home Health technologies "Freedom or death!" Why did civil war begin in Greece after World War II? Heroes of New Thermopylae

"Freedom or death!" Why did civil war begin in Greece after World War II? Heroes of New Thermopylae

Aggravation of the conflict in the Balkans

At the beginning of 1940, the struggle for control of the Balkans between the countries of the Anti-Hitler coalition and the Axis gradually intensified. This territory was of exceptional importance in the plans of the warring parties.
Britannia. The state government planned to create a cover for its territorial possessions on the Balkan Peninsula. This territory was also considered as a source of human and raw material resources. For a long time Greece came under British influence.
The Third Reich planned to use the Balkan Peninsula as a springboard for the upcoming takeover of the USSR. The previously conquered territories of Denmark and Norway, as well as the signed union treaty with Finland, made it possible to block Soviet Union in a northwest direction. The government needed to occupy the Balkan Peninsula to create a southern flank and provide the entire army with food and necessary raw materials. The government planned to concentrate one of the largest army groups in this territory. The offensive was supposed to deal a serious blow to Ukraine and the Caucasus.
Yugoslavia and Türkiye maintained a position of neutrality.

Beginning of the Italo-Greek Wars

On October 15, 1940, a directive was developed in Italy, which spoke of an offensive in Greece. According to these data, Ioannina was supposed to receive a blow from Albanian troops, main goal which was a breakthrough in the defense of the Greek army. Italy planned to capture Epirus and attack Thessaloniki and Athens. The island of Corfu had to be captured using amphibious forces.

Invasion of Italian troops into Greek territory

On October 28, 1940, Italian armed forces landed in Greece. On the first day they received weak resistance from border guard units. However, Greek soldiers working undercover, reinforced by 5 infantry and a cavalry division, did not allow the interventionists to move. On November 1, army commander A. Papagos gave the order to launch a counterattack on the enemy’s unprotected left flank. After 2 days of prolonged fighting, the Italian army had to return to the Albanian Peninsula. The invasion was suppressed.

Actions of the Axis powers
In March 1941, a revolutionary coup took place in Yugoslavia. Due to the complications of the political situation, the German authorities were forced to look for opportunities to quickly implement plans in relation to the Balkans. It was decided to immediately change the methods of political pressure and pressure to an openly aggressive policy.

Invasion of the aggressor army into the territories of Greece and Yugoslavia
The hostilities taking place in Greece ended in the complete defeat of the British army. British, Australian and New Zealand troops were quickly evacuated. The number of military personnel removed was approximately 80% of all forces previously sent to Greece. This operation, the purpose of which was to conquer the Balkan Peninsula, was called “Marita”.

Results and consequences of the invasion

The aggressive policy of the German government towards Greece had dire consequences.
In May 1941, the entire territory of Greece came under Nazi occupation. The interventionists were given the opportunity to control the most significant regions of the state - Athens and Thessaloniki. The rest of the territory was received by German satellites - Bulgaria and fascist Italy.
Large casualties among the civilian population. More than 30,000 civilians died of starvation in Athens and repression. The economic condition of Greece was undermined. Almost the entire army was evacuated to the lands of the Middle East. German soldiers carried out several demonstration executions, during which about 2,000 people died. Total Greek losses in World War II exceeded 200,000 inhabitants.
Formation of the Greek Resistance. This movement was one of the most effective in all of Europe. The resistance carried out guerrilla operations and worked to create a global spy network.

Genocide of the Jewish population

More than 12,000 Jews fought in the Greek army. Their most famous representative was Mordechai Frizis, who is credited with resisting the Italian interventionists. The consequences of the aggressive genocide of the Third Reich were the murder of 86% of the Jews, despite the fact that the Greek Orthodox Church and the majority of the Greeks tried to protect them.
In July 1942, Jews received an order to prepare for deportation to concentration camps in Germany. For the purpose of release, the community paid a contribution of 2.5 million drachmas. However, it was possible to postpone the deportation only until March. About 45,000 Jews were sent to Auschwitz. Those people who were able to return witnessed the dire consequences of the genocide - the destruction of Jewish schools and synagogues. This event was called the Holocaust and is one of the most brutal acts against humanity in history.

Economic situation

After the occupation, the state's economy remained completely destroyed. Agriculture became the most damaged, foreign trade relations suffered - the two most important aspects economic system of Greece. Numerous compensations, the payment of which the occupiers demanded, caused inflation in the market. In 1944, inflation processes in Greece reached their peak - the 100 billion drachma banknote became considered the most valuable. Barter exchange remained one of the most common methods of trade throughout the occupation period.

Resistance

In order to repel the intervention troops, a people's liberation army was created in Greece. This military system planned to accomplish the following objectives.
The fight against Bulgarian, Italian and German occupation in the country.
Resistance to Greek Nazism, as well as collaborator am.
The People's Liberation Army was able to not depend on anyone in its actions and carry out operations without the help of allies. In fact, it is thanks to this military force the liberation of Greece was realized in the future. Notable leaders included individuals such as Yiannis Ritsos, Yiannis Xenakos and Al Demi. Underground organizations emerged en masse, most of which preached monarchical and pro-Western views.

Consequences

It is unknown how the history of World War II would have ended for Greece if it had not been for the development of military operations in other theaters. Offensive Soviet troops, the overthrow of the fascist regime in Italy - these events significantly undermined the military power of the Third Reich. Despite the imperfection of British warfare, Greece was liberated thanks to a global guerrilla movement.

Of course, the importance of Greece during the Second World War remains underestimated in our time. Considering the fact that Greece took the blow of the German army and repelled it for 2 months, we can safely say that this significantly undermined military power Germany and did not allow the Nazis to realize their plans for the USSR.

Joined Second world war October 28, 1940, when the Italian army launched an invasion from Albania. The Greek army won the first major victory among the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, defeating the aggressor and forcing Italian troops to retreat to Albania.

The war was preceded by the sinking of the cruiser Ellie on August 15, 1940 by an “unknown” submarine, during the Orthodox celebration of the Day of the Virgin Mary, in the roadstead of the island of Tinos, and other provocations of fascist Italy, after which Greece carried out a partial mobilization. The Italian ultimatum was presented to the Greek Prime Minister, General Metaxas, on October 28, 1940, at 3 am. The ultimatum was rejected. The Italian invasion began at 5:30.

The Italian offensive took place in the coastal zone of Epirus and Western Macedonia. In front of the 3rd Italian Mountaineering Division " Julia(11,000 soldiers) were tasked with advancing south along the Pindus Ridge to cut off Greek forces in Epirus from the Greek region of Western Macedonia. The brigade of Colonel K. Davakis (2,000 soldiers) stood in its way. Holding back the onslaught " Julia"and having received reinforcements, Davakis launched a counter-offensive, after which the Greek army launched a counter-offensive on both the Epirus and Macedonian fronts and transferred military operations to the territory of Albania. In January 1941, the Greek army occupied the strategic mountain pass of Klisura (Occupation of the Klisura Gorge).

Greek artillerymen fire a mountain variant of the French 65 mm cannon (Canon de 65M Mle1906 L/18.5) in the mountains during the war with Italy in the winter of 1940/41. This photograph in Greece is one of the symbols of the struggle of the Greek people against the Italian invaders during the Second World War.

Greek soldiers resting in the mountains during the war with Italy

Greek soldiers resting in the mountains during the war with Italy

The victories of the Greek army in this war became the first victories of the armies of the anti-fascist coalition over the Axis countries. The famous Greek archaeologist and participant in that war, M. Andronikos writes that “ When Italy decided to invade Greece, the Axis forces dominated Europe, having previously defeated the French and British and concluded a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union. Only insular England still resisted. Neither Mussolini nor any “reasonable” person expected Greek resistance under these conditions. Therefore, when the world learned that the Greeks were not going to surrender, the first reaction was surprise, which gave way to admiration when news began to arrive that the Greeks had not only accepted the battle, but were winning" In March 1941, having received reinforcements and under the direct supervision of Mussolini, the Italian army attempted to launch a counteroffensive (Italian Spring Offensive). The Greek army repelled the attack and was already 10 km from the strategic Albanian port of Vlora.

April 6, 1941 , saving the Italians, Nazi Germany was forced to intervene in the conflict, after which the conflict was called the Greek operation.

November 12, 1940 Hitler signed Directive No. 18 on the preparation of " if necessary» operations against Northern Greece from the territory of Bulgaria. According to the directive, it was envisaged that a group of German troops consisting of at least 10 divisions would be created in the Balkans (in particular, in Romania). The concept of the operation was refined during November and December and linked to the option “ Barbarossa" and by the end of the year was outlined in a plan code-named " Marita"(Latin marita - wife). According to Directive No. 20 of December 13, 1940, the forces involved in this operation increased sharply, to 24 divisions. The directive set the task of occupying Greece and required the timely release of these forces to carry out “ new plans", that is, participation in the attack on the USSR.

Thus, plans for the conquest of Greece were developed by Germany at the end of 1940, but Germany was in no hurry to implement them. The Hitlerite leadership sought to use the failures of the Italian troops in Greece to further subjugate Italy to German dictatorship. The still undecided position of Yugoslavia, which Berlin, as well as London, hoped to win over to its side, also forced us to wait.

On March 27, 1941, a coup d'état was carried out in Yugoslavia. The pro-fascist government of Dragisa Cvetkovic fell, and Dusan Simovic became the head of the new government. In connection with this event, the German government decided to generally accelerate the implementation of its plans in the Balkans and move from methods of political pressure to open aggression.

On March 27, immediately after the coup in Yugoslavia, in the Imperial Chancellery in Berlin, Hitler held a meeting with the commanders-in-chief of the ground and air forces and their chiefs of staff. It announced the decision " make all preparations to destroy Yugoslavia militarily and as a national entity" On the same day, Directive No. 25 on the attack on Yugoslavia was signed.

The German command decided to launch an attack on Greece simultaneously with the attack on Yugoslavia. Plan " Marita"was subjected to radical revision. Military operations against both Balkan states were considered as a single operation. After the attack plan was finalized, Hitler sent a letter to Mussolini, saying that he expected help from Italy.

The invasion was supposed to be carried out by delivering simultaneous attacks from the territory of Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary and Austria in converging directions to Skopje, Belgrade and Zagreb with the aim of dismembering the Yugoslav army and destroying it piece by piece. The task was set to capture, first of all, the southern part of Yugoslavia, in order to prevent the establishment of interaction between the armies of Yugoslavia and Greece, to connect with Italian troops in Albania and use southern regions Yugoslavia as a springboard for the subsequent German-Italian offensive against Greece.

Against Greece, it was planned to deliver the main blow in the direction of Thessaloniki with a subsequent advance to the Olympus region.

The 2nd, 12th armies and 1st tank group were involved in the operation. The 12th Army was concentrated in the territory of Bulgaria and Romania. It was significantly strengthened: its composition was increased to 19 divisions (including 5 tank divisions). The 2nd Army, consisting of 9 divisions (including 2 tank divisions), was concentrated in southeastern Austria and western Hungary. 4 divisions were allocated to the reserve (including 3 tank divisions). For air support, the 4th Air Fleet and the 8th Aviation Corps were involved, which together numbered about 1,200 combat and transport aircraft. Overall command of the group of German troops aimed at Yugoslavia and Greece was entrusted to Field Marshal W. List.

On March 30, 1941, the High Command of the Wehrmacht ground forces assigned tasks to the troops. The 12th Army was supposed to attack Strumica (Yugoslavia) and Thessaloniki with the forces of two corps, strike in the direction of Skopje, Veles (Yugoslavia) with one corps, and attack with the right flank in the Belgrade direction. The 2nd Army was tasked with capturing Zagreb and developing an offensive in the direction of Belgrade. Fighting against Yugoslavia and Greece it was planned to begin on April 6, 1941 with a massive air raid on Belgrade and an offensive by the troops of the left wing and center of the 12th Army.

The Greek army found itself in a difficult situation. Prolonged military operations have depleted the country's strategic reserves. The bulk of the Greek troops (15 infantry divisions, united in two armies - “ Epirus" And " Western Macedonia") was stationed on the Italo-Greek front in Albania. The entry of German troops into Bulgaria and their exit to the Greek border in March 1941 confronted the Greek command with the difficult task of organizing defense in a new direction, where no more than 6 divisions could be transferred.

The arrival of the expeditionary force from Egypt, which began on March 5, 1941, which included two infantry divisions (the New Zealand 2nd Division, the Australian 6th Division), the British 1st Armored Brigade and nine aviation squadrons. The 7th Australian Division and the Polish Brigade, intended for landing in Greece, were abandoned by the British command in Egypt due to German actions in Libya.

To repel aggression, the Greek command hastily created two new armies: "Eastern Macedonia" (three infantry divisions and one infantry brigade), which relied on the fortifications of the Metaxas Line along the border with Bulgaria

AND " Central Macedonia "(three infantry divisions and an English expeditionary force), which, using the mountain range, took up defense from Olympus to Kaymakchalan. The armies had no operational-tactical communication and could easily be cut off both from each other and from the troops concentrated on the Albanian front. The Greek command had no strategic reserves. In deploying forces, it proceeded from the assumption that the enemy would operate only from Bulgarian territory and would not go through Yugoslavia.

The threat of a German attack increased defeatism among the Greek generals. At the beginning of March 1941, the army command "Epirus" brought to the attention of the government that it considered the war with the Germans futile, and demanded that diplomatic negotiations with Germany begin. In response to this, the government changed the leadership of the army "Epirus" , appointed a new army commander and new corps commanders. However, these measures failed to achieve a change in the mood of the senior command of the Greek army.

The situation created in the Balkans required joint action by Great Britain, Greece and Yugoslavia. On March 31, the head of the British General Staff General Dill, accompanied by Dixon, Eden's personal secretary. For two days, Dill negotiated with Prime Minister Simović, War Minister General B. Ilic and General Staff officers to coordinate the efforts of Yugoslavia and Greece and mobilize their military and economic capabilities to combat the impending aggression. The exchange of views showed that Great Britain was not going to provide significant assistance to Yugoslavia and Greece.

On April 3, at a railway station south of the Greek border town of Kenali, new negotiations took place between military representatives of Great Britain, Greece and Yugoslavia. It was about establishing cooperation between the Yugoslav army, Greek and British troops. The negotiations were attended by the Commander-in-Chief of the Greek Armed Forces, General Papagos, the Commander of the British Expeditionary Force, General Wilson, and the Chief of Operations of the Yugoslav General Staff, General Jankovic. However, due to the extremely limited amount of assistance from Great Britain and the fears of the Yugoslav and Greek authorities of aggravating relations with Germany, an agreement on the interaction of the Yugoslav army with the Greek-British forces could not be reached.

German troops launched the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece on the night of April 6 according to the scheme they used when unleashing hostilities in 1939 and 1940. Main forces of the 4th air fleet airfields in the areas of Skopje, Kumanovo, Nis, Zagreb, and Ljubljana were suddenly attacked. Tank and infantry divisions of the 12th German Army simultaneously crossed the Bulgarian-Yugoslav border in three sectors, and 150 German aircraft raided Belgrade.

Simultaneously with the actions against Yugoslavia, the left wing of the 12th German Army from the territory of Bulgaria began an offensive against Greece in the Thessaloniki direction.

The group of German troops (six divisions, including one tank, united in the 18th and 30th corps) had a great superiority in manpower and equipment over the army. Eastern Macedonia " However, relying on the line of fortifications and the mountainous terrain favorable for defense, the Greek troops offered stubborn resistance to the enemy for three days. But at this time the 2nd German tank division, advancing through Yugoslav Macedonia along the valley of the Strumica River, bypassing Lake Dojran, reached the rear of the Greek army " Eastern Macedonia "and on April 9 captured the city of Thessaloniki. On the same day, this army capitulated.

The rapid advance of German divisions in Yugoslavia put the Greek-British army in an extremely difficult position. Central Macedonia " By entering the Bitola area, German troops created the threat of bypassing its positions from the rear and isolating it from the Greek troops fighting in Albania. On April 11, the Greek high command decided to withdraw forces from Albania to new line defense - from Mount Olympus in the east to Lake Butrint in the west. The withdrawal of Greek troops from Albania began on April 12.

Meanwhile, German divisions, moving from the Bitola area through Florina and further to the south, again created the threat of enveloping the Anglo-Greek forces and during April 11-13 forced them to hastily retreat to the city of Kozani. As a result, German troops reached the rear of the army " Western Macedonia ", isolating it from the troops located in the central part of the country.

The British command, considering resistance to the aggressor troops futile, began planning the withdrawal of its expeditionary force from Greece. General Wilson was convinced that the Greek army had lost its combat effectiveness and its command had lost control. After a meeting between Wilson and General Papagos on April 13, it was decided to retreat to the Thermopylae-Delphi line and thus leave the entire northern part of the country to the enemy. From April 14, British units retreated to the coast for evacuation.

On April 13, Hitler signed Directive No. 27, in which he clarified the plan of action for German troops in Greece. The Nazi command envisioned launching two attacks in converging directions from the areas of Florina and Thessaloniki to Larissa in order to encircle the Anglo-Greek troops and thwart attempts to form a new defensive front. In the future, with the advance of motorized units, it was planned to capture Athens and the remaining territory of Greece, including the Peloponnese. Particular attention was paid to preventing the evacuation of British troops by sea.

In five days, the British Expeditionary Force retreated 150 km and by April 20 concentrated in the Thermopylae region. The main forces of the Greek army remained in the north-west of the country, in the mountains of Pindus and Epirus. Remnants of the army " Central Macedonia "and army troops" Western Macedonia ", who suffered heavy losses, were reassigned to the commander of the Epirus army. This army retreated, fighting holding battles with Italian troops and being subjected to fierce air attacks. With the exit of the Germans into Thessaly, there were opportunities for a retreat to the Peloponnese Army Epirus there was practically no more.

The order of the Greek government to withdraw troops from Albania and failures on the fronts caused a long-brewing crisis in the ruling circles of Greece. Generals Army Epirus demanded an end to hostilities with Germany and the conclusion of a truce with it. They put forward only one condition - to prevent the occupation of Greek territory by Italy.

On April 18, a military council met in Tati near Athens, at which General Papagos reported that from a military point of view, the situation in Greece was hopeless. A meeting of the Council of Ministers held on the same day revealed that some of its participants supported the removed generals of the Epirus army, while others were in favor of continuing the war, even if the government had to leave the country. Confusion arose in the ruling circles of Greece. It intensified even more when Prime Minister Korizis committed suicide on the evening of April 18th. However, at this time, supporters of continuing the war gained the upper hand. The new Prime Minister Tsouderos and General Papagos demanded that the army command "Epirus" continue resistance. But the newly appointed commanders of the formations refused to obey, removed the army commander Pitsikas and installed General Tsolakoglu in his place. He sent envoys to the German troops and on the evening of April 20 signed with the commander of the SS division "Adolf Gitler" General Dietrich agreed to an armistice between Greece and Germany. The next day, Field Marshal List replaced this agreement with a new one - on the surrender of the Greeks. armed forces, but Hitler did not approve it. Given Mussolini's persistent requests, he agreed that Italy would be among the signatories to the agreement on the surrender of the Greek army. This, the third agreement, was signed by General Tsolakoglu on April 23, 1941 in Thessaloniki. That same day, King George II and the government left Athens and flew to the island of Crete.

On the night of April 25, in the small ports of Attica and the Peloponnese, the first units of British troops began to be loaded onto ships under intense bombardment. At this time, other British units tried to hold back the advance of Nazi troops. The Germans' attempt to defeat the retreating English Expeditionary Force was unsuccessful. By destroying the roads behind them, the British units managed to avoid major battles with the enemy.

On April 25, German troops occupied Thebes, and the next day, with the help of an airborne assault, they captured Corinth, cutting off the path of retreat to the Peloponnese for the British troops remaining in Attica. On April 27, German troops entered Athens, and by the end of April 29 they reached the southern tip of the Peloponnese. By this time, the bulk of the British troops (more than 50 thousand out of 62 thousand people), having destroyed heavy weapons and means of transport, were forced to evacuate by sea.

At sea, the evacuation was led by Vice Admiral Pridham-Whippel ( en:Sir Henry Daniel Pridham-Wippell), and on the shore - Rear Admiral G. T. Bailey-Groman and army headquarters.

A total of 50,662 people were removed, including British Royal Air Force personnel and several thousand Cypriot, Palestinian, Greek and Yugoslav residents. This represented about 80 percent of the forces originally sent to Greece

The ships of the Greek fleet also went to Egypt.

Armored cruiser "Averoff". The crew managed to avoid bombing and minefields and take the ship to Alexandria. There, Averof received the task of protecting allied convoys in Indian Ocean. Returned to Greek waters after the liberation of Greece in 1944.

Armored cruiser "Averoff". The crew managed to avoid bombing and minefields and take the ship to Alexandria. There, Averof was tasked with protecting allied convoys in the Indian Ocean. Returned to Greek waters after the liberation of Greece in 1944.

Destroyers:

"Vasilissa Olga"

"Vasilissa Olga"

After the German invasion, the destroyer, along with other ships in the fleet, left for Alexandria, Egypt in May 1941, where she received the British number H 84. After a modernization carried out in Calcutta, India in November-December 1941, the destroyer returned to the Mediterranean Sea. In February 1942, as part of the British squadron, the destroyer took part in the Tobruk operation. On March 26, 1942, the destroyer picked up 20 sailors from a British tanker RFA Slavol, sunk by the German submarine U-205 near Sidi Barrani(Egypt). June 10, 1942 "Olga" picked up 53 sailors from a British tanker RFA Brambleleaf, torpedoed by the German submarine U-559, near Ras Alem(Egypt).

The destroyers Spetsai and Kountouriotis, which left Piraeus on April 22, safely reached Alexandria, where until August 1941 they were involved in convoy operations together with the British fleet. Later, Spetsai (which received the English tactical number H 38) went to Bombay, where its repair and rearmament began. Completed on March 27, 1942, the modernization deprived the ship of a stern 120-mm gun and a stern torpedo tube. In place of the latter, a 76.2 mm anti-aircraft gun was installed. Air defense was also reinforced with a pair of 20-mm machine guns, and anti-aircraft defense with six bomb launchers. "Kountouriotis" (H 07) left for India in December 1941. Its repairs and modernization continued until April 18, 1942.

In May, both destroyers began service (usually escort duty) in the eastern Mediterranean and off the coast of North Africa. In September 1942 "Kuntouriotis" was used to transport troops to the island of Kastellorizo, where the Italian garrison surrendered to the Allies.

"Katsonis" and "Papanikolis" Greece in World War II

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“Hitler always confronts me with a fait accompli. But this time I will repay him in kind: he will learn from the newspapers that I occupied Greece.”

Italo-Greek War 1940

Invasion

Axis actions

Defeat of the Greco-British army

Retreat of the British contingent

At sea, the evacuation was led by Vice Admiral G. Pridham-Wippell (en: Sir Henry Daniel Pridham-Wippell), and on shore by Rear Admiral G. T. Bailey-Groman and army headquarters.

Final evacuation figures for the army:

Results of the invasion

By mid-May, Greece was completely occupied by the Nazis, who began to rule the most important regions of the country, including the cities of Athens and Thessaloniki. Other regions of the country were transferred to Germany's satellites: fascist Italy and Bulgaria (see maps). The collaborationist government of Greece was created immediately after the country's defeat.

The occupation led to dire consequences for the Greek civilian population. More than 30,000 civilians died in Athens from starvation, tens of thousands due to repression by the Nazis and collaborators; The country's economy was also destroyed. Most of the navy and part of the Greek army went into exile to the Middle East.

At the same time, the Greek Resistance was formed, one of the most effective resistance movements in occupied Europe. Resistance groups launched guerrilla attacks against the occupying forces, fought against collaborationist "security battalions" and created a large spy network, and at the end of 1943 they began to fight among themselves. When the country was liberated in October 1944 (largely due to the efforts of the local Resistance rather than the British troops landing during Operation Manna in September 1944), Greece was in a state of extreme political polarization, which soon led to the outbreak of civil war .

Terror and hunger

Jewish genocide

12,898 Greek Jews fought alongside the Greek army. One of the most famous representatives Jewish community was Lieutenant Colonel Mordechai Frizis (Μαρδοχαίος Φριζής), who successfully resisted the Italian invasion. 86% of Jews, especially in areas occupied by Germany and Bulgaria, were killed, despite the efforts of the Greek Orthodox Church and many Greeks to hide them. Although a large number of Jews in the occupied territory were deported, many found shelter with their neighbors.

Resistance

Economy

As a result of the occupation in 1941-1944. the Greek economy lay in ruins, significant damage was caused to foreign trade relations and agriculture country - the two most important components of the Greek economic system. German demands to pay significant "costs of occupation" caused hyperinflation. The average inflation rate during the years of occupation was 8.55·10 9%/month (prices doubling every 28 hours). The highest inflation rate in Greek history was reached in 1944. If in 1943 the banknote of 25,000 drachmas had the highest price value, then already in 1944 it was 100 billion drachmas. One of the consequences of hyperinflation was a general famine that began in the winter of 1942 and lasted until 1944. The stratification of monetary savings caused by hyperinflation and black markets significantly complicated the post-war economic development.

According to the model proposed in October 1944 by the governor of the central bank of Greece, K. Zolotas (Ξενοφών Ζολώτας), when the Greek economy reaches a fifth of the pre-war level, the accumulated money supply should first of all be spent on paying government bills. debt and stabilization of inflation. However, even achieving a cash turnover of 20% of the pre-war level was an unattainable task. The national income was minimal, even taking into account the fact that the bulk of the population was at the subsistence level. The only form of trade available was barter.

Based on an analysis of the current situation, Zolotas elected economic policy, the initial condition of which was the abandonment of the currency system. This meant that first an organizational production infrastructure had to be created, then production itself had to be established, and money circulation had to be stimulated using the quantity theory of money and taking into account the velocity of circulation of money.

Zolotas also proposed a plan by which the government could avoid inflation - full support of the national currency by the Greek exile Treasury or through foreign lending, along with the introduction of free convertibility of the national currency. The Zolotas Plan also included incentives at the state level for the import of goods and raw materials in order to subsidize the domestic market.

The most famous representative of the movement for state intervention in the economy at that time, K. Varvaresos, who took over the post of K. Zolotas on February 2, 1945, was a supporter of the “1/5 formula.” His position was to cut trading by about 50%. Taking into account a 50% increase in world prices, he indexed the ratio of the drachma to the pound. Based on his calculations, this ratio should be increased several times. Taking into account psychological factors and the deterioration of living conditions until the withdrawal of German troops, Varvaresos declared a turnover of 1/5 of the pre-war level as a stable anti-inflationary basis for economic recovery in the post-war period.

In the fall of 1944, EAM appointed Zolotos to the post of co-governor of the Greek central bank along with Varvares. The latter refused to admit this and resigned, but it was not accepted. On November 11, a new drachma was issued in denominations of 1/600 £. The old drachmas were converted into new ones in the ratio of 50 billion/1. The Central Bank introduced a policy of selling gold sovereigns in order to bolster public acceptance of the new currency. However, the adoption of this policy was an irreversible phenomenon. Political instability led to the withdrawal of CNG from EAM and contributed to the rapid rise in prices. In June 1945 the ratio had already reached 1/2000. Between May and October 1945, Varvaresos was called upon to become prime minister. His plan was to create a strong government rather than rebuild the economy. The plan called for immediate humanitarian aid UN, expressed in products and raw materials, taxation of military acquisitions and basic provision of the population through the administration of the government. However, in September 1945, this plan, essentially the only one proposed, was rejected due to lack of support from both the right and the left. The end result was the stabilization of the national currency after only 7 years.

Reflection in modern culture and traditions

Okha Day

Celebrated in Greece, Cyprus and Greek communities around the world on October 28th of each year, Okha Day (Greek: Okha Day). Επέτειος του «"Οχι» ) commemorates the refusal of Ioannis Metaxas to accept the ultimatum presented to Mussolini on October 28, 1940.

In fiction

Novels translated into Russian:

James Aldridge. "A Matter of Honor"
Alistair MacLean. "The Guns of Navarone", "10 points from Navarone"
Louis de Bernières. "Captain Corelli's Mandolin"

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Notes

Footnotes

Sources

Literature

History of the Second World War 1939-1945 in twelve volumes(edited by A. A. Grechko, D. F. Ustinov), M., Military Publishing House of the USSR Ministry of Defense, 1973-1982



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An excerpt characterizing Greece in World War II

“Where is it, this high sky, which I did not know until now and saw today?” was his first thought. “And I didn’t know this suffering either,” he thought. - Yes, I didn’t know anything until now. But where am I?
He began to listen and heard the sounds of approaching horses and the sounds of voices speaking French. He opened his eyes. Above him was again the same high sky with floating clouds rising even higher, through which a blue infinity could be seen. He did not turn his head and did not see those who, judging by the sound of hooves and voices, drove up to him and stopped.
The horsemen who arrived were Napoleon, accompanied by two adjutants. Bonaparte, driving around the battlefield, gave the last orders to strengthen the batteries firing at the Augesta Dam and examined the dead and wounded remaining on the battlefield.
- De beaux hommes! [Beauties!] - said Napoleon, looking at the killed Russian grenadier, who, with his face buried in the ground and the back of his head blackened, was lying on his stomach, throwing one already numb arm far away.
– Les munitions des pieces de position sont epuisees, sire! [There are no more battery charges, Your Majesty!] - said at that time the adjutant, who arrived from the batteries that were firing at Augest.
“Faites avancer celles de la reserve, [Have it brought from the reserves,” said Napoleon, and, having driven off a few steps, he stopped over Prince Andrei, who was lying on his back with the flagpole thrown next to him (the banner had already been taken by the French, like a trophy) .
“Voila une belle mort, [This is a beautiful death,”] said Napoleon, looking at Bolkonsky.
Prince Andrei realized that this was said about him, and that Napoleon was saying this. He heard the one who said these words called sire. But he heard these words as if he heard the buzzing of a fly. Not only was he not interested in them, but he did not even notice them, and immediately forgot them. His head was burning; he felt that he was emanating blood, and he saw above him the distant, high and eternal sky. He knew that it was Napoleon - his hero, but at that moment Napoleon seemed to him such a small, insignificant person in comparison with what was now happening between his soul and this high, endless sky with clouds running across it. He didn’t care at all at that moment, no matter who stood above him, no matter what they said about him; He was only glad that people were standing over him, and he only wished that these people would help him and return him to life, which seemed so beautiful to him, because he understood it so differently now. He mustered all his strength to move and make some sound. He weakly moved his leg and produced a pitying, weak, painful groan.
- A! “He’s alive,” said Napoleon. - Raise this one young man, ce jeune homme, and take it to the dressing station!
Having said this, Napoleon rode further towards Marshal Lan, who, taking off his hat, smiling and congratulating him on his victory, drove up to the emperor.
Prince Andrei did not remember anything further: he lost consciousness from the terrible pain that was caused to him by being placed on a stretcher, jolts while moving, and probing the wound at the dressing station. He woke up only at the end of the day, when he was united with other Russian wounded and captured officers and carried to the hospital. During this movement he felt somewhat fresher and could look around and even speak.
The first words he heard when he woke up were the words of the French escort officer, who hurriedly said:
- We must stop here: the emperor will pass by now; it will give him pleasure to see these captive gentlemen.
“There are so many prisoners these days, almost the entire Russian army, that he probably got bored with it,” said another officer.
- Well, however! This one, they say, is the commander of the entire guard of Emperor Alexander,” said the first, pointing to a wounded Russian officer in a white cavalry uniform.
Bolkonsky recognized Prince Repnin, whom he had met in St. Petersburg society. Next to him stood another, 19-year-old boy, also a wounded cavalry officer.
Bonaparte, galloping up, stopped his horse.
-Who is the eldest? - he said when he saw the prisoners.
They named the colonel, Prince Repnin.
– Are you the commander of the cavalry regiment of Emperor Alexander? - asked Napoleon.
“I commanded a squadron,” answered Repnin.
“Your regiment honestly fulfilled its duty,” said Napoleon.
“The praise of a great commander is the best reward for a soldier,” said Repnin.
“I give it to you with pleasure,” said Napoleon. -Who is this young man next to you?
Prince Repnin named Lieutenant Sukhtelen.
Looking at him, Napoleon said, smiling:
– II est venu bien jeune se frotter a nous. [He came to compete with us when he was young.]
“Youth doesn’t stop you from being brave,” Sukhtelen said in a breaking voice.
“Excellent answer,” said Napoleon. - Young man, you will go far!
Prince Andrei, who, to complete the trophy of the captives, was also put forward, in full view of the emperor, could not help but attract his attention. Napoleon apparently remembered that he had seen him on the field and, addressing him, used the same name of the young man - jeune homme, under which Bolkonsky was reflected in his memory for the first time.
– Et vous, jeune homme? Well, what about you, young man? - he turned to him, - how do you feel, mon brave?
Despite the fact that five minutes before this, Prince Andrei could say a few words to the soldiers carrying him, he now, directly fixing his eyes on Napoleon, was silent... All the interests that occupied Napoleon seemed so insignificant to him at that moment, so petty seemed to him his hero himself, with this petty vanity and joy of victory, in comparison with that high, fair and kind sky that he saw and understood - that he could not answer him.
And everything seemed so useless and insignificant in comparison with the strict and majestic structure of thought that was caused in him by the weakening of his strength from the bleeding, suffering and the imminent expectation of death. Looking into the eyes of Napoleon, Prince Andrei thought about the insignificance of greatness, about the insignificance of life, the meaning of which no one could understand, and about the even greater insignificance of death, the meaning of which no one living could understand and explain.
The emperor, without waiting for an answer, turned away and, driving away, turned to one of the commanders:
“Let them take care of these gentlemen and take them to my bivouac; let my doctor Larrey examine their wounds. Goodbye, Prince Repnin,” and he, moving his horse, galloped on.
There was a radiance of self-satisfaction and happiness on his face.
The soldiers who brought Prince Andrei and removed from him the golden icon they found, hung on his brother by Princess Marya, seeing the kindness with which the emperor treated the prisoners, hastened to return the icon.
Prince Andrei did not see who put it on again or how, but on his chest, above his uniform, suddenly there was an icon on a small gold chain.
“It would be good,” thought Prince Andrei, looking at this icon, which his sister hung on him with such feeling and reverence, “it would be good if everything were as clear and simple as it seems to Princess Marya. How nice it would be to know where to look for help in this life and what to expect after it, there, beyond the grave! How happy and calm I would be if I could now say: Lord, have mercy on me!... But to whom will I say this? Either the power is indefinite, incomprehensible, which I not only cannot address, but which I cannot express in words - the great all or nothing, - he said to himself, - or this is the God who is sewn up here, in this palm, Princess Marya? Nothing, nothing is true, except the insignificance of everything that is clear to me, and the greatness of something incomprehensible, but most important!
The stretcher started moving. With every push he felt again unbearable pain; the feverish state intensified, and he began to become delirious. Those dreams of his father, wife, sister and future son and the tenderness that he experienced on the night before the battle, the figure of the small, insignificant Napoleon and the high sky above all this, formed the main basis of his feverish ideas.
A quiet life and calm family happiness in Bald Mountains seemed to him. He was already enjoying this happiness when suddenly little Napoleon appeared with his indifferent, limited and happy look at the misfortune of others, and doubts and torment began, and only the sky promised peace. By morning, all the dreams mixed up and merged into the chaos and darkness of unconsciousness and oblivion, which, in the opinion of Larrey himself, Doctor Napoleon, were much more likely to be resolved by death than by recovery.
“C"est un sujet nerveux et bilieux," said Larrey, "il n"en rechappera pas. [This is a nervous and bilious man, he will not recover.]
Prince Andrey, among other hopelessly wounded, was handed over to the care of the residents.

At the beginning of 1806, Nikolai Rostov returned on vacation. Denisov was also going home to Voronezh, and Rostov persuaded him to go with him to Moscow and stay in their house. At the penultimate station, having met a comrade, Denisov drank three bottles of wine with him and, approaching Moscow, despite the potholes of the road, he did not wake up, lying at the bottom of the relay sleigh, near Rostov, which, as it approached Moscow, came more and more to impatience.
“Is it soon? Soon? Oh, these unbearable streets, shops, rolls, lanterns, cab drivers!” thought Rostov, when they had already signed up for their holidays at the outpost and entered Moscow.
- Denisov, we’ve arrived! Sleeping! - he said, leaning forward with his whole body, as if by this position he hoped to speed up the movement of the sleigh. Denisov did not respond.
“Here is the corner of the intersection where Zakhar the cabman stands; Here he is Zakhar, and still the same horse. Here is the shop where they bought gingerbread. Soon? Well!
- To which house? - asked the coachman.
- Yes, over there at the end, how can you not see! This is our home,” said Rostov, “after all, this is our home!” Denisov! Denisov! We'll come now.
Denisov raised his head, cleared his throat and did not answer.
“Dmitry,” Rostov turned to the footman in the irradiation room. - After all, this is our fire?
“That’s exactly how daddy’s office is lit up.”
– Haven’t gone to bed yet? A? How do you think? “Don’t forget to get me a new Hungarian at once,” Rostov added, feeling the new mustache. “Come on, let’s go,” he shouted to the coachman. “Wake up, Vasya,” he turned to Denisov, who lowered his head again. - Come on, let's go, three rubles for vodka, let's go! - Rostov shouted when the sleigh was already three houses away from the entrance. It seemed to him that the horses were not moving. Finally the sleigh took to the right towards the entrance; Above his head, Rostov saw a familiar cornice with chipped plaster, a porch, a sidewalk pillar. He jumped out of the sleigh as he walked and ran into the hallway. The house also stood motionless, unwelcoming, as if it did not care about who came to it. There was no one in the hallway. "My God! is everything alright? thought Rostov, stopping for a minute with a sinking heart and immediately starting to run further along the entryway and familiar, crooked steps. The same door handle of the castle, for the uncleanness of which the countess was angry, also opened weakly. One tallow candle was burning in the hallway.
Old man Mikhail was sleeping on the chest. Prokofy, the traveling footman, the one who was so strong that he could lift the carriage by the back, sat and knitted bast shoes from the edges. He looked at the opened door, and his indifferent, sleepy expression suddenly transformed into an enthusiastically frightened one.
- Fathers, lights! Young Count! – he cried out, recognizing the young master. - What is this? My darling! - And Prokofy, shaking with excitement, rushed to the door to the living room, probably to make an announcement, but apparently changed his mind again, returned back and fell on the young master’s shoulder.
-Are you healthy? - Rostov asked, pulling his hand away from him.
- God bless! All glory to God! We just ate it now! Let me look at you, Your Excellency!
- Is everything all right?
- Thank God, thank God!
Rostov, completely forgetting about Denisov, not wanting to let anyone warn him, took off his fur coat and ran on tiptoe into the dark, large hall. Everything is the same, the same card tables, the same chandelier in a case; but someone had already seen the young master, and before he had time to reach the living room, something quickly, like a storm, flew out of the side door and hugged and began to kiss him. Another, third, same creature jumped out of another, third door; more hugs, more kisses, more screams, tears of joy. He couldn’t make out where and who dad was, who was Natasha, who was Petya. Everyone was screaming, talking and kissing him at the same time. Only his mother was not among them - he remembered that.
- I didn’t know... Nikolushka... my friend!
- Here he is... ours... My friend, Kolya... He has changed! No candles! Tea!
- Yes, kiss me!
- Darling... and then me.
Sonya, Natasha, Petya, Anna Mikhailovna, Vera, the old count, hugged him; and people and maids, filling the rooms, muttered and gasped.
Petya hung on his legs. - And then me! - he shouted. Natasha, after she had bent him to her and kissed his whole face, jumped away from him and holding onto the hem of his Hungarian jacket, jumped like a goat all in one place and squealed shrilly.
On all sides there were eyes shining with tears of joy, loving eyes, on all sides there were lips seeking a kiss.
Sonya, red as red, also held his hand and was all beaming in the blissful gaze fixed on his eyes, which she was waiting for. Sonya was already 16 years old, and she was very beautiful, especially at this moment of happy, enthusiastic animation. She looked at him without taking her eyes off, smiling and holding her breath. He looked at her gratefully; but still waited and looked for someone. The old countess had not come out yet. And then steps were heard at the door. The steps are so fast that they couldn't be his mother's.
But it was she in a new dress, still unfamiliar to him, sewn without him. Everyone left him and he ran to her. When they came together, she fell on his chest, sobbing. She could not raise her face and only pressed it to the cold strings of his Hungarian. Denisov, unnoticed by anyone, entered the room, stood right there and, looking at them, rubbed his eyes.
“Vasily Denisov, a friend of your son,” he said, introducing himself to the count, who was looking at him questioningly.
- Welcome. I know, I know,” said the count, kissing and hugging Denisov. - Nikolushka wrote... Natasha, Vera, here he is Denisov.
The same happy, enthusiastic faces turned to the shaggy figure of Denisov and surrounded him.
- Darling, Denisov! - Natasha squealed, not remembering herself with delight, jumped up to him, hugged and kissed him. Everyone was embarrassed by Natasha's action. Denisov also blushed, but smiled and took Natasha’s hand and kissed it.
Denisov was taken to the room prepared for him, and the Rostovs all gathered in the sofa near Nikolushka.
The old countess, without letting go of his hand, which she kissed every minute, sat next to him; the rest, crowding around them, caught his every movement, word, glance, and did not take their rapturously loving eyes off him. The brother and sisters argued and grabbed each other's places closer to him, and fought over who should bring him tea, a scarf, a pipe.
Rostov was very happy with the love that was shown to him; but the first minute of his meeting was so blissful that his present happiness seemed not enough to him, and he kept waiting for something else, and more, and more.
The next morning, the visitors slept from the road until 10 o'clock.
In the previous room were scattered sabers, bags, swords, open suitcases, dirty boots. The cleaned two pairs with spurs had just been placed against the wall. The servants brought washbasins, hot water shaving and cleaned dresses. It smelled of tobacco and men.
- Hey, G"ishka, t"ubku! – Vaska Denisov’s hoarse voice shouted. - Rostov, get up!
Rostov, rubbing his drooping eyes, raised his confused head from the hot pillow.
- Why is it late? “It’s late, it’s 10 o’clock,” Natasha’s voice answered, and in the next room the rustling of starched dresses, the whispering and laughter of girls’ voices was heard, and something blue, ribbons, black hair and cheerful faces flashed through the slightly open door. It was Natasha with Sonya and Petya, who came to see if he was up.
- Nikolenka, get up! – Natasha’s voice was heard again at the door.
- Now!
At this time, Petya, in the first room, saw and grabbed the sabers, and experiencing the delight that boys experience at the sight of a warlike older brother, and forgetting that it was indecent for sisters to see undressed men, opened the door.
- Is this your saber? - he shouted. The girls jumped back. Denisov, with frightened eyes, hid his furry legs in a blanket, looking back at his comrade for help. The door let Petya through and closed again. Laughter was heard from behind the door.
“Nikolenka, come out in your dressing gown,” said Natasha’s voice.
- Is this your saber? - Petya asked, - or is it yours? - He addressed the mustachioed, black Denisov with obsequious respect.
Rostov hastily put on his shoes, put on his robe and went out. Natasha put on one boot with a spur and climbed into the other. Sonya was spinning and was just about to puff up her dress and sit down when he came out. Both were wearing the same brand new blue dresses - fresh, rosy, cheerful. Sonya ran away, and Natasha, taking her brother by the arm, led him to the sofa, and they began to talk. They did not have time to ask each other and answer questions about thousands of little things that could only interest them alone. Natasha laughed at every word that he said and that she said, not because what they said was funny, but because she was having fun and was unable to contain her joy, which was expressed by laughter.
- Oh, how good, great! – she condemned everything. Rostov felt how, under the influence of the hot rays of love, for the first time in a year and a half, that childish smile blossomed on his soul and face, which he had never smiled since he left home.
“No, listen,” she said, “are you completely a man now?” I'm terribly glad that you are my brother. “She touched his mustache. - I want to know what kind of men you are? Are they like us? No?
- Why did Sonya run away? - Rostov asked.
- Yes. This is still whole story! How will you talk to Sonya? You or you?
“As it will happen,” said Rostov.
– Tell her, please, I’ll tell you later.
- So what?
- Well, I’ll tell you now. You know that Sonya is my friend, such a friend that I would burn my hand for her. Look at this. - She rolled up her muslin sleeve and showed a red mark on her long, thin and delicate arm under the shoulder, much above the elbow (in a place that is sometimes covered by ball gowns).
“I burned this to prove my love to her.” I just lit the ruler on fire and pressed it down.
Sitting in his former classroom, on the sofa with cushions on his arms, and looking into those desperately animated eyes of Natasha, Rostov again entered that family, children's world, which had no meaning for anyone except for him, but which gave him some of the best pleasures in life; and burning his hand with a ruler to show love did not seem useless to him: he understood and was not surprised by it.
- So what? only? - he asked.
- Well, so friendly, so friendly! Is this nonsense - with a ruler; but we are forever friends. She will love anyone, forever; but I don’t understand this, I’ll forget now.
- Well, what then?
- Yes, that’s how she loves me and you. - Natasha suddenly blushed, - well, you remember, before leaving... So she says that you forget all this... She said: I will always love him, and let him be free. It’s true that this is excellent, noble! - Yes Yes? very noble? Yes? - Natasha asked so seriously and excitedly that it was clear that what she was saying now, she had previously said with tears.
Rostov thought about it.
“I don’t take back my word on anything,” he said. - And then, Sonya is such a charm that what fool would refuse his happiness?
“No, no,” Natasha screamed. “We’ve already talked about this with her.” We knew you would say this. But this is impossible, because, you know, if you say that - you consider yourself bound by the word, then it turns out that she seemed to say it on purpose. It turns out that you are still forcibly marrying her, and it turns out completely different.
Rostov saw that all this was well thought out by them. Sonya amazed him with her beauty yesterday too. Today, having caught a glimpse of her, she seemed even better to him. She was a lovely 16-year-old girl, obviously loving him passionately (he did not doubt this for a minute). Why shouldn’t he love her now, and not even marry her, Rostov thought, but now there are so many other joys and activities! “Yes, they came up with this perfectly,” he thought, “we must remain free.”
“Well, great,” he said, “we’ll talk later.” Oh, how glad I am for you! - he added.
- Well, why didn’t you cheat on Boris? - asked the brother.

Metaxas' grand vision was to create a Third Greek Civilization based on its great ancient and Byzantine past, but what he actually created was more like a Greek version of the Third Reich. Opponents of the regime were expelled or taken into custody, trade unions and the newly founded Communistico Comma Helladas (KKE, Greek) were banned. communist party), censorship was rampant in the press, a secret police and a youth movement were created with slogans akin to fascist ones. However, Metaxas is remembered in history primarily for his brief ooh (no) response to Mussolini's ultimatum to allow Italian troops into Greece during World War II. Thus, Metaxas outlined the strictly neutral political position of Greece in this war. The Italian army invaded Greece, but the Greeks pushed it back to Albania.

A necessary condition for Hitler's attack on the Soviet Union was a fortified southern flank in the Balkans. The British, realizing this, turned to Metaxas with a request to allow their troops to land in Greece. He gave the same answer as the Italians, but then Metaxas suddenly dies in January 1941. The King appoints in his place the more flexible Alexandros Korizis, who agreed to the British request. Korizis committed suicide when German troops invaded Greece on April 6, 1941. The Nazi army significantly outnumbered the defending Greek troops, and within a few weeks the Germans occupied all of Greece. The civilian population suffered terribly during the occupation, many died of starvation. The Nazis sent more than half of the country's Jewish population to concentration camps.

Numerous rebel organizations operated in the country. The main ones were three: the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), the National Liberation Front (EAM) and the Greek People's Republican League (EDES). Although ELAS was founded by communists, not all of its members were left-wing, while EAM consisted of members of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) who lived in the 1930s and dreamed of establishing a communist system in post-war Greece. EDES consisted of right-wing supporters and monarchists. These groups fought among themselves with as much fervor as they did against the Germans, often with devastating consequences for the civilian population.

German troops left Greek territory in October 1944, and communist and monarchist resistance armies continued to fight each other.

Diagnostics and diseases. Medicines from A to Z