Most modern people The name of Julius Caesar is familiar. It is mentioned as the name for a salad, one of the months of summer, and in movies and television. How did this conquer people so that they remember who Caesar was, even two thousand years after his death?

Origin

The future commander, politician, and writer was from the patrician Yuli family. At one time, this family played a significant role in the life of Rome. Like any ancient family, they had their own mythical version of origin. The line of their surname led to the goddess Venus.

Guy's mother was Aurelia Cotta, who came from a family of wealthy plebeians. From the name it is clear that her family was named Aurelius. The father was the eldest. He belonged to the patricians.

Intense debate continues regarding the year of the dictator's birth. Most often referred to as 100 or 101 BC. There is also no consensus on the number. As a rule, three versions are called: March 17, July 12, July 13.

To understand who Caesar is, one should look at his childhood. He grew up in a Roman area that had a rather bad reputation. He studied at home, mastering the Greek language, literature, and rhetoric. Knowledge of Greek allowed him to receive further education, since most scientific works were written in it. One of his teachers was the famous rhetorician Gniphon, who once taught Cicero.

Presumably in 85 BC. Guy had to lead the Yuli family due to the unexpected death of his father.

Personality: appearance, character, habits

Quite a lot of descriptions have been left about the appearance of Guy Julius; many sculptural portraits have been made of him, including those during his lifetime. Caesar, whose photo (reconstruction) is presented above, was, according to Suetonius, tall, with fair skin. He was well built and had dark, lively eyes.

The politician and military leader took care of himself quite carefully. He cut his nails, shaved, plucked his hair. Having a bald spot on the front of his head, he hid it in every possible way, combing his hair from the crown of his head to his forehead. According to Plutarch, Caesar's physique was very frail.

Ancient authors are unanimous that the dictator had energy. He responded quickly to changing circumstances. According to Pliny the Elder, he communicated with many people through correspondence. If desired, the dictator could simultaneously read and dictate letters to several secretaries to different addressees. At the same time, he could write something himself at that moment.

Gaius Julius practically did not drink wine and was very unpretentious in food. At the same time, he brought from his military campaigns elements of luxury, such as expensive dishes. He bought paintings, statues, beautiful slaves.

Family and personal life

Julius Caesar, whose biography is being considered, was officially married three times. Although there is also information that before these marriages he was engaged to Cossucia. His wives were:

• Cornelia is from the consul's family.
• Pompeia is the granddaughter of the dictator Sulla.
• Calpurnia is a representative of a wealthy plebeian family.

Cornelia and the commander had a daughter, whom he married to his comrade-in-arms Gnaeus Pompey. As for his relationship with Cleopatra, it took place while Gaius Julius was in Egypt. After this, Cleopatra gave birth to a child, to whom the Alexandrians gave the name Caesarion. However, Julius Caesar did not recognize him as his son and did not include him in his will.

Military and political activities

The beginning of his career was the position of Flamin of Jupiter, which Guy took in the 80s BC. To do this, he broke the engagement and married the daughter of Cornelius Cinna, who nominated him to this honorable position. But everything quickly changed when the government changed in Rome, and Guy had to leave the city.

Many examples from his life allow us to understand who Caesar is. One of them is when he was captured by pirates demanding a ransom. The politician was ransomed, but immediately after that he organized the capture of his kidnappers and executed them by crucifying them.

Who was Julius Caesar in Ancient Rome? He held the following positions:

• pontiff;
• military tribune;
• Quaestor for financial matters in Further Spain;
• caretaker of the Appian Way, which he repaired at his own expense;
• curule aedile - was involved in organizing urban construction, trade, and ceremonial events;
• head of the permanent criminal court;
• Pontifex Maximus for life;
• Governor of Further Spain.

All of these positions required large expenses. He took funds from his creditors, who provided them with understanding.

First triumvirate

After a successful governorship in Farther Spain, the politician was awaiting Triumph in Rome. However, he refused such honors for reasons career growth. The fact is that the time had come (due to age) when he could be elected consul to the Senate. But this required personally registering your candidacy. At the same time, a person awaiting Triumph should not appear in the city ahead of time. He had to make a choice in favor of a further career, refusing the honors due to the winner.

After studying who Caesar was, it becomes clear that his ambition was more flattered by taking a seat in the Senate in the first year when it was permissible by law. At that time it was considered very honorable.

As a result of long political combinations, the politician reconciled his two comrades-in-arms, resulting in the first triumvirate. The expression means "the union of three husbands." The year of its creation is not known for certain, since this union was secret. Historians suggest that this happened in 59 or 60 BC. It included Caesar, Pompey, Crassus. As a result of all actions, Gaius Julius managed to become consul.

Participation in the Gallic War

With his triumvirate, Julius Caesar, whose biography is presented in the article, began to disappoint the citizens of Rome. However, due to his departure to the province, all discontent was to fall on Gnaeus Pompey.

At this time, the province of Narbonese Gaul was formed on the territory of present-day France. Caesar arrived in Genava, where Geneva is now located, to negotiate with the leaders of one of the Celtic tribes. Under the onslaught of the Germans, these tribes began to settle in the territory of Guy and had to fight for the lands of the province with the Gauls and Germans. At the same time, he conducted an expedition to Britain.

After a series of victories, Caesar succeeded by 50 BC. subjugate all of Gaul to Rome. At the same time, he did not forget to follow the events in the Eternal City. Sometimes he even intervened in them through his proxies.

Establishment of dictatorship

Returning to Rome, the commander came into conflict with Gnaeus Pompey. In 49-45 BC. this led to the Civil War. Guy Caesar had many supporters throughout Italy. He attracted a significant part of the army to his side and headed to Rome. Pompey was forced to flee to Greece. The war unfolded throughout the republic. The commander and his legions alternated victories and defeats. The decisive battle was the Battle of Pharsalus, which was won by Caesar.

Gney had to flee again. This time he headed to Egypt. Julius followed him. None of the opponents expected that Pompey would be killed in Egypt. Here Gaius Julius was forced to linger. At first the reason was that the wind was unfavorable for the ships, and then the commander decided to improve his financial situation at the expense of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Thus, he became involved in the struggle for the throne between Ptolemy the Thirteenth and Cleopatra.

He spent several months in Egypt, after which he continued his campaign to restore the territory of Rome, which began to fall apart due to the Civil War.

Caesar became dictator three times:

1. In 49 BC, for a period of 11 days, after which he resigned.
2. In 48 BC, for a period of one year, after which he continued to rule as proconsul and later consul.
3. In 46 BC. became dictator without formal justification for a period of 10 years.

All his power rested on the army, so the election of Caesar to all subsequent positions was a formality.

During his reign, Gaius Julius Caesar (photo of the sculpture can be seen above) together with his associates carried out many reforms. However, it is quite difficult to determine which of them relate directly to the time of his reign. The most famous is the reform of the Roman calendar. Citizens had to switch to the solar calendar, which was developed by the scientist from Alexandria Sosingen. So, from 45 BC. appeared today known to everyone

Death and will

Now it is clear who Julius Caesar is, whose biography ended rather tragically. In 44 BC. a conspiracy was formed against his autocracy. The dictator's opponents and supporters were afraid that he would call himself king. One of the groups was led by Marcus Junius Brutus.

At a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators realized the plan to destroy Caesar. 23 were found on his body after the murder. The citizens of Rome burned his body in the Forum.

Gaius Julius made his nephew Gaius Octavian his successor (by adopting him), who received three-quarters of the inheritance and became known as Gaius Julius Caesar.

During his reign, he pursued a policy of sacralization and clan. Apparently, the success of his actions to popularize himself exceeded his expectations. Perhaps that's why in modern world Guy Julius Caesar is known to both schoolchildren and representatives of the art world.

Gaius Julius Caesar had many talents, but he remained in history thanks to the main one, his ability to please people. Origin played a significant role in Caesar's success - the Julian family, according to biographical sources, was one of the most ancient in Rome. Julia traced her ancestry back to the legendary Aeneas (son of the goddess Venus), who fled from Troy and founded the dynasty of Roman kings. Caesar was born in 102 BC, at that time his aunt's husband Gaius Mari defeated an army of thousands of Germans on the Italian border. His father, whose name was also Gaius Julius Caesar, did not achieve heights in his career. He was proconsul of Asia. But Caesar the Younger’s relationship with Marius opened up a brilliant future for the young man.

At the age of 16, young Caesar marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, Marius's closest ally. Around 83 BC. they had a daughter, Julia, Caesar’s only legitimate child, although he already had illegitimate children in his youth. Often leaving his wife alone, Caesar wandered around the taverns in the company of his drinking buddies. He differed from his peers only in that he loved to read - Caesar read all the books in Latin and Greek that he could find, and more than once amazed his interlocutors with his knowledge in a wide variety of fields.

Being an admirer of the ancient sages, he did not believe in the constancy of his life, peaceful and prosperous. And he was right - when Mari died, a civil war began in Rome. The leader of the aristocratic party, Sulla, took power into his own hands and began repressions against the Marians. Guy, who refused to divorce Cinna's daughter, was deprived of his property, and he himself was forced to go into hiding. “Look for the wolf cub, there are a hundred Maries sitting in it!” - the dictator demanded. However, in the meantime Guy had already gone to Asia Minor, to friends of his recently deceased father.

Not far from Miletus, his ship was captured by pirates. The smartly dressed young man interested them, and they demanded a large ransom for him - 20 talents of silver. “You value me inexpensively!” - answered the descendant of Venus and offered 50 talents for himself. Having sent his servant to collect the ransom, he was “guest” with the pirates for two months.

Julius Caesar behaved quite defiantly with the pirates - he forbade them to sit in his presence, called them boors and threatened to crucify them on the cross. Having finally received the money, the pirates were relieved to let the impudent man go. Guy immediately went to the Roman military authorities, equipped several ships and overtook his captors in the same place where he was captured. Having taken their money, he actually crucified the pirates - however, those who were more sympathetic to him, he first ordered to be strangled.

Sulla, meanwhile, died, but his party supporters retained power, and Julius Caesar was in no hurry to return to the capital. He spent a year in Rhodes, studying eloquence - the ability to speak was necessary for the politician he firmly decided to become.

From the school of Apollonius Molon, where Cicero himself studied, Caesar emerged as a brilliant orator, ready to conquer Rome. He gave his first speech in 68 BC. at the funeral of his aunt, the widow Maria, he passionately praised the disgraced commander and his reforms, thereby causing a stir among the Sullans. Interesting fact that at the funeral of his wife, who died during an unsuccessful birth a year earlier, he did not utter a word.

A speech in defense of Marius became the beginning of his election campaign - Julius Caesar put forward his candidacy for the post of quaestor. Such an insignificant post provided the opportunity to become a praetor, and then a consul - the highest representative of power in the Roman Republic. Having borrowed from whomever he could a huge sum, 1000 talents, the descendant of Venus spent it on magnificent feasts and gifts to those on whom his election depended. At that time, two generals, Pompey and Crassus, were fighting for power in Rome, to whom Guy alternately offered his support.

This brought him the position of quaestor, and then aedile, the official in charge of the festivities in Rome. Unlike other politicians, he generously gave the people not bread, but entertainment - either gladiator fights, or music competitions, or an anniversary long ago. forgotten victory. Ordinary Romans were delighted with him. He earned the sympathy of the educated Roman stratum of society by creating a public museum on Capitol Hill, where he exhibited his rich collection of Greek statues. As a result, he was chosen for the position of supreme pontiff, that is, priest.

Believing in nothing but my luck. Julius Caesar had difficulty maintaining seriousness during lavish religious ceremonies. However, the position of pontiff made him inviolable. This saved his life when the Catalina conspiracy was discovered in 62. The conspirators gathered to offer Guy the post of dictator. They were executed, but Caesar survived.

In the same 62 BC. he becomes praetor, but got into such debt that he was forced to leave the Eternal City and go to Spain as governor. There he quickly made a fortune, bringing rebellious cities to ruin. He generously shared the surplus with his soldiers, saying: “Power is strengthened by two things - troops and money, and one is unthinkable without the other.” The grateful soldiers declared him emperor - this ancient title was given as a reward for a major victory, although the governor did not win a single such victory.

After this, Guy was elected consul, but this position was too small for him. The days of the republican system were coming to an end, things were moving toward autocracy, and Julius Caesar was determined to become the true ruler of Rome. To do this, he had to enter into an alliance with Pompey and Crassus, whom he did not manage to reconcile for long.

60 BC — a triumvirate of new allies seized power. To consolidate the alliance, Caesar gave his daughter Julia to Pompey, and he himself married his niece. Moreover, rumor attributed to him a relationship with the wives of Crassus and Pompey. And, according to rumors, he did not ignore other Roman matrons. The soldiers sang a song about him: “Hide your wives - we are leading a bald libertine into the city!”

He actually went bald at an early age, was embarrassed about it, and obtained permission from the Senate to wear the triumphant laurel wreath on his head all the time. Baldness, according to Suetonius, was the only flaw in the biography of Julius Caesar. He was tall, well built, his skin was fair, his eyes were black and lively. He knew moderation when it came to food, and he also drank quite little for a Roman; even his enemy Cato said that “Caesar was the only one who carried out a coup d’etat while sober.”

He also had another nickname - “the husband of all wives and the wife of all husbands.” There were rumors that in Asia Minor the young Caesar had a relationship with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes. Well, the morals in ancient Rome were such that this could well be true. In any case, Guy never tried to silence the scoffers, professing the completely modern principle of “no matter what they say, as long as they say it.” As a rule, they said good things - at his new post, as before, he generously supplied the Roman mob with spectacles, to which he now added bread. People's love was not cheap, the consul again fell into debt and, in irritation, called himself “the poorest of citizens.”

He breathed a sigh of relief when, after a year as consul, he had to resign, according to Roman customs. Caesar got the Senate to send him to rule Schlia - present-day France. The Romans owned only a small part of this rich country. In 8 years, Julius Caesar was able to conquer all of Scotland. But, oddly enough, many Gauls loved him - having learned their language, he curiously asked about their religion and customs.

Today, his “Notes on the Gallic War” is not only the main source of biography about the Gauls, who went into oblivion not without the help of Caesar, but one of the first historical examples of political PR. The descendant of Venus showed off in them. that they stormed 800 cities, exterminated a million enemies, and enslaved another million, giving their lands to Roman veterans. Veterans spoke with gratitude on all corners that during the campaigns Julius Caesar walked next to them, encouraging those lagging behind. He rode his horse like a natural rider. He spent the night in a cart under the open sky, only taking shelter under a canopy when it rained. At a halt, he dictated two or even three letters to several secretaries on various topics.

Caesar's correspondence was so lively in those days due to the fact that after the death of Crassus in the Persian campaign, the triumvirate came to an end. Pompey increasingly did not trust Caesar, who already surpassed him in both fame and wealth. At his insistence, the Senate recalled Julius Caesar from Gillia and ordered him to report to the Eternal City, leaving the army on the border.

The decisive moment has arrived. At the beginning of 49 BC. Caesar approached the border river Rubicon north of Rimini and ordered 5,000 of his soldiers to cross it and advance to Rome. They say that at the same time he uttered Once again historical phrase - “the die is cast.” In fact, the die was cast much earlier, even when the young Caesar was mastering the intricacies of politics.

Already in those days, he realized that power is given into the hands only of those who can sacrifice everything else for it - friendship, family, a sense of gratitude. Pompey's former son-in-law, who helped him a lot at the beginning of his career, now became his main enemy and, not having time to gather his strength, fled to Greece. Caesar and his army set off after him and, without allowing him to come to his senses, defeated his army at Pharsalus. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where local dignitaries killed him, deciding to earn the favor of Julius Caesar.

This outcome was quite beneficial for Tom, especially since it gave him a reason to send an army against the Egyptians, accusing them of murdering a Roman citizen. Having demanded a huge ransom for this, he wanted to pay off the army, but everything turned out differently. Young Cleopatra, the sister of the ruling king Ptolemy XTV, who came to the commander, suddenly offered herself to him - and along with her, her kingdom.

Before going to Gaul, Guy married for the third time - to the rich heiress Calpurnia, but did not have feelings for her. He fell in love with Cleopatra as if she had bewitched him. But over time, she also experienced a real feeling for the aging Caesar. Later, the conqueror of the world, under a hail of reproaches, received Cleopatra in the Eternal City, and she listened to even worse reproaches for going to him, the first of the Egyptian rulers to leave the sacred Nile Valley.

In the meantime, the lovers found themselves besieged by the rebel Egyptians in the harbor of Alexandria. To save themselves, the Romans set the city on fire. destroying the famous Library of Alexandria. They were able to hold out until reinforcements arrived, and the uprising was crushed. On the way home, Julius Caesar casually defeated the army of the Pontic king Pharnaces, reporting this to Rome famous phrase: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

He had the opportunity to fight two more times with Pompey’s followers - in Africa and Spain. Only in 45 BC. he returned to Rome, ruined civil wars, and he was declared dictator for life. Julius Caesar himself preferred to call himself emperor - this emphasized his connection with the army and military victories.

Having achieved the desired power, the descendant of Venus managed to do three important things. First, he reformed the Roman calendar, which the sarcastic Greeks called “the worst in the world.” With the help of Egyptian astronomers sent by Cleopatra, he divided the year into 12 months and ordered an extra leap day to be added to it every 4 years. The new Julian calendar turned out to be the most accurate of the existing ones and lasted one and a half thousand years, and the Russian Church uses it to this day. Second, he granted amnesty to all his political opponents. Third, he began to mint gold coins, on which, instead of gods, Caesar himself was depicted in a laurel wreath. After Caesar, they began to officially call him the Son of God.

From this there was only one step left to the royal title. Flatterers had long offered him the crown, and the Egyptian queen had just given birth to his son Caesarion, who could be his heir. It seemed tempting to Caesar to found a new dynasty, uniting the two great powers. But when his closest ally Mark Antony publicly wanted to put a golden royal crown on him, Caesar pushed him away. Maybe he decided that the time had not yet come, maybe he didn’t want to turn from the only emperor in the world into an ordinary king, of which there were many around.

The little that was done is easily explained - Julius Caesar ruled Rome peacefully for less than two years. That he was remembered for centuries as a great statesman is another manifestation of his charisma, which influenced his descendants as strongly as his contemporaries. They planned new transformations, but the treasury of Rome was empty. To replenish it. Caesar decided to set out on a new military campaign that promised to make him the greatest conqueror in history. He wanted to destroy the Persian kingdom and then return to the Eternal City by the northern route, conquering the Armenians, Scythians and Germans.

Leaving Rome, he had to leave reliable people “on the farm” in order to avoid a possible rebellion. Gaius Julius Caesar had three such people: his devoted comrade-in-arms Mark Antony, his adopted Gaius Octavian, and the son of his longtime mistress Servilia Mark Brutus. Antony attracted the emperor with the decisiveness of a warrior, Octavian with the cold prudence of a politician. It is more difficult to understand what could connect Caesar with the already middle-aged Brutus, a boring pedant, an ardent supporter of the republic. And yet Caesar promoted him in power, publicly calling him his “dear son.” Perhaps, with the sober mind of a politician, he understood that someone must remind him of the republican virtues, without which the Eternal City would rot and perish. At the same time, Brutus could try on his two comrades, who clearly did not like each other.

The Emperor, who knew everything and everyone, did not know - or did not want to know or believe - that his “son”, along with other Republicans, was plotting against him. Caesar was informed about this more than once, but he brushed it off, saying: “If this is so, then it is better to die once than to constantly live in fear.” The assassination attempt was scheduled for the Ides of March - the 15th day of the month, when Guy was supposed to appear in the Senate. Detailed story Suetonius's account of this event creates the impression of a tragic action, in which the emperor, as if to perfection, played the role of a victim, a martyr of the monarchical idea. Outside the Senate building, a warning note was handed to him, but he shrugged it off.

One of the conspirators, Decimus Brutus, distracted the burly Anthony at the entrance so as not to interfere. Tillius Cymbrus grabbed Julius Caesar by the toga - this was a signal to the others - and Servilius Casca struck him first. Then the blows rained down one after another - each of the killers tried to make their contribution, and in the melee they even wounded each other. Afterwards, the conspirators parted, and Brutus approached the barely alive emperor, leaning against a column. The “Son” silently raised the dagger, and the struck descendant of Venus fell dead, having managed to utter the last historical phrase: “And you, Brutus!”

As soon as this happened, the horror-stricken senators, who became unwitting spectators of the murder, rushed to run. The killers also fled, throwing away their bloody daggers. The corpse of Julius Caesar lay for a long time in an empty building, until the faithful Calpurnia sent slaves to retrieve it. The emperor's body was burned in the Roman Forum, where the temple of the divine Julius was subsequently erected. The month of the quintiles was renamed July (Iulius) in his honor.

The conspirators hoped that the Romans would be faithful to the spirit of the republic, but the firm power established by the dictator seemed more attractive than republican chaos. Pretty soon, the townspeople rushed to look for Caesar's killers and put them to brutal death. Suetonius ends his story about the biography of Gaius Julia with the words: “None of his murderers lived after this for more than 3 years. They all died in different ways, and Brutus and Cassius killed themselves with the same dagger with which they killed Caesar.”

V.Erlikhman

­ Brief biography of Gaius Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar - the great ancient Roman commander, statesman and political figure, reformer, writer and thinker, successor to the patrician Julius family. The name of this man long ago became the title of the Roman emperors. Many rulers after him were called “Caesars,” as if marking their great origin. The future commander was born presumably on July 12 (13) in 100 (102) BC. in Rome, in the family of the praetor and proconsul of Asia. Thanks to family connections, he had all the prerequisites for a brilliant career.

Since childhood, he received an excellent education, knew how to express himself competently and was physically well-built. In 84 BC. he was appointed priest of Jupiter, but two years later his position in society was complicated by the dictatorship of Sulla. Having left Rome for Asia Minor, he took part in several military campaigns and in the capture of sea robbers. Julius Caesar's first wife was Cornelia, but after returning to Rome he married a relative of Gnaeus Pompey, who became his ally for a time. In the post of aedile, which he was awarded in 66 BC. he was engaged in the improvement of the city.

Caesar soon became quite popular among the people and within a few years rose to the position of senator. The politician actively participated in palace intrigues to support the career of the chief consul. In 60 BC. On the eve of the elections, Caesar entered into a secret conspiracy with Pompey and Crassus, and a year later he took the post of consul. His co-ruler was Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. Again, in order to strengthen his career growth, he married his daughter to Pompey. The people were pleased with him, especially those who received land after the agrarian reform.

In subsequent years, he participated in the Gallic War, which was aimed at conquering new lands for Rome. After the death of Crassus, their secret triumvirate fell apart, and Pompey turned from an ally into a rival. A Civil War began in the country, as a result of which in 49 BC. Caesar became the sole dictator. Pompey with the consuls and the Senate were forced to leave the capital. For the sake of revenge on his now sworn enemy, the commander went to Egypt, where he found temporary refuge. Pompey was found and beheaded.

Caesar's relationship with Queen Cleopatra is attributed to the same period. Upon returning to Rome, he took part in the battle of Thapsus and celebrated his magnificent triumph. In his new field, he first of all introduced changes that were beneficial to him. At the same time, he carried out a reform of the calendar, named after him the Julian. From now on, his statues were erected in temples, he wore luxurious vestments, sat only on gilded chairs, autocratically appointed and dismissed officials, and behaved like a real dictator. Discontent with his policies was brewing among the masses.

Also, everyone did not like his connection with Cleopatra, who by that time already lived in Rome. Then the conspirators decided to kill him during the March Senate meeting. Gaius Julius Caesar was publicly assassinated in 44 BC. Among his killers was the young Marcus Junius Brutus, who, according to contemporaries, was his illegitimate son. Caesar's body was thrown at the foot of the statue of his archenemy Pompey.

Gaius Julius Caesar (lat. Gaius Iulius Caesar). Born July 12 or 13, 100 BC. e. - died March 15, 44 BC. e. Ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer. Consul of 59, 48, 46, 45 and 44 BC. e., dictator 49, 48-47 and 46-44 BC. e., Pontifex Maximus from 63 BC. e.

Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the ancient patrician Julian family.

In the V-IV centuries BC. e. Julia played a significant role in the life of Rome. Among the representatives of the family came, in particular, one dictator, one master of cavalry (deputy dictator) and one member of the college of decemvirs, who developed the laws of the Ten Tables - the original version of the famous laws of the Twelve Tables.

Like most families with an ancient history, the Julias had a common myth about their origins. They traced their lineage to the goddess Venus through Aeneas. The mythical version of the origin of the Julians was already well known by 200 BC. e., and Cato the Elder recorded a version about the etymology of the family name Yuliev. In his opinion, the first bearer of this name, Yul, received his nickname from the Greek word “ἴουλος” (fluff, the first hair on the cheeks and chin).

Almost all Julias in the V-IV centuries BC. e. wore the cognomen Yul, who was probably originally the only one in their family. The branch of the Julius Caesars most certainly descended from the Julius Iuli, although the links between them are unknown.

The first known Caesar was a praetor in 208 BC. e., mentioned by Titus Livy.

The etymology of the cognomen "Caesar" is not known with certainty and was forgotten already in the Roman era. Aelius Spartian, one of the authors of the lives of the Augustans, recorded four versions that existed by the 4th century AD. e.: “The most learned and educated people believe that the first one who was so named received this name from the name of the elephant (which in the language of the Moors is called caesai), which he killed in battle; [or] because he was born from a dead mother and was cut out from her womb; or because he came out of his mother’s womb with long hair; or because he had such brilliant gray-blue eyes, which do not exist in people".

Until now, the reliable etymology of the name is unclear, but more often the origin of cognomen is assumed to be from the Etruscan language (aisar - god; The Roman names Cesius, Caesonius and Caesennius have a similar origin).

By the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. Two branches of the Julius Caesars were known in Rome. They were closely related to each other, but not clearly established. Two branches were recorded in different tribes, and by the 80s BC. e. they also had a completely opposite political orientation, focusing on two warring politicians.

The future dictator's closest relatives were guided by Gaius Maria (Julia, Gaius's aunt, became his wife), and the Caesars from another branch supported Sulla. Moreover, the latter branch played a greater role in public life than the one to which Guy belonged. Guy's relatives on the side of his mother and grandmother could not boast of kinship with the gods, but they all belonged to the elite of Roman society - the nobility. Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta, belonged to the wealthy and influential plebeian family of the Aurelians. The relatives of Guy's grandmother, Marcia, traced their line back to the fourth Roman king, Ancus Marcius.

Caesar's date of birth remains a matter of debate among researchers. Sources' evidence on this issue varies. Indirect indications from most ancient authors allow us to date the birth of the dictator to 100 BC. BC, although Eutropius mentions that at the time of the Battle of Munda (March 17, 45 BC) he was 56 years old. In two important systematic sources about the life of the dictator - his biography of authorship and - the beginning of the text with stories about the circumstances of his birth has not been preserved.

The reason for the discrepancies in historiography was, however, the discrepancy between the timing of Caesar's master's degrees and the known practice: Caesar held all the master's degrees earlier than the normal sequence (cursus honorum) by about two years.

Because of this, Theodor Mommsen proposed to consider the date of birth of Caesar as 102 BC. e. Since the beginning of the 20th century, other options for solving the discrepancy began to be proposed. Guy's birthday is also causing debate - July 12 or 13. The fourth day before the Ides quintile (July 12) is mentioned by Macrobius in his Saturnalia. Dio Cassius, however, says that after the death of the dictator, the date of his birth was moved from July 13th to July 12th by a special decree of the second triumvirate. Thus, there is no consensus on the date of birth of Caesar. The year of his birth is most often recognized as 100 BC. e. (in France it is more often dated to 101 BC, as suggested by Jerome Carcopino). The dictator's birthday is equally often considered to be July 12 or 13.

The house where Caesar grew up was in the Subura area of ​​Rome., who had a reputation for trouble. As a child, he studied Greek, literature, and rhetoric at home. Practiced physical exercise, swimming, horse riding. Among the teachers of young Guy, the great rhetorician Gniphon is known, who was also one of Cicero’s teachers.

Around 85 BC. e. Caesar lost his father: according to Pliny the Elder, he died bending down to put on his shoes. After the death of his father, Caesar, who had undergone the initiation rite, actually headed the entire Julian family, since all his closest male relatives older than him had died. Soon Guy became engaged to Cossucia, a girl from rich family from the class of horsemen (according to another version, they managed to get married).

In the mid-80s BC. e. Cinna nominated Caesar to the honorary position of Flaminus of Jupiter. This priest was bound by many sacred restrictions that seriously limited the possibilities of pursuing master's degrees. To take office, he first needed to marry a girl from a patrician family according to the ancient rite of confarreatio, and Cinna offered his daughter to Guy Cornelia. Young Julius agreed, although he had to break off his engagement to Cossucia.

However, Caesar's accession to office is questioned. According to Lily Ross Taylor, the Pontifex Maximus Quintus Mucius Scaevola (the enemy of Marius and Cinna) refused to perform the inauguration ceremony for Guy. Ernst Badian, however, believes that Caesar was nevertheless inaugurated. As a rule, Caesar's appointment is considered in historiography as an insurmountable obstacle to his further political career. However, there is also an opposite point of view: occupying such an honorable position was a good opportunity to strengthen the authority of the ancient family for this branch of the Caesars, not all of whose representatives achieved the highest magistracy of consul.

Soon after his wedding to Cornelia, Cinna was killed by mutinous soldiers, and the following year a civil war began, in which Caesar probably did not participate. With the establishment of the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the beginning of proscriptions, Caesar’s life was in danger: the dictator did not spare political opponents and personal enemies, and Guy turned out to be the nephew of Guy Maria and the son-in-law of Cinna. Sulla demanded that Caesar divorce his wife, which was not a unique case of proof of loyalty, but he refused to do so.

In the end, Sulla added Caesar's name to the proscription list, and he was forced to leave Rome. Sources report that Caesar hid for a long time, distributing bribes to the Sullans who were looking for him, but these stories are implausible. In the meantime, Guy's influential relatives in Rome managed to obtain a pardon for Caesar. An additional circumstance that softened the dictator was Caesar’s origins from the patrician class, representatives of which the conservative Sulla never executed.

Soon Caesar left Italy and joined the retinue of Marcus Minucius Terma, governor of the province of Asia. The name of Caesar was well known in this province: about ten years ago his father was its governor. Guy became one of the contubernals of Terme - the children of senators and young horsemen who studied military affairs and provincial government under the supervision of the current magistrate.

First, Therm entrusted the young patrician with negotiations with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes IV. Caesar managed to convince the king to place part of his fleet at the disposal of Therma so that the governor could capture the city of Mytilene on Lesbos, which did not recognize the results of the First Mithridatic War and resisted the Romans.

Guy's stay with the Bithynian king subsequently became the source of many rumors about their sexual relationship. After successfully completing this assignment, Therm sent troops against Mytilene, and the Romans soon took the city. After the battle, Caesar was awarded the civil crown (lat. corona civica) - an honorary military award, which was relied upon for saving the life of a Roman citizen. After the capture of Mytilene, the campaign in Lesbos ended. Soon Termus resigned, and Caesar went to Cilicia to its governor Publius Servilius Vatia, who was organizing a military campaign against the pirates. However, when in 78 BC. e. News came from Italy about the death of Sulla, Caesar immediately returned to Rome.

In 78 BC. e. Consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus tried to raise a rebellion among the Italians in order to repeal the laws of Sulla. According to Suetonius, Lepidus invited Caesar to join the rebellion, but Gaius refused. In 77 BC. e. Caesar brought the Sullan Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella to trial on charges of extortion during his governorship in Macedonia. Dolabella was acquitted after major court speakers came out in his support. The indictment delivered by Caesar turned out to be so successful that it was distributed in handwritten copies for a long time. The following year, Gaius began the prosecution of another Sullan, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, but he requested protection from the tribunes of the people, and the trial did not take place.

Soon after the failure of the trial of Anthony, Caesar went to improve his oratory skills in Rhodes with the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, Cicero's mentor.

During Caesar's journey, he was captured by pirates who had long traded in the Eastern Mediterranean. He was held on the small island of Farmakussa (Farmakonisi) in the Dodecanese archipelago. The pirates demanded a large ransom of 50 talents (300 thousand Roman denarii). Plutarch’s version that Caesar, on his own initiative, increased the ransom amount from 20 talents to 50 is certainly implausible.

Ancient authors colorfully describe Guy's stay on the island: he allegedly joked with the kidnappers and recited to them poems of his own composition. After the ambassadors of the cities of Asia ransomed Caesar, he immediately equipped a squadron to capture the pirates themselves, which he managed to do. Having captured his captors, Guy asked the new governor of Asia, Mark Yunk, to judge and punish them, but he refused.

After this, Guy himself organized the execution of the pirates - they were crucified on crosses.

Suetonius adds some details of the execution as an illustration of Caesar's gentle character: “He swore to the pirates who had him captive that they would die on the cross, but when he captured them, he ordered them to be stabbed first and only then crucified.”.

During his repeated stay in the East, Caesar once again visited the Bithynian king Nicomedes. He also participated at the very beginning of the Third Mithridatic War at the head of a separate auxiliary detachment, but soon left the combat zone and returned to Rome around 74 BC. e. The following year he was co-opted to the priestly college of pontiffs in place of his deceased uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta.

Soon Caesar wins election to military tribune. Exact date his tribunate is unknown: 73 is often suggested, but a date of 72 or 71 BC is more likely. e. What Caesar did during this period is not known for certain. It is suggested that Caesar may have been involved in suppressing the rebellion of Spartacus- if not in combat, then at least in training recruits. It is also suggested that it was during the suppression of the uprising that Caesar became close friends with Marcus Licinius Crassus, who in the future played a significant role in Guy’s career.

At the beginning of 69 BC. e. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, and his aunt Julia die almost simultaneously. At their funeral, Guy made two speeches that attracted the attention of his contemporaries.

Firstly, public speeches in memory of dead women were practiced only from the end of the 2nd century BC. e., but in them they usually remembered elderly matrons, but not young women. Secondly, in a speech in honor of his aunt, he recalled her marriage to Gaius Marius and showed the people his wax bust. Probably, Julia's funeral was the first public display of the general's image since the beginning of Sulla's dictatorship, when Maria was effectively forgotten.

Same year Caesar becomes quaestor, which guarantees him a seat in the Senate. Caesar performed the duties of a quaestor in the province of Further Spain. The details of his mission are unknown, although the quaestor in the province usually dealt with financial matters. Apparently, Guy accompanied the governor of Gaius Antistius Vetus on trips around the province, carrying out his instructions. It was probably during the quaestor that he met Lucius Cornelius Balbus, who later became Caesar's closest ally.

Soon after returning from the province, Guy married Pompey, the granddaughter of Sulla (she was not a close relative of the influential Gnaeus Pompey the Great in those years). At the same time, Caesar began to openly lean toward supporting Gnaeus Pompey; in particular, he was perhaps the only senator who supported Gabinius’ law on transferring emergency powers to Gnaeus in the fight against pirates.

Caesar also supported the law of Manilius granting a new command to Pompey, although here he was no longer alone.

In 66 BC. e. Caesar became the caretaker of the Appian Way and repaired it at his own expense (according to another version, he repaired the road in 65 BC, being an aedile). In those years, the main creditor of the young politician, who did not skimp on spending, was probably Crassus.

In 66 BC. e. Caesar was elected curule aedile for the next year, whose duties included organizing urban construction, transport, trade, daily life in Rome and ceremonial events (usually for own account). In April 65 BC. e. new aedile organized and held the Megalesian Games, and in September the Roman Games, which surprised even the most experienced Romans with their luxury. Caesar shared the costs of both events equally with his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, but only Gaius received all the glory.

Initially, Caesar planned to show a record number of gladiators at the Roman Games (according to another version, gladiatorial fights were organized by him in memory of his father), but the Senate, fearing a rebellion by many armed slaves, issued a special decree prohibiting one person from bringing more than a certain number of gladiators to Rome . Julius obeyed the restrictions on the number of gladiators, but gave each of them silver armor, thanks to which his gladiatorial fights were still remembered by the Romans.

In addition, the aedile overcame the resistance of conservative senators and restored all the trophies of Gaius Marius, the display of which had been prohibited by Sulla.

In 64 BC. e. Caesar headed a permanent criminal court in cases of robbery accompanied by murder (quaestio de sicariis). In the courts under his chairmanship, many participants in Sulla's proscriptions were convicted, although this dictator passed a law that did not allow criminal prosecution against them. Despite Caesar's active efforts to convict the dictator's accomplices, the active perpetrator of the murders of the proscribed Lucius Sergius Catilina was completely acquitted and was able to nominate his candidacy for consul the next year. The initiator of a significant part of the trials, however, was Caesar's opponent, Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger.

Caesar - Pontifex Maximus:

At the beginning of 63 BC. e. Pontifex Maximus Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius died, and the highest position in the system of Roman religious magistrates became vacant. At the end of the 80s BC. e. Lucius Cornelius Sulla returned ancient custom co-optation of the high priests by the college of pontiffs, however, shortly before new elections, Titus Labienus returned the procedure for electing the great pontiff by voting in 17 tribes out of 35.

Caesar put forward his candidacy. Alternative candidates were Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus. Ancient historians report numerous bribes during elections, due to which Guy's debts grew greatly. Since the tribes that voted were determined by lot immediately before the elections, Caesar was forced to bribe representatives of all 35 tribes. Guy's creditors were sympathetic to spending on a prestigious but unprofitable position: his successful election testified to his popularity in the run-up to the elections of praetors and consuls.

According to legend, leaving home before the announcement of the results, he told his mother “Either I will return as pontiff, or I will not return at all.”; according to another version: “Today, mother, you will see your son either as a high priest or as an exile.”. Voting took place on different versions, or March 6, or at the end of the year, and Caesar won. According to Suetonius, his advantage over his opponents turned out to be enormous.

Julius's election as Pontifex Maximus for life brought him into the spotlight and almost certainly guaranteed a successful political career. Unlike the flamen of Jupiter, the great pontiff could participate in both civil and military activities without serious sacred restrictions.

Although people who were former consuls (consuls) were usually elected great pontiffs, there were also cases in Roman history when relatively young people occupied this honorary position. Thus, Caesar could not be accused of becoming great pontiff only because of exorbitant ambitions. Immediately after his election, Caesar took advantage of the right to live in the state house of the great pontiff and moved from Subura to the very center of the city, on the Sacred Road.

Caesar and the Catiline conspiracy:

In 65 BC. e., according to some contradictory evidence from ancient historians, Caesar participated in the unsuccessful conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina to seize power. However, the question of the “first conspiracy of Catiline” remains problematic. Evidence from sources varies, which gives some researchers grounds to completely deny the existence of the “first conspiracy.”

Rumors about Caesar's participation in Catiline's first conspiracy, if it existed, were spread by opponents of Crassus and Caesar already in the 50s BC. e. and are probably not true. Richard Billows believes that the spread of rumors about the "first conspiracy" was beneficial to Cicero, and then to Caesar's political opponents.

In 63 BC. e., after his failure in the elections of consuls, Catiline made a new, more famous attempt to seize power. Caesar's possible involvement in the conspiracy was discussed back in ancient times, but reliable evidence was never provided. During the culmination of the crisis, Catulus and Piso demanded that Cicero arrest Caesar for complicity in the conspiracy, but to no avail. According to Adrian Goldsworthy, by 63 BC. e. Caesar could count on legal means of occupying new positions and was not interested in participating in the conspiracy.

December 3, 63 BC e. Cicero presented evidence of the dangers of the conspiracy, and the next day a number of the conspirators were declared state criminals. On December 5, the Senate, meeting in the Temple of Concord, discussed a preventive measure for the conspirators: in emergency circumstances, it was decided to act without court approval. Decimus Junius Silanus, elected consul the following year, advocated the death penalty, a punishment applied to Roman citizens in the rarest of cases. His proposal was met with approval.

Caesar spoke next.

His speech in the Senate, recorded by Sallust, is certainly based on the actual speech of Julius. Sallust's version of the speech contains both a common appeal to Roman customs and traditions and an unusual proposal to sentence the conspirators to life imprisonment - a punishment almost never used in Rome - with confiscation of property.

After Caesar, Cicero spoke, objecting to Guy's proposal (an edited recording of his fourth speech against Catiline has survived). However, after the speech of the current consul, many were still inclined to Julius’s proposal, but Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger took the floor and resolutely opposed Caesar’s initiative. Cato also hinted at Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy and reproached the wavering senators for their lack of determination, after which the Senate voted to put the conspirators to death. Since the meeting on December 5 was held with open doors, people listening attentively outside reacted violently to Cato's speech, including his hint of Caesar's connections with the conspirators, and after the end of the meeting they saw off Guy with threats.

Barely taking office as praetor on January 1, 62 BC. e., Caesar took advantage of the magistrate’s right of legislative initiative and proposed that the people’s assembly transfer the authority to restore the Temple of Jupiter Capitoline from Quintus Lutatius Catulus to Gnaeus Pompey. Catulus took about 15 years to restore this temple and almost completed the work, but if this proposal had been accepted, the dedicatory inscription on the pediment of this most important sanctuary of Rome would have mentioned the name of Pompey, and not Catulus, an influential opponent of Caesar.

Guy also accused Catulus of embezzling public funds and demanded an account of his expenses. After protest from the senators, the praetor withdrew his bill.

When on January 3, the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos proposed recalling Pompey to Rome to defeat Catiline’s troops, Guy supported this proposal, although the conspirators’ troops were already surrounded and doomed to defeat. Apparently, Nepos, Gnaeus's brother-in-law, hoped with his proposal to give Pompey the opportunity to arrive in Italy without disbanding his troops. After a mass brawl provoked by Nepos in the forum, the determined Senate passed an emergency law removing Nepos and Caesar from office, but a few days later Guy was reinstated.

In the fall, at the trial of Lucius Vettius, a member of the Catiline conspiracy, the accused told the judge that he had evidence of Caesar’s involvement in the conspiracy - his letter to Catiline. In addition, during interrogation in the Senate, witness Quintus Curius stated that he had heard personally from Catiline about Caesar’s participation in preparing the rebellion. However, Cicero, at the request of Guy, testified that he told the consul everything he knew about the conspiracy, and thereby deprived Curius of the reward for information and refuted his testimony. Caesar acted very decisively against the first accuser, arresting both Vettius (he did not appear at the next meeting and did not present evidence of the praetor’s guilt) and the judge Novius Niger (he accepted a denunciation of the senior magistrate).

In December 62 BC. e. In Caesar's new house, a festival was held in honor of the Good Goddess with the participation of only women, but it was interrupted after a man, Publius Clodius Pulcher, secretly entered the house. Senators, having learned about the incident, decided to consider the incident sacrilege, and also demanded that the holiday be held anew and the perpetrators punished. The latter meant inevitable publicity of Caesar's personal life, since there were rumors that Clodius arrived at Caesar's house in a woman's dress precisely for his wife.

Without waiting for trial, The pontiff divorced Pompeia Sulla. The trial took place the following year, and Clodius was acquitted because Caesar refused to testify against him. Adrian Goldsworthy believes that Pompeii really had an affair with Clodius, but Caesar still did not dare to testify against the politician who was quickly gaining popularity.

In addition, the majority of judges on the panel voted with signs with illegible inscriptions, not wanting to incur the wrath of Clodius' supporters and opponents. During the trial, when Caesar was asked why he divorced his wife if he knew nothing about what happened, he allegedly replied that Caesar's wife should be above suspicion (various sources give various variations of this phrase. According to Michael Grant, Caesar meant that the wife of the great pontiff - the high priest of Rome - should be above suspicion. The British historian points out another possible reason, which accelerated divorce - the absence of children after several years of marriage.

At the beginning of 61 BC. e. Caesar was supposed to go to the province of Further Spain, the westernmost in the Roman Republic, to rule it as propraetor, but numerous creditors ensured that he did not leave Rome without paying off his huge debts. Nevertheless, Crassus vouched for Caesar with the sum of 830 talents, although it is unlikely that this huge sum covered all the debts of the governor. Thanks to Crassus, Guy went to the provinces even before the end of the trial of Clodius. On his way to Spain, Caesar allegedly said, passing through a remote village, that “I would rather be first here than second in Rome”(according to another version, this phrase was uttered on the way from Spain to Rome).

By the time of Caesar's arrival, there was great dissatisfaction with Roman power and large debts in the underdeveloped northern and northeastern parts of the province. Caesar immediately recruited a local militia to subdue the dissatisfied regions, which was presented as an extermination of the bandits.

According to Dio Cassius, thanks to the military campaign, Caesar hoped to equal Pompey with his victories, although it was possible to establish a lasting peace without military action.

Having at his disposal 30 cohorts (about 12 thousand soldiers), he approached the Herminian Mountains (the modern Serra da Estrela ridge) and demanded that the local tribes settle on the flat territory in order to deprive them of the opportunity to use their fortifications in the mountains in the event of an uprising.

Dio Cassius believes that Caesar hoped for a refusal from the very beginning, since he hoped to use this answer as a motive for an attack. After the mountain tribes refused to submit, the governor's troops attacked them and forced them to retreat to the Atlantic Ocean, from where the mountain tribes sailed to the Berlenga Islands. Caesar ordered several detachments to cross to the islands on small rafts, but the Lusitanians killed the entire Roman landing force.

After this failure, Guy summoned a fleet from Hades and with its help transported large forces to the islands. While the commander was conquering the mountainous Lusitanians on the Atlantic coast, the neighbors of the expelled tribes began preparing to repel a possible attack by the governor. All summer the propraetor subjugated the scattered Lusitanians, storming a number of settlements and winning one quite major battle. Soon, Caesar left the province and headed to Brigancia (modern La Coruña), quickly capturing the city and its surroundings. In the end, the troops declared him emperor, which in the terminology of the mid-1st century BC. e. meant recognition as a victorious commander. Even then, Caesar showed himself to be a decisive commander, capable of quickly moving his troops.

Having completed his campaign, Caesar turned to solving the daily problems of the province. His energetic activity in the administrative field was manifested in the revision of taxation and in the analysis of court cases. In particular, the governor abolished the tax imposed as punishment for the Lusitanians' support of Quintus Sertorius in the recent war. In addition, it ruled that creditors could not recover from debtors more than two-thirds of their annual income.

In the difficult situation with the repayment of loans and interest by residents of the province, such a measure turned out to be beneficial for both borrowers and creditors, since Caesar still confirmed the need for mandatory repayment of all debts. Finally, Caesar may have banned human sacrifice, which was practiced in the province.

Some sources claim that the governor extorted money from wealthy residents of the province and robbed neutral tribes, but this evidence is probably based only on rumors. Richard Billows believes that if Caesar had actually openly plundered the province, he would have been immediately brought to justice by his political opponents upon his return to Rome. In fact, there was no prosecution or even hints of its beginning, which at least indicates Caesar’s caution.

Roman legislation of the 1st century BC. e. provided for the responsibility of the governor for extortion, but did not establish clear boundaries between a gift and a bribe, and therefore sufficiently careful actions could not be qualified as bribery.

Caesar could count on substantial gifts, since the inhabitants of the province (especially the rich south) saw in the young aristocrat a potentially influential patron - a defender of their interests in Rome.

Masinta's extremely vigorous defense showed them that Caesar would do anything to protect his clients. Apparently, Caesar received the greatest income precisely from civil activities in the southern part of the province, since the main military operations were carried out in the impoverished northern and northeastern regions of Further Spain, in which it was hardly possible to get rich. After becoming governor of the province, Caesar significantly improved his financial situation, and creditors no longer bothered him. Guy probably did not pay off all his debts, but he proved that he was able to repay his loans by taking on new positions. As a result, the creditors could temporarily stop disturbing Caesar, counting on a new, more profitable assignment, which Guy’s opponents subsequently tried to use.

At the beginning of 60 BC. e. Caesar decided to return to Rome, without waiting for his successor. The early termination of the governor's powers with the delegation of powers to a junior magistrate (probably a quaestor) was considered unusual, but was sometimes practiced.

Having received reports of Caesar's victories, the Senate considered him worthy of triumph. In addition to this honorable celebration, in the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar hoped to take part in the election of consuls the following year, since he had reached the minimum age for the occupation. new position and completed all previous master's degrees in the cursus honorum system.

However, the candidate for triumph was not allowed to cross the sacred boundaries of the city (pomerium) before the event began, and personal presence in Rome was required to register a candidate for consul. Since the election date had already been set, Caesar asked the senators to grant him the right to register in absentia. There was already a precedent for such a decision in Roman history: in 71 BC. e. The Senate allowed Gnaeus Pompey, who was also preparing a triumph, to put forward his candidacy.

Caesar's opponents were not in the mood to meet him halfway. By presenting Guy with a choice between triumph and consulate, they may have hoped that Caesar would choose triumph, hoping that Guy's creditors would not wait another year, but would demand their money immediately. However, Caesar had another reason not to postpone participation in the elections until the next year: election to a new position in “his year” (Latin suo anno), that is, in the first year when this was permissible by law, was considered especially honorable.

On last meeting Senate before the elections, when it was still possible to adopt a special resolution, Cato took the floor and spoke all day, until the very end of the meeting. Thus, Caesar did not receive special permission, and he entered the city, choosing to take up a new position and abandoning triumph.

By the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar agreed to cooperate with the rich and educated, but little-known Roman Roman Lucius Lucceus, who also put forward his candidacy. According to Suetonius, "they agreed that Lucceus would promise his own money to the centuries on behalf of both." The Roman author mentions that his rival Bibulus also bribed voters with the approval of the senators: his father-in-law Cato called this “bribery in the interests of the state.” According to the results of the elections of consuls for 59 BC. e. became Caesar and Bibulus.

Around this time, Caesar entered into secret negotiations with Pompey and Crassus to create a political alliance: in exchange for the support of Gaius by two of the most powerful and wealthy Romans, the new consul undertook to pass several laws in their interests that had previously been blocked by the Senate.

The fact is that Pompey, who returned from the Third Mithridatic War back in 62 BC. e., has not yet achieved the ratification of all orders made in the eastern provinces. He also could not overcome the resistance of the Senate on the issue of granting land plots to veterans of his army. Crassus also had reasons for dissatisfaction with the Senate, who defended the interests of the publicans (tax farmers), who unsuccessfully asked to reduce the amount of taxation for the province of Asia.

By uniting around Caesar, both politicians hoped to overcome the resistance of the senators and pass laws beneficial to themselves. It is unclear what Caesar received from the alliance. Undoubtedly, he benefited from the very rapprochement with two influential politicians and their equally high-ranking friends, clients and relatives.

There is a version that when organizing the triumvirate, Caesar hatched plans to seize power with its help(a similar point of view was shared, in particular, by Theodor Mommsen and Jerome Carcopino).

Despite the fact that Pompey and Crassus had long been at odds and even interfered with the implementation of laws in each other's interests, Caesar managed to reconcile them. Suetonius claims that Caesar first entered into an alliance with Pompey, but Christian Meyer believes that he first agreed to cooperate with Crassus, who was closer to him. It is possible that it was planned to include a fourth member - Cicero - in the political union.

The union of three politicians is currently known as the first triumvirate (Latin triumviratus - “union three husbands"), however this term arose by analogy with the later second triumvirate, whose members were officially called triumvirs.

The exact date of the creation of the triumvirate is unknown, which is a consequence of its secret nature. Following the contradictory versions of ancient writers, modern historians also offer different versions: July-August 60 BC. e., the period shortly before or shortly after the elections, after the elections or 59 BC. e. (in final form).

At the very beginning of the consulate, Guy ordered the daily publication of the minutes of the meetings of the Senate and the National Assembly: apparently, this was done so that citizens could monitor the actions of politicians.

Caesar, on behalf of the Roman Republic, recognized Ptolemy XII Auletes as pharaoh of Egypt, which was tantamount to renouncing claims to Egypt using the will (probably forged) of Ptolemy XI Alexander II, widely known in Rome. According to this document, Egypt was to come under the rule of Rome, just as, according to the will of Attalus III, the Kingdom of Pergamum was transferred to the Roman Republic. Ancient historians report that the issue was settled for a huge bribe, which was shared among the triumvirs.

Despite significant support for Caesar's initiatives at the beginning of the year, by the end of 59 BC. e. the popularity of the triumvirs fell sharply.

By the beginning of Caesar's proconsulate, the Romans controlled the southern part of the territory of modern France, where the province of Narbonese Gaul was formed. At the end of March 58 BC. e. Guy arrived in Genava (modern Geneva), where he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii, who began to move due to the onslaught of the Germans. Caesar managed to prevent the Helvetii from entering the territory of the Roman Republic, and after they entered the lands of the Aedui tribe allied with the Romans, Guy pursued and defeated them. In the same year, he defeated the troops of the German leader Ariovistus, who was trying to gain a foothold in the Gallic lands of the left bank of the Rhine.

In 57 BC. e. Caesar, without a formal cause of war, attacked the Belgae tribes in northeastern Gaul and defeated them at the battles of Axon and Sabis. The commander's legate, Publius Licinius Crassus, bloodlessly subjugated the lands in the lower Loire. However, the next year the Gauls conquered by Crassus united against the Roman conquest. Caesar was forced to divide his forces between Titus Labienus, who was supposed to subjugate the Treveri tribe in Belgica, Publius Crassus (who was entrusted with the conquest of Aquitaine) and Quintus Titurius Sabinus, who suppressed the peripheral tribes of the rebels. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus began building a fleet on the Loire capable of fighting the coastal tribes, and Caesar himself went to Luca, where the triumvirs met and discussed current issues.

Returning to his troops, Caesar led an attack on the rebel Gauls. Gaius and Sabinus captured all the rebel settlements, and Decimus Brutus destroyed their fleet in a naval battle.

In 55 BC. e. the commander defeated the German tribes that crossed the Rhine. He then crossed to the right bank of the river using a 400-meter bridge built near the camp "castellum apud confluentes" (modern Koblenz) in just ten days.

The Roman army did not stay in Germany (during the retreat, the first bridge in history across the Rhine was destroyed), and already at the end of August Caesar undertook a reconnaissance expedition to Britain - the first trip to this island in Roman history. However, due to insufficient preparation, within a month he had to return to the continent.

Next summer Caesar led a new expedition to Britain, however, the Celtic tribes on the island continuously retreated, weakening the enemy in small clashes, and Caesar was forced to conclude a truce, which allowed him to report victory to Rome. After his return, Caesar divided his troops between eight camps concentrated in northern Gaul.

At the end of the year, the Belgian tribes rebelled against the Romans and almost simultaneously attacked several of their wintering grounds. The Belgas managed to lure the XIV Legion and five more cohorts (about 6-8 thousand soldiers) from the fortified camp and kill them in an ambush. Caesar managed to lift the siege from the camp of Quintus Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, after which the Belgae abandoned the attack on Labienus' camp. In 53 BC. e. Guy carried out punitive expeditions against the Belgian tribes, and in the summer he made a second trip to Germany, again building (and again destroying during the retreat) a bridge across the Rhine. Faced with a shortage of troops, Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions, to which Gnaeus agreed.

At the beginning of 52 BC. e. Most of the Gallic tribes united to fight the Romans. The leader of the rebels was Vercingetorix. Since the Gauls cut off Caesar in Narbonese Gaul from the bulk of his troops in the north, the commander, with the help of a deceptive maneuver, lured Vercingetorix to the lands of his native Arverni tribe, and he himself united with the main troops. The Romans took several fortified Gallic cities, but were defeated when attempting to storm Gergovia. In the end, Caesar managed to block Vercingetorix in the well-fortified fortress of Alesia and begin a siege.

The Gallic commander called all the Gallic tribes for help and tried to lift the Roman siege after their arrival. A fierce battle broke out in the most poorly defended area of ​​the fortifications of the siege camp, in which the Romans won victory with some difficulty. The next day Vercingetorix surrendered to Caesar, and the rebellion as a whole was over. In 51 and 50 BC. e. Caesar and his legates completed the conquest of distant tribes and individual groups of rebels. By the end of Caesar's proconsulate, all of Gaul was subordinate to Rome.

Throughout his stay in Gaul, the commander was aware of the events taking place in Rome and often intervened in them. This became possible due to the fact that two of Caesar’s confidants remained in the capital, with whom he constantly corresponded - Gaius Oppius and Lucius Cornelius Balbus. They distributed bribes to the magistrates and carried out his other orders from the commander.

In Gaul, several legates served under Caesar, who later played a significant role in Roman history - Mark Antony, Titus Labienus, Lucius Munatius Plancus, Gaius Trebonius and others.

Consuls 56 BC e. Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus and Lucius Marcius Philippus were unkind to the triumvirs. Marcellinus prevented the implementation of laws by Caesar's supporters and, more importantly, managed to achieve the appointment of a successor to Caesar from among the not yet elected consuls for the next year. Thus, no later than March 1, 54 BC. e. Guy had to cede the province to his successor.

The most likely candidate to replace Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul was considered Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, a staunch opponent of the triumvirate. In addition, Caesar's opponents hoped to take Narbonese Gaul from him. The first attempts to bring Caesar to court date back to this time, but failed due to the judicial immunity of the proconsul before the end of his powers.

In mid-April 56 BC. e. triumvirs gathered in Luka(modern Lucca; the city belonged to Cisalpine Gaul, which allowed Caesar to be present) to coordinate further actions.

They agreed that Pompey and Crassus would nominate their candidacies for consul the following year in order to prevent the election of opponents (in particular, Ahenobarbus). Since the outcome of the elections, held in full accordance with the law, was not obvious, the triumvirs decided to influence the elections by attracting legionnaires. Supporters of the triumvirs had to push for a postponement of the elections to the end of the year, and Caesar promised to send all his soldiers to participate in the vote. Once elected, Pompey and Crassus were to secure a five-year extension of Caesar's term in exchange for Caesarian support for the distribution of several other provinces in their favor.

In the spring of 55 BC. e. the new consuls fulfilled their obligations adopted at the meeting in Luca: Caesar extended his powers in all three provinces for five years. In addition, Pompey received control of Far and Near Spain for the same period, and Crassus received Syria. In May or June 55 BC. e. Cicero, who became close to the triumvirate, actively supported, and possibly initiated, a bill to compensate for the costs of maintaining Caesar's four new legions at public expense. This proposal was accepted. In exchange for Cicero's services to Caesar, the proconsul responded by including Quintus Tullius Cicero, the orator's brother, among his legates.

In August or September 54 BC. e. Julia, daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died during childbirth. However, the death of Julia and the failure of attempts to conclude a new dynastic marriage did not have a decisive impact on the relationship between Pompey and Caesar, and for several more years the relationship between the two politicians remained quite good.

A much greater blow to the triumvirate and to all Roman politics was dealt by Death of Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae. Although Crassus was considered more of a “junior” triumvir, especially after Caesar’s successful conquests in Gaul, his wealth and influence smoothed over the contradictions between Pompey and Caesar.

At the beginning of 53 BC. e. Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions to use in the Gallic War, and Gnaeus agreed. Caesar soon recruited two more legions to make up for the losses of his troops due to the Belgian uprising.

In 53-52 BC. e. the situation in Rome was extremely tense due to the struggle (often armed) between supporters of two demagogues - Clodius and Milo. The situation worsened significantly due to the murder of Clodius by the slave Milo in January 52 BC. e. By this time, elections of consuls had not been held, and in Rome there were calls to elect Pompey as consuls along with Caesar to restore order.

Caesar invited Pompey to organize a new dynastic marriage. According to his plan, Pompey was to marry Octavia the Younger, a relative of Caesar, and he himself intended to marry Pompeia, the daughter of Gnaeus. Pompey refused the offer, marrying after some time Cornelia Metella, the daughter of Caesar's longtime enemy Metellus Scipio. When it became clear that Caesar would not be able to return from Gaul to restore order in Rome, Cato (according to another version - Bibulus) proposed an emergency measure - the appointment of Gnaeus as consul without a colleague, which allowed him to make the most important decisions alone. However, the Senate probably viewed Pompey as a temporary coordinator to quell unrest, and not as a long-term ruler.

Soon after his appointment, the new consul initiated adoption of laws on violent acts (lex Pompeia de vi) and on electoral bribery (lex Pompeia de ambitu). In both cases, the wording of the laws was clarified to meet new requirements, stricter preventive measures were established, and court hearings in these cases had to be held under armed guard. Both decisions had retroactive effect. The law on bribery extended until 70 BC. e., and Caesar's supporters considered this decision a challenge to their patron.

At the same time, the tribunes of the people, with the approval of Pompey, passed a decree allowing Caesar to nominate his candidacy for consul while absent from Rome, which he failed to achieve in 60 BC. e. However, soon, at the proposal of the consul, laws on magistracy and provinces were adopted. Among the provisions of the first decree was a ban on seeking office in the absence of the candidate in Rome.

The new legislation was not only directed against Caesar, but also came into conflict with the recent decree of the tribunes. However, soon Pompey, who allegedly forgot to make an exception for Caesar, ordered the addition of a clause to the law on magistracy on the possibility of special permission to apply without being present in the capital, but did this after the law was approved.

Pompey's decrees brought uncertainty into Caesar's future after the end of his proconsulship. It is unclear when he could nominate his candidacy for consul for the next year in accordance with special permission - in 50 or 49 BC. e.

Due to the fact that Gnaeus amended the law on magistrates after its approval, Caesar's opponents had the opportunity to protest the effect of this clarification and demand the mandatory presence of Caesar as a private citizen at the elections. Guy was seriously afraid that immediately after his arrival in Rome and the termination of his immunity, Caesar’s opponents, led by Cato, would bring him to trial.

Because Pompey's laws were retroactive, Gaius could be held accountable for his actions in 59 BC. e. and before. In addition, it was unclear whether Caesar's successor should be appointed under the old law or under the new one. If the priority of Pompey's decree was recognized, the successor could replace Caesar in the province as early as March 1, 49 BC. e., and it was supposed to be one of the consuls five years ago. However, since the second consul Appius Claudius Pulcher managed to receive an appointment to Cilicia, Gaius's successor was to be his irreconcilable opponent Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.

Although Cato failed in this election of consuls, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, an enemy of Caesar, was elected. At the very beginning of the year Marcellus demanded that Caesar leave the province and disband all ten legions, citing the completion of active military operations after the capture of Alesia. However, the rebels continued to operate on the periphery of Gaul, and Marcellus’ colleague Servius Sulpicius Rufus refused to support this proposal. Pompey tried to maintain the appearance of neutrality, but his statements indicated a rapid cooling of relations with Caesar.

Consuls 50 BC e. after Cato refused to participate in the elections, Gaius Claudius Marcellus, Marcus’s cousin and comrade-in-arms, and Lucius Aemilius Paulus began to take part in the elections. The latter was not a staunch opponent of Caesar, and therefore Guy took advantage of his difficult financial situation and persuaded him to cooperate for a huge bribe of 1,500 talents (approximately 36 million sesterces, or slightly less than the annual tax revenues from conquered Gaul).

In addition, one of his longtime opponents, Gaius Scribonius Curio, unexpectedly went over to Caesar’s side. Later sources attribute this change of political position to another bribe comparable to the one received by Aemilius Paulus. It was Curio who used the tribunician veto to repeal the laws with which the senators tried to legalize the removal of Caesar. However, the tribune carefully concealed his defection. In their public speaking he positioned himself as an independent politician and defender of the interests of the people, and not Pompey or Caesar. In May 50 BC. e. The Senate, under the pretext of the Parthian threat, immediately recalled two legions from Caesar, including the one lent to him by Pompey.

As the end of the proconsul's powers drew near, Caesar and his Roman opponents began vigorous efforts to defend their position in accordance with their vision of legislation.

By 50 BC. e., when Caesar's break with Pompey became obvious, Caesar had significant support from the inhabitants of Rome and the population of Cisalpine Gaul, but among the nobles his influence was small and often relied on bribes.

Although the Senate as a whole was not inclined to trust Caesar, the idea of ​​​​a peaceful resolution of the dispute was supported by the majority of senators. Thus, 370 senators voted in support of Curio’s proposal on the need for the simultaneous disarmament of both commanders, and 22 or 25 voted against. However, Marcellus closed the meeting before the voting results were entered into the protocol. According to another version, the decision of the Senate was vetoed by the tribune Guy Furnius.

Other proposals were also made, although neither Caesar nor Pompey and his supporters were willing to give in. In particular, even before the elections of magistrates, Gnaeus suggested that Caesar return to Rome on November 13, 50 BC. e., surrendering proconsular powers and troops, so that on January 1, 49 BC. e. take up the post of consul. However, contemporaries noticed that Pompey clearly did not want reconciliation. Soon false rumors spread in Rome that Caesar had already crossed the borders of Italy and occupied Arimin, which meant the beginning of a civil war.

In 50 BC. e. Caesar managed to get Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius Longinus into the tribunes of the plebeians the following year, but his candidate for consul, Servius Sulpicius Galba, failed. Based on the voting results, staunch opponents of the proconsul were elected - Gaius Claudius Marcellus, the full namesake and cousin of the previous year's consul, as well as Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Cruz.

From the second half of the year Caesar begins to make persistent attempts to negotiate with the Senate, offering mutual concessions.

In particular, he agreed to renounce Narbonese Gaul and retain only two legions and two provinces - Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum - subject to immunity and absentee participation in elections.

The senators refused to accept Caesar's proposal. In response, January 1, 49 BC. e. In Rome, Caesar’s letter was read, in which the proconsul’s determination to defend his right to absentee participation in the elections was already heard by all available means.

In response, the Senate decided that Caesar should be considered an enemy of the state if he did not resign and disband the troops by a certain date, but Antony and Longinus, who took office, vetoed it, and the resolution was not adopted. Several people, including Cicero, tried to mediate a reconciliation between the two generals, but their attempts were unsuccessful.

On January 7, at the initiative of a group of senators led by Cato, an emergency law (lat. senatusconsultum ultimum) was issued calling citizens to arms, which actually meant a complete refusal of negotiations. Troops began to gather in the city, and Antony and Longinus were made to understand that their safety could not be guaranteed.

Both tribunes and Curio, who had already surrendered his powers, immediately fled from Rome to Caesar’s camp - according to Appian, they left the city “at night, in a hired cart, disguised as slaves.”

On January 8 and 9, the senators decided to declare Caesar an enemy of the state if he did not resign. They also approved his successors - Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Marcus Considius Nonianus - transferring to them Cisalpine and Narbonese Gaul. They also announced the recruitment of troops.

Caesar, back in December 50 BC. e. summoned the VIII and XII legions from Narbonese Gaul, but by the beginning of January they had not yet arrived. Although the proconsul had only about 5 thousand soldiers of the XIII Legion and about 300 cavalry at his disposal, he decided to act.

After the arrival of the tribunes who had fled from Rome at Caesar's camp, the commander gathered the troops at his disposal and addressed them with a speech. In it, he informed the soldiers about the violation of the sacred rights of the tribunes and the reluctance of the senators to recognize his legal demands. The soldiers expressed full support for their commander, and he led them across the border river Rubicon(according to legend, before crossing the river, Caesar said the words “the die is cast” - a quote from Menander’s comedy).

However, Caesar did not move towards Rome. On January 17, after receiving news of the outbreak of war, Pompey tried to start negotiations, but they failed, and the commander sent his troops along the Adriatic coast. Most of the cities along the way did not even try to resist. Many supporters of the Senate retreated to Corfinium (modern Corfinio), where Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was stationed.

Soon he had 30 cohorts, or 10-15 thousand soldiers, under his control. Due to the lack of a unified command (since Ahenobarbus had previously been appointed governor, Gnaeus had no authority to order him), Domitius found himself locked in Corfinia and cut off from Pompey's troops. After Caesar received reinforcements and the siege could not be lifted, Ahenobarbus decided to flee the city with only his friends. His soldiers became aware of the commander’s plans, after which the dissatisfied troops opened the gates of the city to Caesar and handed over Ahenobarbus and their other commanders to him.

Caesar annexed the troops stationed in Corfinia and the surrounding area to his army, and released Ahenobarbus and his comrades.

Upon learning of the surrender of Corfinius, Pompey began preparations for the evacuation of his supporters to Greece. Pompey counted on the support of the eastern provinces, where his influence had been great since the Third Mithridatic War. Due to a shortage of ships, Gnaeus had to transport his forces to Dyrrachium (or Epidamnus; modern Durres) in parts.

As a result, by the time Caesar arrived (March 9), not all of his soldiers had crossed over. After Gnaeus refused to negotiate, Gaius began a siege of the city and tried to block the narrow exit from the harbor of Brundisium, but on March 17, Pompey managed to leave the harbor and leave Italy with the remaining troops.

The rapid development of events in the first stage of the war took the population of Rome and Italy by surprise. Many residents of Italy supported Caesar, since they saw in him the successor of the work of Gaius Marius and hoped for his patronage. The Italians' support for Caesar greatly contributed to Caesar's success in the first stage of the civil war.

The attitude of the nobility towards Julius was mixed. The gentle treatment of commanders and soldiers in Corfinia was aimed at persuading both opponents and hesitant members of the nobility not to oppose Caesar.

Caesar's supporters Oppius and Balbus made every effort to present Caesar's actions to the entire republic as an act of outstanding mercy (lat. clementia). The principle of encouraging the neutrality of all those who waver also contributed to the pacification of Italy: “While Pompey declared his enemies all those who did not defend the republic, Caesar declared that he would consider those who abstained and did not join anyone as friends.”.

The widespread belief that the bulk of the senators fled Italy along with Pompey is not entirely true. It became famous thanks to Cicero, who subsequently substantiated the legitimacy of the “Senate in Exile” by the presence of ten consulars (former consuls) in its composition, but kept silent about the fact that there were at least fourteen of them left in Italy. More than half of the senators chose to remain neutral, holed up in their estates in Italy.

Caesar was supported by many young people from noble but poor aristocratic families, many representatives of the equestrian class, as well as various outcasts and adventurers.

Caesar was unable to immediately pursue Pompey into Greece because Gnaeus had requisitioned all available warships and transport ships. As a result, Guy decided to secure his rear by heading through Gaul, loyal to him, to Spain, where from 54 BC. e. There were Pompey's legates with seven legions.

Before leaving, Guy entrusted the leadership of Italy to Mark Antony, who received from him the powers of propraetor, and left the capital in the care of praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and the senators. In dire need of money, Guy took possession of the remnants of the treasury. The tribune Lucius Caecilius Metellus tried to prevent him, but Caesar, according to legend, threatened to kill him, adding that it was “much more difficult for him to say than to do.”

In Narbonne Gaul, where all of Caesar's Gallic troops had gathered, Caesar encountered unexpected resistance from the richest city of Massilia (modern Marseille). Not wanting to linger halfway, Caesar left part of his troops to wage the siege.

By the beginning of the campaign in Spain, according to the Notes on the Civil War, the Pompeians Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius had approximately 40 thousand soldiers and 5 thousand cavalry against Caesar's approximately 30 thousand soldiers and 6 thousand horsemen.

Caesar's troops, with skillful maneuvers, drove the enemy out of Ilerda (modern Lleida/Lleida) into the hills, where it was impossible to find either food or water. On August 27, the entire Pompeian army surrendered to Caesar. Caesar sent all the soldiers of the enemy army home, and allowed those who wished to join his army. After the news of the capitulation of the Pompeians, most of the communities of Near Spain went over to Caesar's side.

Soon Guy went to Italy by land. At the walls of Massilia, Caesar received news of his appointment as dictator on the initiative of the praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. In Rome, Caesar exercised his rights as a dictator and organized elections of magistrates for the following year.

Caesar himself and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus were elected consuls; other positions went mainly to supporters of the dictator. In addition, Guy took advantage of his right of legislative initiative and passed a number of laws designed not only to mitigate the consequences of the war (for example, the law on loans), but also for the long term (providing full Roman citizenship to residents of individual cities and territories).

While Caesar was in Spain, Caesar's generals suffered defeat after defeat in Illyricum, Africa and the Adriatic Sea. However, Caesar was able to derive some benefit from Curio's defeat in Africa: it allowed him to claim that Pompey's situation had become so desperate that he was forced to call on the barbarians to help him. The unsuccessful actions of the legates on the Adriatic coast left Caesar with only one option for crossing to Greece - by sea.

Apparently, Caesar feared that Pompey would cross over to Italy in the spring, and therefore began preparations for the landing in the winter of 49-48 BC. e. However, this idea was considered risky due to the unfavorable season for navigation, the dominance of the Pompeians at sea and the lack of food for a large army in Epirus. In addition, Guy was unable to assemble a sufficient number of ships to cross the entire army.

Nevertheless, January 4 or 5, 48 BC. e. Caesar's fleet with about 20 thousand soldiers and 600 cavalry landed in Epirus, avoiding a meeting with the Pompeian fleet, led by Bibulus. Another part of Caesar's army, led by Mark Antony, managed to break into Greece only in April.

Immediately after the landing, Caesar sent envoys to Pompey with a proposal to conclude a truce, but at the same time began to capture cities on the coast, which discredited any attempts to negotiate an end to the war.

Skillfully maneuvering, Caesar, after uniting with Antony, managed to encircle the superior forces of Gnaeus on a coastal hill near Dyrrhachium and erect strong fortifications that were supposed to protect the camp and troops of Gaius from attacks both from the besieged and from outside. This siege is notable not only for the superiority of the besieged over the besiegers, but also for the hunger in the latter’s camp, in contrast to the normal supply situation for the besieged Pompey: according to Plutarch, by the summer Caesar’s soldiers were eating bread from roots. Gnaeus soon took advantage of his access to the coast and his advantage at sea, landing part of his troops at the weakest point of the enemy fortifications.

Caesar threw all his forces into repelling the attack, but in a battle known as the Battle of Dyrrhachium (around July 10), Pompey put his enemy to flight. For some reason, Pompey did not dare to strike a decisive blow against Caesar - either because of the advice of Labienus, or out of caution against the possible tricks of Gaius. After the battle, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Appian, said “Today victory would remain with the opponents if they had someone to defeat”.

Gathering his defeated troops, Caesar marched southeast to fertile Thessaly, where he was able to replenish food supplies. In Thessaly, Caesar was joined by two legions of troops that he had previously sent to Macedonia for auxiliary operations. However, Pompey's soldiers outnumbered Caesar's by approximately two to one (approximately 22 thousand versus approximately 47 thousand).

The opponents met at Farsal. Pompey for some time did not want to start a general battle on open area and decided to give battle to Caesar only under pressure from the senators. According to legend, on the day before the battle, senators confident of victory began to distribute magistracy among themselves. It is likely that Titus Labienus prepared the battle plan for Pompey, but Caesar was able to unravel the plans of the Pompeians and prepare countermeasures (after the battle, Gnaeus suspected that someone from his entourage had conveyed the plans to Caesar). On August 9, a decisive battle took place, the outcome of which was decided by Caesar’s counterattack on the right flank. In total, 15 thousand soldiers died in the battle, including 6 thousand Roman citizens. More than 20 thousand more Pompeians surrendered the day after the battle, and among them were many nobles, including Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.

Soon after the battle Caesar set out in pursuit of Pompey, but Gnaeus disoriented his pursuer and went through Cyprus to Egypt. Only when Caesar was in the province of Asia did news of his enemy's new preparations reach him, and he went to Alexandria with one legion (probably the VI Iron).

Caesar arrived in Egypt a few days after the assassination of Pompey by the Egyptians. Initially, his stay in Egypt was prolonged due to unfavorable winds, and the dictator tried to take advantage of the opportunity to solve his urgent need for money. Guy hoped to recover from King Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator 10 million denarii of debts left by his father Ptolemy XII Auletes (a significant part of the debt was an incompletely paid bribe for non-recognition of the will of Ptolemy XI Alexander II).

For this purpose the commander intervened in the struggle of supporters of Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra. Initially, Caesar probably hoped to mediate the dispute between brother and sister in order to obtain the greatest benefit for himself and for the Roman state.

After Cleopatra secretly entered Caesar's camp (according to legend, the queen was taken to the palace wrapped in a carpet), Guy went over to her side. Those surrounded by Ptolemy decided to take advantage of the small number of Guy's troops to expel him from the country and overthrow Cleopatra. The majority of the inhabitants of Alexandria supported the king, and the general uprising against the Romans forced Caesar to lock himself in the royal quarter, putting his life in great danger.

During the battle with the Egyptians, a fire started that spread to the Library of Alexandria- the largest book collection of the ancient world. However, a large branch of the library in the Serapeum with copies of the scrolls was preserved, and most of the collection was soon restored.

In the winter, Caesar withdrew his troops from the besieged palace and, after uniting with arriving reinforcements, defeated the troops of Ptolemy's supporters. After Gai's victory placed Cleopatra and the young Ptolemy XIV Theos Philopator II on the royal throne(Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator drowned in the Nile after a battle with the Romans), who, according to tradition, ruled jointly.

Then the Roman commander spent several months with Cleopatra in Egypt, going up the Nile. Ancient authors considered this delay in the war to be caused by an affair with Cleopatra. It is known that the commander and queen were accompanied by Roman soldiers, so Caesar may have been simultaneously engaged in reconnaissance and a show of force to the Egyptians. Before leaving in July 47 BC. e. Caesar left three Roman legions to maintain order in Egypt. In the summer of the same year, Cleopatra's son Caesarion was born, and the dictator is often considered the father of the child.

While Caesar was in Egypt, supporters of the defeated Pompey gathered in Africa. After leaving Alexandria, Caesar headed not to the west, where his opponents concentrated their forces, but to the northeast. The fact is that after the death of Pompey, the population of the eastern provinces and the rulers of neighboring kingdoms tried to take advantage of the situation in their own interests: in particular, Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates VI, relying on the remnants of the Pontic kingdom, which Pompey assigned to him, tried to restore the empire of his father, invading Roman lands.

Having settled urgent matters in Syria, Caesar arrived in Cilicia with a small force. There he united with the remnants of the troops of the defeated Gnaeus Domitius Calvin and with the ruler of Galatia, Deiotarus, who hoped to receive forgiveness for supporting Pompey. Guy met with Pharnaces at Zela, and on the third day defeated him. Caesar himself described this victory in three catchphrases: veni, vidi, vici (came, saw, conquered). After the victory over Pharnaces, Guy crossed to Greece, and from there to Italy. After his return, Caesar managed to restore the favor of several legions that had rebelled in Italy, making generous promises to them.

Having brought the legionaries into order, Caesar set out from Lilybaeum for Africa in December, again defying the unfavorable shipping conditions and sailing with only one legion of experienced troops. After transporting all the troops and organizing supplies, Caesar lured Metellus Scipio and the Numidian king Juba (the latter was once publicly humiliated by Gaius by pulling his beard during his trial) to battle in the vicinity of Thapsus.

April 6, 46 BC e. A decisive battle took place at Thapsus. Although in Notes on the African War the development of the battle is characterized as rapid and the nature of the victory as unconditional, Appian describes the battle as extremely difficult. In addition, Plutarch cites the version that Caesar did not participate in the battle due to an epileptic seizure.

Many commanders of Scipio's army fled from the battlefield, but contrary to the declared policy of mercy, they were caught up and executed on Caesar's orders. Marcus Petreius and Juba committed suicide, but Titus Labienus, Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey fled to Spain, where they soon organized a new center of resistance to Caesar.

After the victory at Thapsus, Caesar moved north to the well-fortified Utica. The commandant of the city, Cato, was determined to hold the city, but the inhabitants of Utica were inclined to surrender to Caesar, and Cato disbanded the troops and helped everyone to leave the city. When Guy approached the walls of Utica, Mark committed suicide. After returning to the capital Caesar led four triumphal processions in a row - for victories over the Gauls, Egyptians, Pharnaces and Juba. However, the Romans understood that Caesar was partly celebrating victories over his compatriots.

Caesar's four triumphs did not end the civil war, since the situation in Spain remained tense: the abuses of the Caesarian governor of Further Spain, Quintus Cassius Longinus, provoked a rebellion.

After the arrival of the defeated Pompeians from Africa and their organization of a new center of resistance, the temporarily calmed Spaniards again opposed Caesar.

In November 46 BC. e. Guy decided to go to Spain personally to suppress the last center of open resistance. By this time, however, most of his troops had already been disbanded: there were only two legions of experienced soldiers in the ranks (V and X legions), all other available troops consisted of newcomers.

March 17, 45 BC e., soon after arriving in Spain, the opponents clashed in Battle of Munda. In the most difficult battle, Guy won. According to legend, after the battle Caesar declared that he “I have often fought for victory, but now for the first time I fought for life”.

At least 30 thousand Pompeian soldiers died, and Labienus was among those killed on the battlefield; Caesar's losses were significantly smaller. The dictator retreated from his traditional practice of mercy (clementia): Gnaeus Pompey the Younger, who fled from the battlefield, was overtaken and killed, and his head was delivered to Caesar. Sextus Pompey barely managed to escape and even survived the dictator. After the victory at Munda, Caesar celebrated his fifth triumph, and it was the first in Roman history to celebrate the victory of the Romans over the Romans.

In the autumn of 48 BC. e., after receiving news of the death of Pompey, Caesar's colleague in the consulate Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus organized the second appointment of Guy as dictator in absentia. This time the justification for the appointment of an extraordinary magistrate was probably the conduct of the war (the formulation used was rei gerundae causa). The chief of the cavalry was Mark Antony, whom Caesar sent to govern Italy during his stay in Egypt. According to sources, Guy received unlimited power for one year instead of the usual six months for a dictator.

In the autumn of 47 BC. e. The dictatorship expired, but Caesar retained his proconsular powers, and on January 1, 46 BC. e. took up the post of consul. According to the testimony of Dio Cassius, Caesar also received the powers of a plebeian tribune (tribunicia potestas), but some researchers (in particular, H. Scullard) doubt the veracity of this message.

After the Battle of Thapsus, Caesar became dictator for the third time.

The new appointment had a number of unusual features: firstly, there was no formal justification for holding the position, and secondly, the position was for ten years, although it was apparently to be renewed annually. In addition to unlimited power, Guy's supporters organized his election to the special position of "prefect of morals" (praefectus morum or praefectus moribus) for three years, which effectively gave him the powers of a censor.

Since Caesar was already 54 years old at the time of his appointment, the ten-year magistracy of the dictator, taking into account the low average duration life in ancient times was actually considered lifelong.

In 45 BC. e. Guy, in addition to the powers of the dictator, became a consul without a colleague, which did not allow the collegiality inherent in this magistracy to be realized, and only in October did he refuse the consulate, appointing two successors in his place - consul-suffects.

In the same year, Guy expanded his name to include the title "emperor", used to designate a victorious commander (henceforth his full name became Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar).

Finally, at the beginning of 44 BC. e. (no later than February 15) Caesar received another appointment to the post of dictator. This time he received an extraordinary magistracy for life (lat. dictator perpetuus).

Caesar began to make new use of the dictator's magistracy, which had previously been used in exceptional cases. Traditionally, the dictator was appointed for six months, and in the event of a more rapid resolution of the crisis situation, he was expected to resign early. Less than forty years ago, Sulla first awarded the magistracy for an indefinite period, but after the reforms were carried out, he resigned the position and died as a private citizen.

Caesar was the first to directly declare his intention to rule indefinitely. However, in reality, Caesar led the republic by the right of the strong, relying on troops and numerous supporters, and his positions only gave the appearance of legitimacy.

The cult of personality and the sacralization of Caesar:

Caesar strengthened his power not only by occupying new positions, reforming the political system and suppressing the opposition, but also by sacralizing his personality.

First of all, the legend about the relationship of the Julius Caesar family with the goddess Venus was actively used: in accordance with ancient ideas, the descendants of the gods stood out from the general mass of people, and Caesar’s claims as a direct descendant were even more serious.

Wanting to publicly show his connection with the gods, which went beyond simple kinship, the dictator erected a luxuriously decorated temple of Venus in the Forum. It was dedicated not to Venus the Victorious (lat. Venus Victrix), as Caesar originally intended (this was his vow given before the battle of Pharsalus), but to Venus the Progenitor (lat. Venus Genetrix) - the legendary ancestor and Julia (in a straight line) , and at the same time all the Romans. He founded a magnificent cult in the temple and gave it one of the most important places in the hierarchy of Roman organized rituals.

The dictator also organized magnificent games at the temple and ordered them to be held in the future, appointing for this purpose young men from noble families, one of whom was Gaius Octavius. Even earlier, on some coins minted by monetaries from among the representatives of the Julian family, an image of the god Mars was placed, to whom the family also tried to trace their family, although less actively.

Caesar planned to build a temple of Mars in Rome, intended to popularize the lesser-known legend of descent from this god. However, the dictator did not have time to implement this idea, and Octavian put it into practice. Caesar received some of the attributes of sacred power through his position as great pontiff.

From 63 BC e. Caesar not only enjoyed numerous priestly powers, but also enjoyed enormous prestige.

Even before Caesar's first triumph, the Senate decided to grant him a number of honors, which began preparations for the sacralization of the dictator's personality and the establishment of a new state cult. The successful implementation of this decision by the Senate was due to the flight of the majority of adherents of Roman traditions with Pompey and the dominance of “new people” in the Senate. In particular, in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus the dictator's chariot and his statue in the image of the conqueror of the world were installed, and thus the most important temple of Rome became dedicated to both Jupiter and Caesar.

The most important source reporting this honor, Cassius Dio, used the Greek word for "demigod" (ancient Greek ἡμίθεος - hemitheos), which was usually applied to mythological heroes born from the connection of gods and people. However, the dictator did not accept this honor: soon, but not immediately, he canceled this decree.

The news of the dictator's victory at the Battle of Munda reached Rome on the evening of April 20, 45 BC. e., on the eve of the Parilium holiday - according to legend, it was on this day (April 21) that Romulus founded Rome. The organizers decided to hold games the next day in honor of the winner, as if he were the founder of the city. In addition, in Rome it was decided to build a sanctuary of Liberty in honor of Caesar the Liberator (lat. Liberator). The Senate also decided to install on the rostral tribune in the forum, from where the magistrates usually made speeches, a statue of Caesar, facing the people listening to the speakers.

Soon new steps were taken towards the deification of Caesar. First, after the dictator's return to Rome in May, his statue was placed in the temple of Quirinus, a deity identified with Romulus, the mythical founder of Rome. The dedicatory inscription on the statue read: “To the undefeated god.”

At state expense, construction began on a new house for Caesar, and its shape had a significant resemblance to temples - the houses of the gods. At circus performances, an image of Caesar made of gold and ivory was among the images of the gods. Finally, in 45 BC. e. coins were minted with the image of Caesar in profile, although before this, images of living people had never been placed on coins.

At the beginning of 44 BC. e. The Senate, and then the People's Assembly, inspired by Mark Antony, issued a series of decrees granting Caesar new privileges and giving him new honors. Among them - title of father of the fatherland (lat. parens patriae) with the right to place it on coins, the introduction of an oath by the genius of Caesar for the Romans, turning his birthday into a holiday with sacrifices, renaming the month of Quintile to July, introducing a mandatory oath to preserve all his laws for magistrates taking office.

In addition, annual sacrifices were introduced for the safety of Caesar, one tribe was renamed in his honor, and all temples in Rome and Italy were required to install his statues. A college of Julian Luperci (younger priests; lat. Luperci Iuliani) was created, and in Rome the construction of the Temple of Concord was to begin in honor of the pacification of the state. Eventually, the Senate authorized the start of construction of the Temple of Caesar and his Mercy (Latin: Clementia) and created a new priestly position specifically for organizing the worship of the new deity, appointing Mark Antony to it.

The creation of a special position of a priest of the highest level for the veneration of Gaius put him on a par with Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. The other gods of the Roman pantheon were served by priests and colleges of a lower level. The deification of Caesar completed the creation of a new state cult. Lily Ross Taylor believes that in early 44 BC. e. The Senate decided to consider Caesar a god. His deification was finally confirmed posthumously by a special decree of the Second Triumvirate in 42 BC. e.

By 44 BC. e. Caesar also received a number of honors that brought him closer to the Roman kings. So, he constantly wore the clothes of a triumphant and a laurel wreath, which also created the impression of constant triumph.

Suetonius, however, notes that Caesar enjoyed the right to constantly wear a laurel wreath due to baldness.

In addition, he refused to rise from his throne when senators approached him. The latter circumstance caused particular indignation in Rome, since only absolute monarchs enjoyed such privileges. Nevertheless, he stubbornly refused the old Roman title of king (lat. rex), although this could be a consequence of calculation.

February 15, 44 BC e. At the Lupercalia festival, he rejected the diadem proposed by Mark Antony - a symbol of monarchical power. After his assassination, rumors spread that at the meeting on March 15 it was planned to declare him king, but only for the provinces - territories outside Rome and Italy.

Perhaps Caesar did not want the restoration of royal power in its Roman form, since this presupposed the election of a new ruler after the death of the previous one. Lily Ross Taylor has suggested that Guy wanted to create a system in which the transfer of power would be carried out by inheritance, as was customary in Hellenistic monarchies.

In the process of sacralizing his power, the dictator clearly focused on having adopted the traditions of governance from the conquered Persians. In addition, the first steps towards the deification of the Macedonian ruler appeared after a visit to Egypt, as in the case of Caesar, where both rulers could personally become acquainted with monumental evidence of the sacralization of the power of the pharaohs, although Guy was much more cautious in announcing the final deification.

It is possible that for Caesarion, born of Cleopatra - the last living heiress of Alexander's empire - Caesar had further plans that he did not have time to implement. However, the paternity of the dictator was questioned back in ancient times, and Caesarion was never declared the official heir of Gaius.

Reforms of Julius Caesar:

Using a combination of various powers and without encountering open opposition in the Senate and the People's Assembly, Caesar carried out a series of reforms in 49-44 BC. e.

The details of the dictator's activities are known mainly from the works of authors of the Empire era, and there is very little evidence from contemporaries on this issue.

In the field government system Caesar increased the number of most colleges of curule (senior) magistrates. The number of praetors elected annually increased from 8 first to 14 and then to 16. The number of quaestors was increased by 20 people annually, and aediles by 2 due to the aediles ceriales, who controlled the supply of grain.

The number of augurs, pontiffs and members of the college of quindecemvirs also increased.

The dictator arrogated to himself the right to nominate candidates for major positions: at first this was done unofficially, and then he officially received such a right. He removed undesirable candidates from elections. Guy often nominated people of humble origin to high positions: it is known that more than half of the consuls elected under the patronage of Caesar were “new people” (homines novi), among whose ancestors there were no consuls.

The dictator also replenished the Senate, which was empty as a result of civil strife in the 50s BC. e. and civil war. In total, Caesar revised the lists of senators three times and, according to Dio Cassius, eventually brought their number to 900 people, but this number was hardly accurate and constant. Many of the people included in the Senate did not belong to the old Roman families, but to the provincial aristocracy and the equestrian class. Contemporaries, however, spread rumors that the children of freedmen and barbarians were included among the senators.

The dictator revised the system of staffing judges for permanent criminal courts (quaestiones perpetuae), giving half the seats to senators and equestrians instead of the previous third of the seats, which became possible after the exclusion of the Erary tribunes from the collegiums.

Caesar also legislatively replenished the ranks of the patrician class, whose representatives traditionally occupied some important positions in the religious sphere. Most of the patrician families had already died out, and by the middle of the 1st century BC. e. there are only a little more than ten of them left.

Dissolved many public colleges (collegiae), a considerable part of which in the 50s BC. e. used to recruit armed supporters of demagogues and to bribe voters at the polls.

Assessments of Caesar's political reforms vary. A number of researchers see in his political activities the actual establishment of a “democratic monarchy” (Theodor Mommsen), a Hellenistic or Eastern type monarchy (Robert Yurievich Wipper, Eduard Meyer) or the Roman version of an absolute monarchy (Matthias Geltzer, John Balsdon).

In an effort to gain the support of the inhabitants of the provinces, Caesar actively granted them various benefits and privileges. Residents of several cities (in particular, Gades and Olisipo) received full Roman citizenship, and some others (Vienna, Tolosa, Avennio and others) received Latin law.

At the same time, only the cities of the western provinces received Roman citizenship, while the Hellenized policies of Greece and Asia Minor did not receive such privileges, and the Greek cities of Sicily received only Latin law.

Doctors and teachers of the liberal arts living in Rome received full Roman citizenship.

The dictator reduced taxes from Narbonese Gaul, and also transferred the provinces of Asia and Sicily to direct payment of taxes, bypassing tax farmers. The dictator made adjustments to the process of distributing free bread, which took up a significant portion of state budget expenditures. Firstly, the lists of recipients of free bread were halved - from more than 300 to 150 thousand (this reduction is sometimes associated with a drop in the total population due to civil wars). Secondly, some of the previous recipients were able to move to new colonies in various provinces of the Roman state. Caesar's demobilized soldiers also received land plots and did not create additional burden on the grain distribution system.

Among other colonization measures, Caesar repopulated Carthage and Corinth, which had been destroyed simultaneously by the Romans in 146 BC. e. To solve the important task of increasing the number of people suitable for military service, Caesar took various measures to support fathers with many children.

In an effort to limit uncontrolled emigration in the provinces, Caesar forbade full residents of Rome and Italy between the ages of 20 and 40 from leaving the Apennines for more than three years in a row, and the children of senators could go to the provinces only as soldiers or members of the governor's retinue.

To replenish the budgets of urban communities, Caesar decided to return trade duties on imported goods to Italy.

Finally, to partially solve the problem of unemployment, the dictator decreed that at least a third of the shepherds in Italy should be recruited from free people, not slaves.

The task of reducing unemployment was also pursued by Caesar's extensive construction projects both in Rome and outside the capital. By 46 BC. e. The construction of the new Forum of Caesar, which began during the Gallic War, was completed (only the ruins of the temple of Venus the Progenitor, which was founded according to a vow made before the Battle of Pharsalus, have survived to this day). The dictator took it upon himself to rebuild the Senate building, which burned down in 52 BC. BC: Faustus Sulla, to whom the Senate had previously entrusted this mission, was killed during the civil war.

As punishment for a number of crimes, Caesar established exile, and also ordered the confiscation of half of the wealth of the rich.

He also issued new laws against luxury: the use of personal biers, pearl jewelry, and purple-dyed clothing was prohibited, in addition to which the trade in fine products was regulated and the luxury of tombstones was limited.

Guy also planned to create a large library in Rome on the model of Alexandria and Pergamon, entrusting the organization to the encyclopedist Marcus Terence Varro, but the death of the dictator upset these plans.

Finally, in 46 BC e. Caesar announced reform of the Roman calendar. Instead of the previous lunar calendar, a solar calendar was introduced, developed by the Alexandrian scientist Sosigenes and consisting of 365 days with one additional day every four years. However, to carry out the reform it was necessary to first bring the current calendar into line with astronomical time. The new calendar was used everywhere in Europe for sixteen centuries, until the development, on behalf of Pope Gregory XIII, of a slightly refined version of the calendar, called the Gregorian calendar.

Assassination of Julius Caesar:

At the beginning of 44 BC. e. In Rome, a conspiracy arose among the Roman nobles, dissatisfied with the autocracy of Caesar and fearing rumors about his impending naming him king. The masterminds of the conspiracy are considered to be Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. In addition to them, many other prominent persons were involved in the conspiracy - both Pompeians and supporters of Caesar.

The conspiracy that developed around Brutus, apparently, was not the first attempt to kill the dictator: the conspiracy of 46 BC is known, although without details. e. and preparations for the assassination attempt by Gaius Trebonius. At this time, Caesar was preparing for war with Parthia, and rumors spread in Rome about his impending appointment as king and about the transfer of the capital to Troy or Alexandria.

The implementation of the plans of the conspirators was scheduled for a meeting of the Senate in Pompey's curia near his theater on March 15 - the Ides of March according to Roman time. Ancient authors accompany the description of the events preceding the Ides of March with a list of various signs and indications that well-wishers tried to warn the dictator, but by coincidence he did not listen to them or did not believe their words.

After the meeting began, a group of conspirators gathered around Lucius Tillius Cimber, who asked Caesar for forgiveness for his brother, and another group stood behind Caesar. When Cimbri began to pull the toga from Caesar’s neck, signaling to the conspirators, Publius Servilius Casca, who was standing behind, struck the first blow to the dictator’s neck. Caesar fought back, but when he saw Marcus Brutus, he, according to legend, said, “And you, my child!” in Greek (ancient Greek καὶ σὺ τέκνον).

According to Plutarch, Guy fell silent at the sight of Brutus and stopped resisting. The same author notes that Caesar’s body accidentally ended up near the statue of Pompey standing in the room or was deliberately moved there by the conspirators themselves. A total of 23 wounds were found on Caesar's body.

After funeral games and several speeches, the crowd burned Caesar's corpse in the forum, using the benches and tables of market traders for the funeral pyre: “Some proposed to burn it in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, others in the Curia of Pompey, when suddenly two unknown men appeared, belted with swords, waving darts, and set the building on fire with wax torches. Immediately the surrounding crowd began to drag dry brushwood, benches, judge's chairs, and everything that was brought as a gift into the fire. Then the flutists and actors began to tear off their triumphal clothes, worn for such a day, and, tearing them apart, threw them into the flames; the old legionnaires burned the weapons with which they decorated themselves for the funeral, and many women burned the headdresses that they were wearing, bullas and children’s dresses.”.

According to Caesar's will, each Roman received three hundred sesterces from the dictator, and the gardens over the Tiber were transferred to public use. The childless dictator unexpectedly adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius ​​and gave him three-quarters of his fortune. Octavius ​​changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar, although he is better known in historiography as Octavian. Some Caesarians (notably Mark Antony) tried unsuccessfully to have Caesarion recognized as heir instead of Octavian. Subsequently, Antony and Octavian formed a second triumvirate together with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, but after a new civil war, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome.

Shortly after the assassination of Caesar, a bright comet appeared in the sky. Since it was very bright (its absolute magnitude is estimated at - 4.0) and appeared in the sky during Octavian’s ceremonial games in honor of Caesar, a belief spread in Rome that it was the soul of the murdered dictator.

Family and personal life of Julius Caesar:

Caesar was married at least three times.

The status of his relationship with Cossucia, a girl from a wealthy equestrian family, is not entirely clear, which is explained by the poor preservation of sources about Caesar’s childhood and youth. It is traditionally assumed that Caesar and Cossutia were engaged, although Gaius's biographer, Plutarch, considers Cossutia to be his wife.

The dissolution of relations with Cossutia apparently occurred in 84 BC. e.

Very soon Caesar married Cornelia, daughter of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna.

Caesar's second wife was Pompeia, the granddaughter of the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (she was not a relative of Gnaeus Pompey). The marriage took place around 68 or 67 BC. e. In December 62 BC. e. Caesar divorces her after a scandal at the festival of the Good Goddess.

For the third time, Caesar married Calpurnia from a rich and influential plebeian family. This wedding apparently took place in May 59 BC. e.

Around 78 BC e. Cornelia gave birth to Julia. Caesar arranged his daughter's engagement to Quintus Servilius Caepio, but then changed his mind and married her to Gnaeus Pompey.

While in Egypt during the civil war, Caesar cohabited with Cleopatra, and presumably in the summer of 46 BC. e. she gave birth to a son known as Caesarion (Plutarch clarifies that this name was given to him by the Alexandrians, not the dictator). Despite the similarity of names and time of birth, Caesar did not officially recognize the child as his own, and contemporaries knew almost nothing about him before the assassination of the dictator.

After the Ides of March, when Cleopatra's son was left out of the dictator's will, some Caesarians (in particular, Mark Antony) tried to get him recognized as heir instead of Octavian. Due to the propaganda campaign that unfolded around the issue of Caesarion's paternity, it is difficult to establish his relationship with the dictator.

According to the unanimous testimony of ancient authors, Caesar was distinguished by sexual promiscuity. Suetonius gives a list of his most famous mistresses and gives him the following description: “He, by all accounts, was greedy and wasteful for love pleasures.”

A number of documents, in particular, the biography of Suetonius, and one of the epigram poems of Catullus, sometimes make it possible to classify Caesar as one of the famous homosexuals.

Robert Etienne, however, draws attention to the extreme paucity of such evidence - as a rule, the story of Nicomedes is mentioned. Suetonius calls this rumor "the only blemish" on Gaius's sexual reputation. Such hints were also made by ill-wishers. However, modern researchers draw attention to the fact that the Romans reproached Caesar not for homosexual contacts themselves, but only for his passive role in them. The fact is that in Roman opinion, any actions in a “penetrative” role were considered normal for a man, regardless of the gender of the partner. On the contrary, the passive role of a man was considered reprehensible. According to Dio Cassius, Guy vehemently denied all hints about his connection with Nicomedes, although he usually rarely lost his temper.

Name: Gaius Julius Caesar

Age: 56 years old

Place of Birth: Rome, Italy

A place of death: Rome, Italy

Activity: Ancient Roman commander

Family status: was married

Gaius Julius Caesar - biography

Words symbolizing power still remind us of him - tsar, Caesar, Kaiser, emperor. Julius Caesar Guy was endowed with many talents, but he remained in history thanks to the main one - his ability to please people

Origin played a significant role in Caesar's success - the Julian family, according to the biography, was one of the most ancient in Rome. Julia traced their ancestry back to the legendary Aeneas, the son of the goddess Venus herself, who fled from Troy and founded the dynasty of Roman kings. Caesar was born in 102 BC, when his aunt's husband Gaius Marius defeated an army of thousands of Germans at the borders of Italy. His father, whose name was also Gaius Julius Caesar, did not reach heights in his career. He was proconsul of Asia. However, Caesar the Younger’s relationship with Marius promised the young man a brilliant career.

At the age of sixteen, Guy the Younger married Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, Marius's closest ally. In 82 or 83 BC. they had a daughter, Julia, Caesar’s only legitimate child, despite the fact that he began to father illegitimate children in his youth. Often leaving his wife alone to get bored, the descendant of Venus fun company drinking companions wandered around the taverns. The only thing that distinguished him from his peers was his love of reading - Guy read all the books in Latin and Greek that he could find, and more than once amazed his interlocutors with his knowledge in various fields.

Being a fan of ancient sages. he did not believe in the permanence of his life, peaceful and prosperous. And he turned out to be right - after the death of Mary, a civil war broke out in Rome. The leader of the aristocratic party, Sulla, came to power and began repressions against the Marians. Guy, who refused to divorce Cinna's daughter, was deprived of his property, and he himself was forced to go into hiding. “Look for the wolf cub, there are a hundred Maries sitting in it!” - demanded the dictator. But by that time Caesar had already left for Asia Minor, to the friends of his recently deceased father.

Not far from Miletus, his ship was captured by pirates. The smartly dressed young man attracted their attention, and they asked for a large ransom for him - 20 talents of silver. “You value me inexpensively!” - Caesar answered and offered 50 talents for himself. Having sent his servant to collect the ransom, he spent two months as a “guest” with the pirates.

Caesar behaved very impudently with the robbers - he forbade them to sit in his presence, called them boors and threatened to crucify them on the cross. Having finally received the money, the pirates were relieved to let the impudent man go. Caesar immediately rushed to the Roman military authorities, equipped a couple of ships and overtook his captors in the same place where he was held captive. Having taken their money, he actually crucified the robbers - however, those who were sympathetic to him, he first ordered to be strangled.

Sulla had died by that time, but his supporters from the Optimates party retained influence, and Caesar was in no hurry to return to the capital. He spent a year in Rhodes, where he studied eloquence - the ability to make speeches was necessary for the politician, which he firmly intended to become.

From the school of Apollonius Molon, where Cicero himself studied, Guy emerged as a brilliant orator, ready to conquer the capital. He made his first speech in 68 BC. at the funeral of his aunt, the widow Maria, he passionately praised the disgraced commander and his reforms, causing a stir among the Sullans. It is curious that at the funeral of his wife, who died during an unsuccessful birth a year earlier, he did not utter a word.

The speech in defense of Marius was the beginning of his election campaign - Caesar put forward his candidacy for the post of quaestor. This insignificant post provided the opportunity to become a praetor, and then a consul - the highest representative of power in the Roman Republic. Having borrowed from anyone a huge sum, a thousand talents, Caesar spent it on luxurious feasts and gifts to those. on whom his election depended. At that time, two generals, Pompey and Crassus, were fighting for power in Rome, to whom Caesar alternately offered his support.

This earned him the position of quaestor and then aedile, the official in charge of the festivities in the Eternal City. Unlike other politicians, he generously gave the people not bread, but entertainment - either gladiator fights, or musical competitions, or the anniversary of a long-forgotten victory. Ordinary Romans were delighted with him. He earned the sympathy of the educated public by creating a public museum on Capitol Hill, where he exhibited his rich collection of Greek statues. As a result, he was elected without any problems to the position of Supreme Pontiff, that is, priest.

Believing in nothing but my luck. Caesar had difficulty remaining serious during lavish religious ceremonies. However, the position of pontiff made him inviolable. This saved his life when the Catalina conspiracy was discovered in 62. The conspirators were going to offer Caesar the post of dictator. They were executed, but Guy survived.

In the same year 62, he became praetor, but accumulated so many debts that he was forced to leave Rome and go to Spain as governor. There he quickly made a fortune, ruining rebellious cities to the ground. He generously shared the surplus with his soldiers, saying: “Power is strengthened by two things - troops and money, and one is unthinkable without the other.” Grateful soldiers declared him emperor - this ancient title was given as a reward for a major victory, although the governor did not win a single such victory.

After this, Caesar was elected consul, but this position was no longer the limit of his dreams. The republican system was living out its last days, things were moving toward autocracy, and Guy was determined to become the true ruler of the Eternal City. To do this, he had to enter into an alliance with Pompey and Crassus, whom he briefly reconciled.

In 60, a triumvirate of new allies seized power. To seal the alliance, Caesar gave his daughter Julia to Pompey, and he himself married his niece. Moreover, rumor attributed to him a relationship with the wives of Crassus and Pompey. And other Roman matrons, according to rumors, were not spared the attention of the loving descendant of Venus. The soldiers sang a song about him: “Hide your wives - we are leading a bald libertine into the city!”

He really went bald at an early age, was embarrassed about it, and obtained permission from the Senate to constantly wear the triumphant laurel wreath on his head. Bald. according to Suetonius. was the only flaw in Caesar's biography. He was tall, well built, had fair skin, black and lively eyes. He was moderate in food, and he also drank very little for a Roman; even his enemy Cato said that “Caesar was the only one who carried out a coup d’etat while sober.”

He also had another nickname - “the husband of all wives and the wife of all husbands.” According to rumors, in Asia Minor, young Caesar had an affair with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes. Well, the morals in Rome at that time were such that this could well be true. In any case, Caesar never tried to silence the scoffers, professing the completely modern principle of “no matter what they say, as long as they say it.” They said mostly good things - in his new post, he still generously supplied the Roman mob with spectacles, to which he now added bread. People's love was not cheap, the consul again fell into debt and, in irritation, called himself “the poorest of citizens.”

He sighed with relief when, after a year as consul, he had to resign, according to Roman custom. Caesar got the Senate to send him to rule Schlia - present-day France. The Romans owned only a small part of this rich country. In eight years, Caesar managed to conquer all of Scotland. But, oddly enough, many Gauls loved him - having learned their language, he asked with interest about their religion and customs.

Today, his “Notes on the Gallic War” is not only the main source of biography about the Gauls, who went into oblivion not without the help of Caesar, but one of the first examples of political PR in history. Caesar boasted in them. that he took 800 cities by storm, exterminated a million enemies, and enslaved another million, giving their lands to Roman veterans. Grateful veterans told on all corners that Caesar walked with them on campaigns, encouraging those lagging behind. He rode his horse like a natural rider. He slept in a cart under the open sky, only covering himself with a canopy when it rained. At a halt, he dictated two or even three letters to several secretaries on different topics.

Caesar's correspondence, which was so lively in those years, was explained by the fact that after the death of Crassus in the Persian campaign, the triumvirate came to an end. Pompey increasingly distrusted Caesar, who had already surpassed him in both fame and wealth. At his insistence, the Senate recalled Caesar from Gillia and ordered him to report to Rome, leaving the army on the border.

The decisive moment has arrived. At the beginning of 49, Caesar approached the border river Rubicon north of Rimini and ordered five thousand of his soldiers to cross it and march on Rome. They say that at the same time he uttered another historical phrase - “the die is cast.” In fact, the die was cast much earlier, even when young Guy was mastering the intricacies of politics.

Even then he realized that power is given into the hands only of those who sacrifice everything else for it - friendship, family, a sense of gratitude. Pompey's former son-in-law, who helped him a lot at the beginning of his career, now became his main enemy and, not having time to gather his strength, fled to Greece. Caesar and his army went after him and... without allowing him to come to his senses, he defeated his army at Pharsalus. Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where local dignitaries killed him, deciding to earn Caesar's favor.

He was quite happy with this outcome, especially since it gave him the opportunity to send an army against the Egyptians, accusing them of murdering a Roman citizen. Having demanded a huge ransom for this, he was going to pay off the army, but everything turned out differently. Young Cleopatra, the sister of the ruling king Ptolemy XTV, who came to the commander, unexpectedly offered herself to him - and at the same time her kingdom.

Before leaving for Gaul, Caesar married for the third time - to the rich heiress Calpurnia, but was indifferent to her. He fell in love with the Egyptian queen as if she had bewitched him. But over time, she also experienced a real feeling for the aging conqueror of the world. Later, Caesar, under a hail of reproaches, received Cleopatra in Rome, and she listened to even worse reproaches for going to him, the first of the Egyptian rulers to leave the sacred Nile Valley.

In the meantime, the lovers found themselves besieged by the rebel Egyptians in the harbor of Alexandria. To save themselves, the Romans set the city on fire. destroying the famous library. They managed to hold out until reinforcements arrived, and the uprising was suppressed. On his way home, Caesar casually defeated the army of the Pontic king Pharnaces, reporting this to Rome with the famous phrase: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

He had to fight twice more with Pompey's followers - in Africa and Spain. Only in 45 he returned to Rome, devastated by civil wars, and was declared dictator for life. Caesar himself preferred to call himself emperor - this emphasized his connection with the army and military victories.

Having achieved the desired power, Caesar managed to do three important things. First, he reformed the Roman calendar, which the sarcastic Greeks called “the worst in the world.” With the help of Egyptian astronomers. sent by Cleopatra, he divided the year into 12 months and ordered an extra leap day to be added to it every four years. The new Julian calendar turned out to be the most accurate of the existing ones and lasted for one and a half thousand years, and the Russian Church still uses it. Second, he gave amnesty to all his political opponents. Third, he began to mint gold coins, on which, instead of gods, the emperor himself was depicted in a laurel wreath. After Caesar, they began to officially call him the Son of God.

From this it was only a step to the royal title. Flatterers had long offered him the crown, and Cleopatra had just given birth to his son Caesarion, who could become his heir. It seemed tempting to Caesar to found a new dynasty, uniting the two great powers. However, when his closest ally Mark Antony publicly wanted to put a golden royal crown on him, Caesar pushed him away. Maybe he decided that the time had not yet come, perhaps he didn’t want to turn from the only emperor in the world into an ordinary king, of which there were many around.

The little that was done is easy to explain - Caesar ruled Rome peacefully for less than two years. The fact that he was remembered for centuries as a great statesman is another manifestation of his charisma, which affects his descendants as strongly as his contemporaries. He planned new reforms, but the Roman treasury was empty. To replenish it. Caesar decided on a new military campaign, which promised to make the Roman emperor the greatest conqueror in history. He decided to crush the Persian kingdom, and then return to Rome by the northern route, conquering the Armenians, Scythians and Germans.

When leaving the capital, he had to leave reliable people “on the farm” in order to avoid a possible rebellion. Caesar had three such people: his devoted comrade-in-arms Mark Antony, his adopted son, Gaius Octavian, and the son of his longtime mistress Servilia, Mark Brutus. Antony attracted Caesar with the decisiveness of a warrior, Octavian with the cold prudence of a politician. It is more difficult to understand what connected Caesar with the already middle-aged Brutus, a boring pedant, an ardent supporter of the republic. Nevertheless, Caesar promoted him to power, publicly calling him his “dear son.” Perhaps, with the sober mind of a politician, he understood that someone should remind him of the republican virtues, without which Rome would rot and perish. At the same time, Brutus could reconcile his two comrades, who clearly did not like each other.

Caesar, who knew everything and everyone. didn't know - or didn't want to know. -that his “son”, along with other Republicans, is preparing a conspiracy against him. The Emperor was informed about this more than once, but he brushed it aside, saying: “If this is so, then it is better to die once than to constantly live in fear.” The assassination attempt was scheduled for the Ides of March - the 15th day of the month, when the emperor was supposed to appear in the Senate. Suetonius' detailed account of this event creates the impression of a tragic action in which Caesar, as if to perfection, played the role of a victim, a martyr of the monarchical idea. At the Senate building, he was given a warning note, but he waved it off.

One of the conspirators, Decimus Brutus, distracted the burly Anthony at the entrance so as not to interfere. Tillius Cymbrus grabbed Caesar by the toga - this is a signal to the others - and Servilius Casca dealt him the first blow. Then the blows rained down one after another - each of the killers tried to make their contribution, and in the melee they even wounded each other. Then the conspirators parted, and Brutus approached the barely alive dictator, leaning against a column. The “Son” silently raised the dagger, and the struck Caesar fell dead, having managed to utter the last historical phrase: “And you, Brutus!”

As soon as this happened, the horror-stricken senators, who became unwitting spectators of the murder, rushed to run. The killers also fled, throwing away their bloody daggers. Caesar's corpse lay in an empty building for a long time until the faithful Calpurnia sent slaves to fetch him. The dictator's body was burned in the Roman Forum, where the temple of the divine Julius was later erected. The month of the quintiles was renamed July (Iulius) in his honor.

The conspirators hoped that the Romans would be faithful to the spirit of the republic. but the firm power established by Caesar seemed more attractive than republican chaos. Very soon the townspeople rushed to look for the emperor's killers and put them to brutal death. Suetonius ended his story about the biography of Gaius Julia with the words: “Of his murderers, none lived more than three years after that. They all died in different ways, and Brutus and Cassius killed themselves with the same dagger with which they killed Caesar.”