is realized.

But should a person be ashamed of his tongue? small homeland”, forget him, expel him from your life? What does dialect mean from the point of view of the history of the Russian language and the Russian people, from the point of view of culture?

Our dialectological atlas will help you answer these questions and learn something new about the Russian language.

How the School Dialectological Atlas is structured. We have already written that the science of dialectology deals with dialects, and people who have chosen it as their specialty are called dialectologists. They study dialects using various methods: descriptive, recording and studying specific modern dialects; historical, exploring how dialects and dialect differences developed; linguogeographical, compiling maps and entire sets of maps - dialectological atlases. To date, about 300 atlases have been published different languages. Our atlas is distinguished primarily by its simplicity and accessibility of presentation of complex material.

The school dialectological atlas is an album of linguistic maps with explanatory texts. On geographical maps using special symbols - color fills, hatches, icons– the distribution of linguistic phenomena is shown. The territory in which a particular linguistic feature occurs is called habitat, and the line limiting it is isogloss. The areas vary in size: some include dialects of only a few villages, others occupy vast areas.
Sometimes the habitats overlap each other. And then we talk about the coexistence of several phenomena in one territory. Typically, coexistence is depicted by a combination of signs, and when these signs are filled with different colors, they are given in stripes: a stripe of one color, a stripe of another (for example, on a map).

To get it right read the map, you must first study carefully map name and legend– a set of symbols and explanatory texts for them. Most of the maps in the atlas are devoted to one topic, which is included in the title. But there are cards with not one, but several topics related to each other. Then they are numbered in the legend with Roman numerals (see maps,).

In a number of cards, in addition to the main topic, an additional one is given. It is not specified in the name, but becomes clear from the logic of the map.

Let's look at the card “Verbs with the meaning “to plow the ground.” On it the use of the verb groin in another meaning, namely: “sweep the floor”, “sweep the dust” and others - is shown by isogloss, which in this case is an additional sign that introduces new information not provided for by the name. However, the isogloss can also be used as the main sign corresponding to the theme of the map (see maps,). Sometimes you can see “voids” on the map, that is, territories not filled with signs. Thus, on the maps , , , special symbols (see legends) show various dialect phenomena, and emptiness - unshaded space - means the absence of a mappable feature in the dialects.

Maps accompany texts - comments. They tell about dialect features, their history, the origin of individual words or forms, and explain the necessary linguistic terms. And in the explanations for the vocabulary cards, attention is paid not only to linguistic features, but also to the peculiarities of life and culture of the village, to ethnography.

At the end of the comments there are tasks for those who are interested in what they read and want to test themselves. In the atlas, the authors sought to give examples of genuine dialect speech, while dialect features are conveyed in three ways: orthographically (for example, karo va, I'm running, Dirivensky), with transcription elements (for example, O[m:] yang(deception), [ts’] and shka(cup) or in transcription (for example, [d'in'o k] (day). Often dialect examples are taken from regional dictionaries, folklore, and fiction.

Russian writers, classics and contemporaries, who know the village and its language well, use elements of local speech in their works - dialectisms, which are introduced into the literary text to characterize the speech of characters, describe the features of local nature, and village life. By reading the examples from the comments, you will see this for yourself.

The school atlas consists of only 25 maps, although there are a great many linguistic features in the dialects. When selecting maps for this publication, the authors chose primarily those that most clearly demonstrate:

1. The importance of phenomena in the system of dialect differences in the Russian language.
2. Visibility of the linguistic landscape, i.e. the existence of clear areas of phenomena.
3. Dialectal features that are frequently encountered and recognizable in speech.
4. Dialectal differences that are essential for understanding traditional peasant culture (this relates to vocabulary).

The atlas includes maps of various language levels - vocabulary, phonetics, grammar.
There are slightly more lexical maps in the atlas than others, for obvious reasons: they are easier for a linguistically inexperienced reader to understand, but, most importantly, because it is the vocabulary that introduces us to the traditional culture of the village, the way of life and the mentality of the peasant.

Dialectology is closely connected with history, archeology, ethnography, since it is inseparable from the life of the people. Each historical period is a tribal era, the era of the ancient Russian principalities of the 12th century, the time of the rise of the Moscow principality in the 15th century. etc. - left its mark in modern Russian dialects. You all know that in the Middle Ages in the East Slavic lands (to Eastern Slavs include Belarusians, Russians and Ukrainians) there was repeated redistribution of territories between feudal principalities. It turns out that on some maps you can see the boundaries of linguistic phenomena that are correlated with ancient political boundaries, for example, the Novgorod Republic.

In modern dialects, archaic phenomena are sometimes preserved, reflecting the dialectal features of the Proto-Slavic language - the ancestor of all Slavic languages, as well as the features of the East Slavic tribal dialects: Krivichi, Vyatichi, Slovenian, etc.

So, each of the dialects is generated by the history of the people, and in this sense they are all equal. And the modern Russian literary language also has a dialect basis - the dialects of Moscow and the villages surrounding Moscow.

Sources of the School Dialectological Atlas. The atlas “Language of the Russian Village” is compiled on the basis of DARY - “Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language (Center of the European Part of the USSR)” - a large scientific work, created at the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now the Russian Academy of Sciences). Materials for this unique publication were collected in 1946–1966. By special program(it contains 294 questions) during numerous expeditions to villages in Central Russia. Here are examples of questions from the Program: “What vowel sound is pronounced in the 1st pre-stressed syllable in place of the letter O? Is there a sound being made? O or A, or a sound intermediate between a and s, aurally close to uh? – water, vada, issue..."; “What ending do nouns have in plural: a) in I. p.: Houses, houses; horns, horns, forests, forests or le sy; horses, horse; bolo ta, bolo you or swamps etc.; b) in R.p.: godot in, godo x or year, for eggs, hare in or for eggs etc."; “What do you call knitted, leather or fabric mittens with one finger: mittens, elm nki, de lnitsa, uncles, fur makers, golki…?».

Dialectologists, teachers and university students traveled to more than 4,500 villages and hamlets. The survey density is one settlement per 225 km 2 . This means that the villages where the recordings were made were approximately 15 km apart from each other. Many of these settlements no longer exist. Everywhere, linguists recorded the speech of residents of the older generation, mainly women, who are less likely to leave their homes in search of work, do not serve in the army, and therefore their speech better preserves the features of the traditional dialect.

From the outside it may seem that a dialectological expedition is an easy task that does not require special training. This is wrong. The work requires not only great professional knowledge, but also the ability to win over your interlocutor, arouse his sympathy and trust. In addition, a linguist must be able to listen and hear linguistic phenomena well. There are also subtle phonetic and pronunciation differences that an inexperienced collector may not notice.

Collecting materials is not without its oddities. In one of the questions of the Program it is required to find out the T. p. of a noun spoon. Students ask the old lady: “Grandma, what do you eat?” To which they receive an answer full of irony: “We eat the same way as you - with a poker.” Speakers of the dialect are often endowed not only with a sense of humor, but also with an amazing flair for language. They themselves hear and understand that their speech contains sounds that differ from the sounds of the literary language, and they give vivid examples. And the work of dialectologists is treated with understanding. Once in one of the Pskov villages we happened to hear: “Well, your work is difficult - you are merciless behind your words!”

The “Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language” does not represent the entire territory where the Russian population predominates and Russian speech is heard, but only the area of ​​early settlement of East Slavic tribes until the end of the 16th century. - the territory on which the language of the Russian nation was formed. These dialects are called in the dialects of primary education(See Diagram 1).

Scheme 1

The Arkhangelsk region, including the White Sea coast, was not included in either the DARYA or the School Atlas, although it was populated back in the 12th – 15th centuries. immigrants from the Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal lands. But in these places the settlement territory was not continuous, as in Central Russia: villages stood only along rivers and on the coast, and the rest of the space remained uninhabited, which means it was impossible to maintain accepted principle survey density (see above about this).

Our atlas covers only the territory of the Center of Russia. In areas beyond its borders, dialects of the so-called secondary education are common. Russian people moved to these lands, as a rule, later than the 16th century. from a wide variety of areas. Here the population mixed, dialects mixed, forming new variants of the local language. This was the case in the Middle and Lower Volga region, in the Urals, Kuban, Siberia and other regions. The talk of the Center is “motherly” for them. Therefore, the atlas is also of interest to those who live outside the territory covered by it. The atlas helps to determine the linguistic origins of secondary dialects.

Dialects are part of folk culture. By becoming familiar with dialects, we receive not just information about the names of everyday objects, the meanings of words, and concepts that are not typical of city life. Behind them are certain ways of farming, features of the family way of life, rituals, customs, folk calendar. Each dialect contains a large number of expressive, vivid verbal images and phraseological units that convey the unique perception and vision of life of a villager - a peasant. Thus, by studying dialects, we get acquainted with a whole complex of diverse folk ideas about the world, often differing in the ideas of the city dweller.

“The people have a well-known – and very respectable and high moral worldview..., which is included in their language and morals... This circle of vocabulary teaches and educates the people from childhood to old age,” the famous linguist and teacher V.I. Cher wrote about dialects -nyshev at the beginning of this century.

The dialectological atlas is also remarkable because, by looking at maps, you can find out how residents of different villages speak without going on a long journey.
The authors of the atlas really want their work to attract attention to Russian dialects, change the view of the dialect as an incorrect, corrupted language, and arouse interest and respect for the living Russian word.

The team of authors expresses deep gratitude to V. E. Goldin, who proposed the idea of ​​​​creating a School dialectological atlas; L. N. Bulatova, whose valuable critical comments were taken into account when working on the text; teachers and students of gymnasium schools No. 67 and 57 in Moscow, whose advice and recommendations helped at various stages of compiling the atlas; M. Volotskaya for drawings to the Atlas.

The authors will be grateful to everyone who sends their comments and feedback to [email protected] or 121019, Moscow, Volkhonka, 18/2. Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Department of Dialectology and Linguistic Geography).

Although the norms of the Russian literary language are the same everywhere, the speech of the intelligentsia, educated people, for example, in Vologda, Arkhangelsk, on the one hand, and in Voronezh, Orel, on the other, has its own characteristics, differing from the speech of Muscovites and St. Petersburg residents. It is clear why this is happening: the urban population has been and is being replenished by people from neighboring villages. This is how individual local words penetrate into urban speech; the phonetics of speech retains some dialectal features and intonation features.
In V.I. Dahl’s dictionary, literature, verbal sciences are sciences leading to the study of words, speech, correct and elegant language.

Ethnographic(from ethnography) - description of the life, morals and customs of the people (according to V. I. Dahl’s dictionary)

B
Babai- a scary old man who used to scare children.
tub, tub- a wide, low wooden bucket.
Shit, screw up- idle (initially: break a log into loaves, i.e. chocks, for making small products).
Balda (bolda)- fool, stupid; a lanky and clumsy fool; stupid, weak-minded; gossip, troublemaker.
Batog- a stick, a staff, a cane, whips that were used to punish.
Bahar- storyteller, talker, storyteller.
To swear- talk, tell.
Steelyard- manual scales.
Berdo- detail of the weaving mill, type of comb.
Bespyaty- from the word “heel” - the tire on which the door is hung.
Biryuk- an animal, a wolf or a bear.
Biryulya- a pipe, pipe, decoration or toy.
Good, or bologo(from the word “illness”) - good, much.
Dean- a priest who is entrusted with managing several churches, clergy, and parishes.
Blessed- happier, more prosperous.
Cooper- barrel maker.
Borushka- an ancient women's headdress.
Bortnik- a person engaged in forest beekeeping (from the word “board” - a hollow tree in which bees are found).
Hawkmoth(from the word “braga”) - a lover of revelry, feasting, reveler, drunkard.
Brasno- food, food, bread and salt, food.
Dragnet, or brodnik - a net, fishing tackle, a small seine.
Gully- a small ravine.
Beeches - old name letters B.
Burachok- box, small box, container.
Burka(from the fabulous Sivka-burka) - horse, horse.

IN
Vakula(yarosl.) - deceiver, rogue.
Lead- the ancient name of the letter V.
Bucket- good, clear weather.
Courtesy- respect, courtesy, courtesy.
Veliy- great, vast, large.
Vereya- a pole on which the gate is hung.
Verst- Russian measure of length equal to 1.06 km.
Verti- an expression of turning, turning, such as swing, knock, clink.
Turn- a hill, a dry place, a ridge between swamps.
Versha, or doggerel- fishing equipment made from rods.
Vershok- Russian measure of length equal to 4.4 cm.
Vekhotka- rags.
Party- evening gathering, meeting, feast.
Vespers- evening church service.
Spring- spring.
Heave up- raise.
Lord- the name of a bishop, bishop.
Volok- deep forest.
Volok- road through a large forest; a path on the watershed along which cargo and boats were transported.
Volokovy window- sliding window in chicken huts.
Parish- in Ancient Rus', a territory subordinated to one power, mainly princely; in pre-revolutionary Russia and the USSR before zoning in 1929-1930. lowest administrative-territorial unit.
Counter, counter- the one who objects argues.
Suck it(south, west) - insert a knot, screw in; impose.
fence off- highlight, eliminate, separate.
Vyazenitsy- what is knitted, knitting.

G
Worsted- a type of soft wool yarn; a type of cotton fabric that feels similar to wool.
Gashnik, or gachnik- belt, lace.
Perish- disappear, disappear, collapse, die.
Voice- voice, sound, noise.
Fast- for believers: fast and go to church, preparing for confession and communion.
Golik- a broom without leaves, used for cleaning wooden floors and benches.
Golitsa- leather mitten without lining.
Gol- poverty, poverty; The poor themselves were often called this way in the past.
Grat(southern) - sing, play musical instruments; (Eastern) - shout, make noise, have fun; croak.
Hryvnia- a monetary unit in Ancient Rus' (a silver or gold bar initially weighing about 400 g); silver or gold neck decoration in Ancient Rus'; ten kopeck coin.
Grosh- in the past, a copper coin worth two kopecks.
Pennies(southern) - money in general.
bed- crossbar.
Horn- an ancient musical instrument.
Barn floor- a fenced off place where compressed bread was stored in special buildings; cleared area for threshing, current.
Guna, or gunya- shabby, worn-out clothes, rags.
Guska(southern) - goose.

D
Giving- gift, alms.
Dvorka- jokes, wit.
Deja, or deck- a kneading bowl, a tub in which bread is kneaded.
Money- an old copper half-kopeck coin.
Money- in the past, a coin worth half a kopeck or two half-kopecks.
Get it- get, get, make, find, catch.
Dokuka- to pester, to pester, to annoy, to meddle with requests.
Domovina- coffin.
Dubets(northern) - rod, rod; stick, staff
Deacon- in Rus' in the XVI-XVII centuries. official in government agencies.
Deacon- clergy, assistant priest during worship and rituals.
Sexton

E
Hedgehog- food.
Yelan- a vast clearing in the forest; meadow or field plain.
Elen- deer.
Eliko- how much, how much.
Endova- large open container with a sock for drinking and spilling liquids.
Epancha, epancha- wide sleeveless raincoat, burka.
Yarmulka- a small round hat without a band made of soft material.

AND
Gland- shackles, shackles, chains.
Stomachs- yolks.
Zheravl, zheravl- crane.
Foal- piece, segment, particle.
Belly- living creatures, prosperity, wealth.
Zupan- an old half-caftan (among Ukrainians and Poles).
Crane, crane- leverage, overweight for lifting weights, water from a well.

Z
Wrapping- tether the shafts to the cart.
Entice- to lure, to invite.
Peaceful- stopped quarreling.
Zaplott- fence, wooden fence.
Potion- drug, medicine.
Zemshchina- in the old days: the civilian population, as well as the part of the state allocated by Ivan the Terrible to the boyars, mainly on the outskirts, in contrast to the oprichnina.
Zipun- antique outerwear made of rough homemade cloth.
Slanderer- slanderous, slanderous.
Sinister(northern, western) - difficult, troubled times; time of disaster, need, poverty, famine.
Spool- an old Russian measure of weight (about 4.26 g).
Zybka- cradle.

AND
Abbot- abbot, head of the monastery.
Iconostasis- a wall in a church covered with icons, separating the altar from the common room.
Enoch- monk.
Underside- bottom, below.

TO
Censer- a metal vessel for fumigation with incense during worship.
Kamenka- stove.
Damask- antique silk colored fabric with patterns.
Corporal - military rank junior command staff in the armies of some countries and in the Russian army from the XVII to the first half of the 19th century V.
Kvashnya- wooden or clay utensils for leavening dough; fermented dough, dough.
Cowl- headdress Orthodox monks in the form of a high cylindrical hat with a veil.
Koval- blacksmith.
Kokora- a tree with roots (fallen down by a hurricane, etc.).
Komolaya- hornless.
Bonfire- part of the plant unsuitable for yarn; the upper part of the plant with seeds.
Kochet- rooster.
Kroma- crust, outer slice, crust, slice of bread all over the rug.
Circled- rotating pottery wheel; drinking house, tavern.
Krupitchaty- made from white flour of the highest quality.
Ridge- log, log, large wooden beam.
Kubra(new) - naughty, joker, prankster.
Tow- flax fiber for yarn; yarn.
Kus- part of something, piece.
Kutya- porridge made from grain (usually rice) with honey and raisins, which is eaten at funerals.
crowd(northern, eastern) - persistently ask, beg, solicit.

L
Lavra- the name of the largest and most important male Orthodox monasteries in terms of their position.
Incense- an aromatic resin, in Christianity it is used for incense during worship.
Lala- humorous conversation, chatter, idle talk.
Leza- lively, dexterous, daring.
Goblin- By folk beliefs, owner of the forest, monster that lives in the forest.
Lodyga- bone bumps at the end of the tibia.
babble(Novg., Tver, Voronezh) - chat briskly, indistinctly; make noise, clap, splash.
Bast, bast- the subcortical layer of linden and some other trees, which goes to the bast, from which baskets are made, bast shoes are woven, etc.
Lutokha, Lutosha- a linden tree from which the bark has been removed.
Lyko- the inner part of the young bark deciduous trees(mostly linden).
Lytat- shirk the task, spend time idly.

M
Mantle(archang.). - cape, zipun, used outerwear.
Maslenitsa- an ancient holiday of farewell to winter.
Matica- a beam, a beam across the entire hut, on which the ceiling boards are laid.
Lambskin- sheepskin.
Bribe- reward or retribution, payment, retribution.
Mizgir- spider; (new) crybaby.
Mirskoe- general, human, human.
Metropolitan- the highest rank of bishop.
Can- power, strength, authority, prosperity, wealth.
Molock- “headed” bone.
Prayer service- a short service (about health, well-being, etc.).
Monasticism- possessions, property of the monastery; peasant work for the monastery.
Muzzle- fishing equipment.
Bridge- plank flooring; porch and large canopy in the hut.
Reel- a stick with a fork at one end for winding yarn from a spindle.
Motorly- vulgar, disgusting, disgusting, cloying.
Purse- purse, bag, money pouch.
Whorl- a specially cut stick that is used to mix liquid.
Myalitsa- a device for processing flax.
Meat eater- days on which, in accordance with church regulations, it was allowed to eat meat.

N
Navetki- hints, indirect accusation.
Navolok- floodplain, meadow, carried with sediment during a flood; cape, peninsula.
Shins- a type of peasant stockings without socks and heels.
Namichka- from the word “to cover”, to cover something tightly.
Lapse- attacks, abuse.
Be named- make a promise, vow.
Nast- platform, flooring.
Suspicious- gloomy, gloomy, gloomy.
leak- run, run (with legs).
Praise- give preference, praise.
Heavens, heavens- beggar, wretched.
Untrue words- vain, lie.
Inadvertently- unintentionally, accidentally, accidentally.
No- outdated form of the word "no".
Bat- a large bat.
Nikoli- outdated form of the word "never".
Need- poverty, extreme, lack, need.

ABOUT
Mass- the main church service for Christians, performed in the morning or in the first half of the day.
Daily life- household or handicraft, commercial farming.
Obmezh- strip along the boundary.
Rim- a fence around arable land or, in general, a fenced area.
Dust- to obtain, to acquire.
Barn- a building for drying sheaves before threshing.
Single row- long-sleeved single-breasted caftan without a collar.
Odonye- stack.
Okolnitsa- window.
Onucha- winding for the foot under a boot or bast shoe; footcloth.
Opara- fermented dough seasoned with yeast or leaven.
Supports- worn out, worn out boots.
Quit, or rest- sleep, fall asleep.
Yell- plow.
Osek- fence, outskirts.
Osmetok- cast-offs.
Sow thistle- large weedy prickly grass.
Ostozhye- a fence around a haystack; bedding under the haystack.
Otvoloka- action from the verb “to drag away”; pull away, chop off, nail, drag away.
Otvolochka, otovolochka- line, bracket, surface planer.
Ohul- vices, shortcomings, abuse.
Ochep- advantage; a log or pole placed by a lever.

P
Peahen- female peacock; a woman with a proud posture and a smooth gait.
Parsnip- a garden and wild plant used for food and livestock feed.
Shepherd- shepherd, priest.
Pace- more, the more, especially, better.
Piebald- about the color of animals, most often about a horse: motley, spotted, with light spots on a dark background or vice versa.
Perezh- forward, ahead.
pestle- a short heavy rod with a rounded end for pounding something in a mortar.
Pet- rooster.
Pishchal- antique firearms.
Pishchal- an old cannon or heavy gun.
Film(from the word “weave”) - a snare, a loop made of horsehair for catching birds.
Underwater- diluted, diluted with water.
Povoy- action from the verb “to twist”; Russian head women's dress, bandage, veil.
Pogost- rural cemetery.
Gut (hum)- a joke, a joke.
Clerk- in the old days: minister, scribe in court.
Pozhnya- stubble, meadow.
Posument- braid, usually embroidered with gold or silver.
Nasty- crooked, bent.
Polati- a flooring made of boards for sleeping, located in the hut under the ceiling between the stove and the wall opposite it.
Polushka- in the past the smallest coin, equal to half a money or a quarter of a penny.
Sexton- low clergyman Orthodox Church.
Ports- trousers.
Poskonny- from homespun canvas made from male hemp (with a thinner stem); home-grown, rough.
Fimble- hemp.
Fast- abstinence from fast food (meat and dairy) prescribed by church rules; Lent- a seven-week fast established by the church before Easter.
Promise(archang.) - promise, vow.
Indulgent- one who indulges another in something.
Poyarkovy- woolen, made from bright wool, the first shearing of a sheep.
Pribaska- a catchphrase, decoration in speech, wit.
Orderly- in pre-revolutionary Russia, a scribe, a clerical servant, generally serving in an order, in a court, a chamber, an office.
Prikalitok- gate, door in the gate.
Priluka- bait, groundbait.
Pleasure- saying.
Inflow- river branch.
Parable- proverb.
Prorukha- mistake, mistake, oversight, slow-wittedness.
Pryazhenitsy- flatbreads baked in butter.
spinning spinner- a device for spinning without a spindle.
Spinning- part of the fence from stake to stake, from pillar to post.
Psalm, psalm- a type of religious chant.
Birdie- bird.
Pud- an old Russian unit of weight equal to 16.3 kg.
Pyhtel, fir, pekhter- large basket.
Pyaden- span, a measure of length equal to 1/4 arshin or 0.178 m.

R
Waste- scatter, lose.
Rattay- warrior, warrior.
Rvina- ditch, ditch, pit, ravine.
Recruit- in pre-revolutionary Russia, a recruit soldier.
Rel- two pillars with a crossbar, a gallows.
Riga- a shed for drying sheaves and threshing.
Rozno- separately, apart.
Ore- blood.
Rushalka(tamb.) - grain grinder, a device for making cereal from grain.
Cassock- long outer clothing at the waist with wide sleeves for the Orthodox clergy.

WITH
Sabina- property, wealth.
Shroud- funeral attire for the deceased made of white fabric.
Fathom- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to 2.134 m; oblique fathom - from the heel to the end of the raised arm (“in the shoulders - oblique fathom”, i.e. very strong, broad-shouldered).
Morocco- high quality tanned goat leather.
Svetets- stand for the torch.
Bend- a pie, usually bent and folded in half.
Sklyanytsia- glass vessel, bottle.
Skoben- a knife with two transverse handles at the ends for rough planing.
Buffoon- in Ancient Rus': singer-musician, wandering artist.
Smerd- in Ancient Rus': peasant, farmer.
Wear- to perform, to help, to promote.
Sopets- the steering wheel is usually the helm.
He's messing around- to be ashamed.
Take off your clothes(Pskov, Tambov) - hope, hope, wait.
Stavets- a common wooden bowl.
Mill- loom.
Elder- monk, hermit.
oxbow- nun, hermit.
Become- do something for yourself, become.
stem- black or handle, handle.
Vessel- vessel, vessel, dishes, household utensils.
adversary- enemy, robber.
Antimony, antimony- metal, hair dye.
Surna- part of the head, face; (Persian) musical trumpet.
Antimony- dye for blackening hair.
Sousek- bin
Suslon- sheaves gathered together on the field.
Schima- the highest monastic degree in the Orthodox Church, requiring strict asceticism from those initiated into it.

T
Talan- luck, profit, fate, happiness.
Taran- a small fish, a type of roach.
Tat- thief, predator.
Tenet- a net for catching animals.
Pip- bird disease, cartilaginous growth on the tip of the tongue.
Tlen- rot, ashes, dust.
Toldy(bonfire, Vladimir, Vyatsk) - then.
Toliko- so, so much.
Turish, tarnished- generous, friendly, efficient.
Interpret- handle, get around.
Refectory- dining room, hall (in the monastery, etc.).
Trashed(thumb.) - frightened.
Treba- among believers: a liturgical ceremony performed at the request of the believers themselves (for example, christening, marriage, etc.).
Breviary- a book with prayers for needs.
Shaking- chills, fever.
Tuga- grief, sadness.
Turusa- fable, nonsense, chatter.
Vanity- diligent, diligent, generous.
Prison- the simplest food: bread or crackers, crusts crumbled into salted water; bread okroshka made with kvass, sometimes with onions.

U
Poor- poor, needy, beggar.
Ulogy- poor, cripple,
Umezhek- strip along the boundary.
Pack- to please, to adapt.
Hope- hope firmly, wait with confidence, rely.
Ducks- transverse threads of fabric intertwined with longitudinal threads (warp) when weaving.
Tired, fragile- frail, weak, thin.
Quirky- gone, fled.

F
Firth- a smug, cheeky and usually dapper person.

X
Haika(from the word “to find fault”) - to condemn, condemn.
Slurp- take a sip.
Clap, slave- a serf, a serf.
Trunk(new) - detour, outskirts, circuitous path.
Lack, lackey- servant, lackey, serf; (Vyatsk) litter, sediment from a spill.
Do you want(tamb., Pskov) - at least, although.
Crunch - crunch, crackle, knock.
Hula(from the word “blaspheme”) - disapprove, condemn.
Khusta- a scarf, a piece of canvas.

C
Shank- a bobbin for weaving lace, a part put on a spindle.
Tselba, Tselba- wish.
Whole - virgin soil, unplowed field.
Flail- a hand tool for threshing.
Tsunak- dog.

H
Child- child, child, son, daughter; spiritual son or daughter.
Chalok, chalik- raw twig used for mating.
Anticipate- think, believe, conclude.
Chebotar- shoemaker.
Chernets- monk.
Chernitsa- nun.
Chivy- generous, gifted.
Chirki, kiriki- shoes.
Sneeze, hellebore- a perennial herbaceous plant of the lily family.
Chumichka- dirty, unkempt.
Chumichka, chumik- ladle, ladle or large spoon.

Sh
Shabura- summer men's clothing like a robe.
Shanga- a type of cheesecake, flatbread (with potatoes, cottage cheese, etc.).
Shvets- tailor.
Shebala- talker, idle talker.
Sheleg, shelyag- an unused coin, a plaque in games.
Shelom- helmet.
Shemakha (silk)- eastern, from Shamakhi.
Six- a platform in front of the mouth of the Russian stove.
Make some noise- interpret noisily, shout.
Brother-in-law- brother-in-law.

SCH
Schaplivy- smart, smart.
Wood chips- chipped (wooden) dishes.
Tickle- reproach, reproach.
Shield, shield- to defend, to protect.

I
Eating- food, food, food, grub.
Yadren(from the word “vigorous”) - large, good, large.
Ishka, Ishka- a drunkard, a swindler, a dissolute person.
Yatisya, Yatisya- take, take, boast.
Yakhont- the ancient name for precious stones - ruby ​​and sapphire.