Phraseology is a branch of the science of language that studies stable combinations of words. Phraseologism is a stable combination of words, or a stable expression. Used to name objects, signs, actions. It is an expression that arose once, became popular and became entrenched in people's speech. The expression is endowed with figurativeness and may have figurative sense. Over time, an expression can take on a broad meaning in everyday life, partially including the original meaning or completely excluding it.

The phraseological unit as a whole has lexical meaning. The words included in a phraseological unit individually do not convey the meaning of the entire expression. Phraseologisms can be synonymous (at the end of the world, where the raven did not bring bones) and antonymous (raise to heaven - trample into the dirt). A phraseological unit in a sentence is one member of the sentence. Phraseologisms reflect a person and his activities: work (golden hands, playing the fool), relationships in society (bosom friend, putting a spoke in the wheels), personal qualities (turning up his nose, sour face), etc. Phraseologisms make a statement expressive and create imagery. Set expressions are used in works of art, in journalism, in everyday speech. Set expressions are also called idioms. There are many idioms in other languages ​​- English, Japanese, Chinese, French.

To clearly see the use of phraseological units, refer to their list or on the page below.

Phraseological expressions

Phrases that are stable in their composition, semantically divisible and consisting entirely of words with free meanings (which brings them closer to free phrases), but in the process of communication are reproduced as ready-made speech units (which brings them closer to phraseological units). Phraseological expressions include sayings and proverbs that are in the nature of figurative typification, various kinds of sayings, catchwords, as well as stable combinations that perform a nominative function (socialist competition, supporters of peace, labor successes, etc.). cm. also popular words, saying, proverb.

Dictionary-reference book linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

See what “phraseological expressions” are in other dictionaries:

- (according to N.M. Shansky) Stable expressions that appeared in the language under the influence of one or another literary source or were established in oral and written use, statements of historical figures, cultural figures, artists: So go... ... Terms and concepts of linguistics: Vocabulary. Lexicology. Phraseology. Lexicography

winged words as phraseological expressions- (according to N.M. Shansky) Stable expressions that appeared in the language under the influence of one or another literary source or were established in oral and written use by statements of historical figures, cultural figures, artists: So go... ...

Phraseological tracing papers- – borrowing figures of speech, set expressions in the form of their translations. In Russian in the language such tracings are the following expressions: second thought (from French arriere pansee), playing a double game (from French jouer le double jeu), lies have short legs (from German... ... Language contacts: a short dictionary

Profanity (obscene language, unprintable language) or obscene language (from the English obscene obscene, dirty, shameless) segment of abusive language different languages, including the coarsest (obscene, obscenely vile, ... ... Wikipedia

Expressions that are integral in meaning

Expressions that are integral in meaning- Expressions that are integral in meaning are not distinguished by punctuation marks. 1. A comma is not placed before a subordinating conjunction or allied word as part of indecomposable combinations, for example: to do as it should (as expected, as it should be), ... ... A reference book on spelling and style

1) narration: a) lexical means: designation of the place of action, the actions themselves, persons and other objects; words emphasizing the sequence of actions (then, then, etc.); b) morphological: verbs of movement, perception, initial... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

linguistic means of expression typical for narration, description, reasoning- 1) narration: a) lexical means: designations of the place of action, the actions themselves, persons and other objects; words emphasizing the sequence of actions (then, then, etc.); b) morphological: verbs of movement, perception, initial... Methods of research and text analysis. Dictionary-reference book

It is proposed to merge this page with ... Wikipedia

Phraseologism- (phraseological unit) the general name of semantically related combinations of words and sentences, which, unlike syntactic structures similar to them in form, are not produced in accordance with general patterns selection and combination... ... Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

Books

• Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova. Single volume Dictionary The Russian language contains 80,000 words and phraseological expressions (counting head words, derivative words placed in the word-formation nest, and...
• Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 120,000 words and phraseological expressions, Ozhegov Sergey Ivanovich. From the publisher The one-volume explanatory dictionary of the Russian language contains 120,000 words and phraseological expressions (counting head words, derivative words placed in word-formative...

This is a type of phraseological unit consisting entirely of free words.

Example: all ages are submissive to love, spin like a squirrel in a wheel.

Phraseological expressions can include both phrases and sentences. The function of phraseological expressions, unlike all the groups presented above, is communication, they are sentences, and these are complete units of communication. For example: Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees(Vinogradov, 1977, p. 35).

In semantic terms, phraseological expressions are often aphorisms or edifying statements. Example: If you like to ride, you also like to carry sleds(Vinogradov, 1977, p. 36).

Syntactically, these are sentences different types, can be subjected to syntactic analysis (Vinogradov, 1977, p. 38).

But not all linguists include phraseological expressions in phraseology. Opponents of their inclusion in phraseology, scientists S.I. Ozhegov, N.N. Amosov and A.V. Kalinin, justify their opinion by the fact that these are communicative, complete and free units (Babkin, 2001, p. 59).

N.M. Shansky advocates their inclusion in a number of phraseological units, based on the common characteristics of proverbs and sayings and phraseological units, namely their common use and the ability to reproduce them in speech in finished form (Shansky, 1985, p. 101)

Despite the active use of this classification, it has two drawbacks: firstly, it does not cover the entire variety of phraseological units, and secondly, it is not always possible to correlate a phraseological unit with any of the groups and classify it. However, the establishment of the main types of phraseological units in accordance with the classification of V.V. Vinogradov currently seems to be the most scientifically substantiated.

The basis for another classification of phraseological units is the grammatical structure of phraseological units. According to the structure of phraseological units, N.M. Shansky divided into two groups:

· corresponding to the offer;

· corresponding to a combination of words (Shansky, 1985, p. 103).

Since in a sentence phraseological units act as one member of the sentence, we can talk about their indivisibility and coherence. In a sentence, phraseological units can be any member of it.

Another classification is based on the correlation of phraseological units with parts of speech and the similarity of their syntactic functions; it was substantiated by V.V. Vinogradov, and later clarified by A.V. Kunin (Kunin, 1967, p.44):

1. Nominal phraseological units. The main component is the noun. They indicate a person: Kazan orphan (pretending to be unhappy, pathetic), forbidden fruit (something tempting, but forbidden.(Vinogradov, 1977, p.92).In a sentence, nominal phraseological units are used in the syntactic function of the subject, the nominal part of the compound predicate, and complement. Eg, white crow (stands out from society)(Molotkov, 1978, p. 23).

2. Verb phraseological units. The largest group. The main component is the verb or gerund. Verbal phraseological units unite general meaning actions. For example: lose your head (lose self-control), get into a bottle (get irritated over trifles)(Vinogradov, 1977, p.95). In a sentence, verbal phraseological units have the function of a predicate. For example, give up (despair, stop acting)(Molotkov, 1978, p. 259).

3. Adjective phraseological units - represent a qualitative characteristic of a person ( ate little porridge - young, not strong enough; on your mind - secretive, cunning) and qualitative characteristics of the item (brand new - new, elegant; fingers lick it - something tasty, tempting).(Vinogradov, 1977, p.96). In a sentence, adjectival phraseological units are used in the syntactic function of an inconsistent definition. Eg, fire tower (high)(Molotkov, 1978, p. 137).

4. Adverbial phraseological units - indicate a qualitative characteristic of an action (working tirelessly - trying; halfheartedly - overcoming difficulties) or the degree of qualitative characteristics (to the marrow of the bones - completely and completely; one hundred percent - absolute)(Vinogradov, 1977, p. 97). In a sentence, adverbial phraseological units play the role of various circumstances. Eg, carelessly (casually)(Molotkov, 1978, p. 341).

5. Interjective phraseological units. Express various feelings, emotions, will. For example: well, well! when expressing surprise; damn it! - an exclamation of surprise, annoyance or indignation (Vinogradov, 1977, p. 97). Eg, Wow!

Some phraseological units are not associated with parts of speech, but play the role of addresses or introductory words. An example of phraseological units - introductory words: as if not so! (expression of disagreement) (Vinogradov, 1977, p. 98).

Thus, the classification of phraseological units is based on various parameters: their structure, the degree of dissection of their semantics, the functions that they perform in speech. V.V. Vinogradov characterized phraseological units from the lexical-semantic side and identified phraseological unities, phraseological fusions, phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions. N.M. Shansky, E.I. Dibrov classify phraseological units depending on their grammatical structure.

You can also classify phraseological units according to their origin; in this case, the following types of phraseological units are distinguished:

· Original Russian phraseology, within which it is possible to identify common Slavic phraseological units ( naked as a falcon, neither fish nor fowl, take it to the quick), East Slavic ( neither cola nor courtyard, under Tsar Pea, to plant a pig), Russians themselves ( with gulkin's nose, with the whole world, put it on the back burner, in full Ivanovo, reel in the fishing rods, pull the gimp). The first have correspondences in the others Slavic languages, the second - only in Ukrainian and Belarusian, and the third are characteristic only of the Russian language.

· A separate type is represented by phraseological units that are borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language: forbidden fruit, promised land, fiend of hell, manna from heaven, proverb, daily bread, by the sweat of the brow, bone from bone, voice of one crying in the wilderness, Babylonian pandemonium. Their source was in church books (the Bible, the Gospel), which were translated into Old Church Slavonic.

· Another type is represented by phraseological units that came to the Russian language from ancient mythology: Achilles' heel, Gordian knot, Procrustean bed, sword of Damocles, Augean stables. It is worth noting that most of these phraseological units function in other languages, which gives them the international character of catch phrases that go back to antiquity.

· Phraseologisms borrowed from European languages ​​at a later time. These include idioms from world literature: To be or not to be (W. Shakespeare); Abandon hope, everyone who enters here (A. Dante).

· Phraseologisms borrowed from other languages ​​by tracing. Calques in this case are a literal translation from the source language: blue stocking, time is money, kill time (fr. tuer le temps), Honeymoon(French la lune de miel), that's where the dog is buried (German: Da ist der Hund begraben).

In one of scientific works V.N. Telia (“What is phraseology?”) (Telia, 1966, p. 30). The classification of phraseological units is given in accordance with the nature of the relationship of phraseological units with the lexical level:

1. She classifies phraseological units as the first type, in which one member is the word in its free use, and the other is the word constituting the phrase, with its specific form of existence. For example: Augean stables.

2. The second type includes phraseological units in which there is a complete loss of semantic connections of their components and elements of the lexical system of the language. As a result, they became a kind of separately formed words. For example: Indian summer.

3. The third type includes phraseological units, which are “quotations”. In other words, they are reproduced from some source (proverbs, catchphrases, literary and journalistic cliches or cliches) (Teliya, 1966, p. 30).

The nature and specificity of phraseological units of the Russian language are largely determined by the function they perform in language and speech:

· nominative - the ability of phraseological units to serve as names for objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, i.e. phraseological units perform the function of a secondary means of expressing a concept;

· communicative - phraseological units act as a means of communication or message;

· pragmatic - it is possible to strengthen the pragmatic orientation of the message transmitted to the addressee with phraseological units;

· cumulative - phraseological units of semantic structure, as well as a reflection of the national and spiritual culture of the people;

· stylistic - thanks to the use of phraseological units in speech, a statement can become more rich, expressive, and emotional;

· emotional - expressive - phraseological units can express the emotional assessment of the speaker in relation to phenomena and objects of the surrounding reality;

· aesthetic - it is possible to convey the aesthetic feelings of the speaker by phraseological units (Shansky, 1985, p. 39).

The listed functions, implemented by phraseological units in language and speech, allow phraseological units to be an important means of emotional and expressive expression, without which no one can do without to the talking person. Phraseology is mainly served by emotional sphere language. Accordingly, the emergence of a phraseological unit facilitates the figurative and expressive characterization of a concept, the expression of the speaker’s relationship to a given concept, and the opportunity to express the speaker’s emotional attitude/state/evaluation.

Chapter 1 Conclusions

The phraseological corpus of the Russian language is a source that provides enrichment literary language new expressive and visual possibilities.

A phraseological unit is an independent, nominative unit of language, which is a stable combination of words that expresses a holistic phraseological meaning and is correlated in function with individual words.

Phraseologisms collectively represent a system in which phraseological units are part of various paradigms (synonymous, antonymic, homonymous), united by integral features; are characterized by lexico-syntactic selective compatibility with other words in speech, and have an obligatory and probabilistic verbal environment.

The signs of phraseological units and the basis for their classification were laid down in the works of S. Bally and V.V. Vinogradova.

In accordance with the aspect of the study, various classifications of phraseological units have been created.

Phraseologisms are usually classified:

· According to the degree of semantic divisibility/indivisibility of the components of a phraseological unit.

· Depending on their grammatical structure.

· According to the syntactic functions performed and correlation with parts of speech.

· By the nature of the relationship between phraseological units and the lexical level.

· By origin.

The nature and specificity of phraseological units are largely determined by the functions of phraseological units in language and speech.

The main functions of phraseological units are:

· nominative;

· communicative;

· pragmatic;

· cumulative;

· stylistic;

· Emotionally expressive;

· aesthetic.

The nominative function of phraseological units with an indifferent-evaluative meaning is to identify the properties of the denoted; idioms with the qualification of the properties of the denoted include evaluative and emotive connotations in their semantics.

A phraseological combination (collocation) is a stable phrase that includes words with both a free meaning and those with a phraseologically related, non-free meaning (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable phrases, but their holistic meaning follows from the meanings of the individual words that make them up.

Unlike phraseological adhesions and unities, combinations are semantically divisible - their composition allows limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in phrases burn with love, hatred, shame, impatience word burn out is a constant member with a phraseologically related meaning.

A limited range of words, determined by semantic relationships within the language system, can be used as variable members of a combination: for example, a phraseological combination burn with passion is a hypernym in relation to combinations like burn from..., and due to varying the variable part, the formation of synonymous series is possible burn with shame, disgrace, disgrace, burn with jealousy, thirst for revenge.

Another example: English. to show one's teeth"snarl" (literally - "show your teeth"). The word exhibits semantic independence in this combination one's"someone's". It can be replaced with words my, your, his etc.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions are phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically distinct, but also consist entirely of words with a free nominative meaning. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in a phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then it is a proverb or a catchphrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. The category of phraseological expressions also includes speech cliches - stable formulas like best wishes, see you again and so on.

Many linguists do not classify phraseological expressions as phraseological units, since they lack the basic features of phraseological units.

Pleonasm

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Pleonasm(from ancient Greek πλεονασμός - superfluous, excess) - a turn of speech in which some element of meaning is duplicated; the presence of several linguistic forms expressing the same meaning within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as the linguistic expression itself, in which there is such duplication.

The term “pleonasm” comes from ancient stylistics and grammar. Ancient authors give different assessments of pleonasm. Quintilian, Donatus, and Diomedo define pleonasm as overloading of speech with unnecessary words, and therefore as a stylistic defect. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines this figure as the enrichment of speech with words that, at first glance, are superfluous, but in reality give it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, and pathos, which are not feasible in laconic speech.

Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautologies and, in part, periphrases. Relationship between terms pleonasm And tautology is understood differently by linguists. Pleonasm is a linguistic term, tautology is both linguistic and logical (although in logic this word is used in a completely different sense).

Phraseological phrases are the scourge of everyone who studies a foreign language, because when faced with them, a person often cannot understand what they mean we're talking about. Often, in order to understand the meaning of a particular statement, you have to use a dictionary of phraseological combinations, which is not always at hand. However, there is a way out - you can develop the ability to recognize phraseological units, then it will be easier to understand their meaning. True, for this you need to know what types there are and how they differ. Special attention in this matter it is worth paying attention to phraseological combinations, since they (due to in various ways their classifications) create the most problems. So, what is it, what are they? distinctive features and in which dictionaries can you find hints?

Phraseology and the subject of its study

The science of phraseology, which specializes in the study of various stable combinations, is relatively young. In Russian linguistics, it began to stand out as a separate section only in the 18th century, and even then at the end of this century, thanks to Mikhail Lomonosov.

Its most famous researchers are linguists Viktor Vinogradov and Nikolai Shansky, and in English language- A. McKay, W. Weinreich and L. P. Smith. By the way, it is worth noting that English-speaking linguists, unlike Slavic specialists, pay much less attention to phraseological units, and the stock of them in this language is inferior to Russian, Ukrainian or even Polish.

The main subject on which this discipline concentrates its attention is phraseological units or phraseological units. What is it? This is a combination of several words that is stable in structure and composition (it is not compiled anew every time, but is used in a ready-made form). For this reason, during syntactic analysis, a phraseological unit, regardless of its type and the length of its constituent words, always appears as a single member of a sentence.

In each language it is a unique thing associated with its history and culture. It cannot be fully translated without losing its meaning. Therefore, when translating, phraseological units that already have similar meanings that exist in another language are most often selected.

For example, a well-known English phraseological combination: “Keep your fingers on the pulse”, which literally means “keep your fingers on the pulse”, but has the meaning of “keep abreast of events”. However, since there is no one hundred percent analogue in Russian, it is replaced with a very similar one: “Keep your hand on the pulse.”

Sometimes, due to the close proximity of countries, similar phraseological units appear in their languages, and then there are no problems with translation. So, Russian expression“beat the thumbs” (idle) has its twin brother in the Ukrainian language - “byty baidyky”.

Often similar expressions come into several languages ​​at the same time due to some important event, for example, such as Christianization. Despite belonging to different Christian denominations, in Ukrainian, French, Spanish, German, Slovak, Russian and Polish languages a common phraseological unit is “alpha and omega,” taken from the Bible and meaning “from beginning to end” (completely, thoroughly).

Types of phraseological units

On the issue of classification of phraseological units, linguists have not yet come to a common opinion. Some additionally include proverbs (“You can’t live without the sun, you can’t live without your sweetheart”), sayings (“God won’t give you away - the pig won’t eat you”) and language cliches (“warm support”, “work environment”). But for now they are in the minority.

On this moment The most popular classification in East Slavic languages ​​is the classification of linguist Viktor Vinogradov, who divided all stable phrases into three key categories:

• Phraseological fusions.
• Phraseological unities.
• Phraseological combinations.

Many linguists correlate fusions and unities with the term “idiom” (by the way, this word has the same root as the noun “idiot”), which is actually a synonym for the noun “phraseologism”. This is due to the fact that sometimes it is very difficult to draw the line between them. This name is worth remembering, since in English phraseological adhesions, unities, and combinations are translated precisely with its help - idioms.

Question about phraseological expressions

Colleague Shansky insisted on the existence of a fourth type - expressions. In fact, he divided Vinogradov’s phraseological combinations into two categories: actual combinations and expressions.

Although Shansky’s classification leads to confusion in the practical distribution of stable phrases, it allows us to take a deeper look at this linguistic phenomenon.

What is the difference between phraseological fusions, phraseological unities, phraseological combinations

First of all, it is worth understanding that these stable units were divided into these types according to the level of lexical independence of their components.

Phrases that are absolutely inseparable, the meaning of which is not related to the meaning of their components, were called phraseological adjuncts. For example: “to sharpen your lasses” (have a stupid conversation), to wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve (to be frank, literally means “to wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve”). By the way, fusions are characterized by figurativeness; most often they arise from folk speech, especially outdated expressions or from ancient books.

They are a more independent species in relation to its components. Unlike adjuncts, their semantics is determined by the meaning of their components. For this reason, puns are included here. For example: “small but daring” (a person who does something well, despite his unimpressive external data) or the Ukrainian phraseological unit: “katyuzi deservedly” (the culprit received a punishment corresponding to his own offense). By the way, both examples illustrate a unique feature of unities: rhyming consonances. Perhaps that is why Viktor Vinogradov included sayings and proverbs among them, although their belonging to phraseological units is still disputed by many linguists.

Third type: free phraseological combinations of words. They are quite noticeably different from the two above. The fact is that the meaning of their components directly affects the meaning of the entire turnover. For example: “heavy drinking”, “raise a question”.

Phraseological combinations in Russian (as in Ukrainian and English) have special property: their components can be replaced with synonyms without loss of meaning: “to hurt honor” - “to hurt pride”, “raspberry ringing” - “melodic ringing”. As an example from the language of the proud British, the idiom to show one’s teeth (show teeth), which can be adapted for any person: to show my (your, his, her, our) teeth.

Phraseological expressions and combinations: distinctive features

The classification of Viktor Vinogradov, in which only one analytical type (phraseological combinations) was distinguished by composition, was gradually supplemented by Nikolai Shansky. It was quite easy to distinguish between idioms and combinations (due to their differences in structure). But Shansky’s new unit - expressions (“to be afraid of wolves, don’t go into the forest”) was more difficult to distinguish from combinations.

But, if you delve into the question, you can notice a clear difference, which is based on the meaning of phraseological combinations. Thus, expressions consist of absolutely free words that fully possess independent semantics (“all that glitters is not gold”). However, they differ from ordinary phrases and sentences in that they are stable expressions that are not composed in a new way, but are used ready-made, like a template: “radish horseradish is not sweeter” (Ukrainian version “radish horseradish is not malted”).

Phraseological combinations (“give your head to be cut off” - “give your hand to be cut off”) always contain several words with an unmotivated meaning, while all components of the expressions are absolutely semantically independent (“Man - that sounds proud”). By the way, this feature makes some linguists doubt whether the expressions belong to phraseological units.

Which combination of words is not a phraseological phrase?

Phraseologisms, from a lexical point of view, are unique phenomenon: on the one hand, they have all the characteristics of phrases, but at the same time they are closer in their properties to words. Knowing these features, you can easily learn to distinguish stable phraseological combinations, unities, fusions or expressions from ordinary phrases.

• Phraseologisms, like phrases, consist of several interconnected lexemes, but most often their meaning is unable to go beyond the sum of the meanings of their components. For example: “lose your head” (stop thinking straight) and “lose your wallet.” The words that make up a phraseological unit are most often used in a figurative sense.
• When used orally and writing the composition of phrases is formed anew each time. But unities and fusions are constantly reproduced in finished form (which makes them similar to speech clichés). Phraseological combinations of words and phraseological expressions in this matter are sometimes confusing. For example: “to hang one’s head” (to be sad), although it is a phraseological unit, each of its components can freely appear in ordinary phrases: “to hang one’s coat” and “to lower one’s head.”
• A phraseological phrase (due to the integrity of the meaning of its components) in most cases can be safely replaced with a synonymous word, which cannot be done with a phrase. For example: the expression “servant of Melpomene” can easily be changed to the simple word “artist” or “actor”.
• Phraseologisms never act as names. For example, the hydronym “Dead Sea” and phraseological combinations “dead season” (unpopular season), “lying as a dead weight” (lying as an unused load).

Classification of phraseological units by origin

Considering the question of the origin of phraseological combinations, expressions, unities and adhesions, they can be divided into several groups.

Other classifications: version by Peter Dudik

• In addition to Vinogradov and Shansky, other linguists tried to separate phraseological units, guided by their own principles. Thus, the linguist Dudik identified not four, but five types of phraseological units:
• Semantically inseparable idioms: “to be on short terms” (to know someone closely).
• Phraseological unities with a freer semantics of the constituent elements: “soap the neck” (punish someone).
• Phraseological expressions consisting entirely of independent words, for the total meaning of which it is impossible to select a synonym. Dudik mainly includes sayings and proverbs among them: “The goose is not a friend to the pig.”
• Phraseological combinations are phrases based on a metaphorical meaning: “blue blood”, “hawk eye”.
• Phraseological phrases. They are characterized by a lack of metaphor and syntactic unity of components: “big swell”.

Classification by Igor Melchuk

Melchuk’s classification of phraseological units stands apart from all of the above. According to it, it stands out significantly more types, which are divided into four categories.

• Degree: full, semi-phrase, quasi-phrase.
• The role of pragmatic factors in the process of phraseological unit formation: semantic and pragmatics.
• Which one does it belong to: lexeme, phrase, syntactic phraseme.
• A component of a linguistic sign that has undergone phraseologization: syntactics of the sign, signifier and signified.

Classification by Boris Larin

This linguist classified them according to the stages of their evolution, from ordinary phrases to phraseological units:

• Variable phrases (analogue of phraseological combinations and expressions): “velvet season”.
• Those that have partially lost their primary meaning, but were able to gain metaphoricality and stereotyping: “keep a stone in your bosom.”
• Idioms that are completely devoid of the semantic independence of their components, as well as having lost connection with their original lexical meaning and grammatical role (analogous to phraseological adjuncts and unities): “out of the blue” (bad).

Common examples of phraseological combinations

Below are a few more fairly well-known stable phrases.

Although the classification of Vinogradov and Shansky does not apply to language, it is possible to select stable phrases that can be classified as phraseological combinations.
Examples:

• Bosom friend - bosom buddy (bosom friend - bosom buddy).
• A Sisyfean labor (Sisyphean labor).
• A pitched battle - a fierce battle (fierce battle - fierce battle).

Phraseological dictionaries

Availability large quantity classifications is due to the fact that none of them gives a 100% guarantee of the absence of errors. Therefore, it is still worth knowing in which dictionaries you can find a hint if you cannot accurately determine the type of phraseological unit. All dictionaries of this type are divided into monolingual and multilingual. Below are translated the most famous books of this kind, in which you can find examples of set expressions that are most common in the Russian language.

• Monolingual:“Educational phraseological dictionary” by E. Bystrova; “Burning verb - a dictionary of folk phraseology” by V. Kuzmich; “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. Fedoseev; “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language” by I. Fedoseev and “Big Explanatory and Phraseological Dictionary” by M. Michelson.
• Multilingual:"Large English-Russian phraseological dictionary" (twenty thousand phraseological units) A. Kunina, “Big Polish-Russian, Russian-Polish Phraseological Dictionary” by Y. Lukshin and Random House Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms by Sofia Lyubenskaya.

Perhaps, having learned that it is sometimes difficult to immediately distinguish what type of phraseological unit belongs to, this topic may seem incredibly difficult. However, the devil is not as scary as he is painted. The main way develop the ability to correctly find phraseological combinations of words among other phraseological units - practice regularly. And in the case of foreign languages- study the history of the emergence of such phrases and memorize them. This will not only help you avoid getting into awkward situations in the future, but will also make your speech very beautiful and figurative.