Archaeological sites of Mycenae and Tiryns*
Archaeological Sites of Mycenae and Tiryns**
UNESCO World Heritage In the pre-antique period, Mycenae was one of the major centers of the Mycenaean civilization, which died as a result of the Bronze Collapse. Mycenaean tombs Before the construction of fortresses and cities, the Mycenaeans buried their kings in complex "dome" tombs - "tholos", built from huge stone slabs and shaped like giant domes. One of the tombs - the treasury of Atreus - has an entrance almost 6 meters high, opening a burial chamber: round in plan, 13 meters high and 14 wide, with a beehive-shaped vault. Once upon a time, its walls were decorated with bronze gilded rosettes. One king owned up to 400 bronze foundries and many hundreds of slaves. Wealthy Mycenaeans highly valued gold imported from Egypt. Skilled craftsmen made goblets, masks, flowers and jewelry from gold, and inlaid swords and armor with gold. Rise and decline The acropolis at Mycenae, Dec. 2001.jpg Mycenaean Acropolis. year 2001 see also Write a review about the article "Mycenae" Literature Links This is a draft article about Ancient Greece. You can help the project by adding to it. An excerpt characterizing Mycenae Yes, happy Napoleon, Having learned through experience what Bagration is like, Alkidov doesn’t dare bother the Russians any more...” But he had not yet finished the verses when the loud butler announced: “The food is ready!” The door opened, a Polish voice thundered from the dining room: “Roll out the thunder of victory, rejoice, brave Ross,” and Count Ilya Andreich, looking angrily at the author, who continued to read poetry, bowed to Bagration. Everyone stood up, feeling that dinner was more important than poetry, and again Bagration went to the table ahead of everyone. In the first place, between the two Alexanders - Bekleshov and Naryshkin, which also had significance in relation to the name of the sovereign, Bagration was seated: 300 people were seated in the dining room according to rank and importance, who was more important, closer to the guest being honored: as naturally as water spills deeper there, where the terrain is lower. Just before dinner, Count Ilya Andreich introduced his son to the prince. Bagration, recognizing him, said several awkward, awkward words, like all the words he spoke that day. Count Ilya Andreich joyfully and proudly looked around at everyone while Bagration spoke with his son. Nikolai Rostov, Denisov and his new acquaintance Dolokhov sat down together almost in the middle of the table. Opposite them, Pierre sat down next to Prince Nesvitsky. Count Ilya Andreich sat opposite Bagration with other elders and treated the prince, personifying Moscow hospitality. His labors were not in vain. His dinners, fast and fast, were magnificent, but he still could not be completely calm until the end of dinner. He winked at the barman, whispered orders to the footmen, and, not without excitement, awaited each dish he knew. Everything was amazing. On the second course, along with the gigantic sterlet (when Ilya Andreich saw it, he blushed with joy and shyness), the footmen began popping the corks and pouring champagne. After the fish, which made some impression, Count Ilya Andreich exchanged glances with the other elders. - “There will be a lot of toasts, it’s time to start!” – he whispered and took the glass in his hands and stood up. Everyone fell silent and waited for him to speak. - Health of the Emperor! - he shouted, and at that very moment his kind eyes were moistened with tears of joy and delight. At that very moment they started playing: “Roll the thunder of victory.” Everyone stood up from their seats and shouted hurray! and Bagration shouted hurray! in the same voice with which he shouted on the Shengraben field. The enthusiastic voice of young Rostov was heard from behind all 300 voices. He almost cried. “The health of the Emperor,” he shouted, “hurray!” – Having drunk his glass in one gulp, he threw it on the floor. Many followed his example. And the loud screams continued for a long time. When the voices fell silent, the footmen picked up the broken dishes, and everyone began to sit down, smiling at their shouts and talking to each other. Count Ilya Andreich stood up again, looked at the note lying next to his plate and proposed a toast to the health of the hero of our last campaign, Prince Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration, and again the count’s blue eyes were moistened with tears. Hooray! the voices of 300 guests shouted again, and instead of music, singers were heard singing a cantata composed by Pavel Ivanovich Kutuzov. “All obstacles for the Russians are in vain, Bravery is the key to victory, We have Bagrations, All enemies will be at your feet,” etc. The singers had just finished when more and more toasts followed, during which Count Ilya Andreich became more and more emotional, and even more dishes were broken, and even more shouting. They drank to the health of Bekleshov, Naryshkin, Uvarov, Dolgorukov, Apraksin, Valuev, to the health of the foremen, to the health of the manager, to the health of all club members, to the health of all club guests, and finally, separately to the health of the founder of the dinner, Count Ilya Andreich. At this toast, the count took out a handkerchief and, covering his face with it, completely burst into tears. Pierre sat opposite Dolokhov and Nikolai Rostov. He ate a lot and greedily and drank a lot, as always. But those who knew him briefly saw that some big change had taken place in him that day. He was silent the entire time of dinner and, squinting and wincing, looked around him or, stopping his eyes, with an air of complete absent-mindedness, rubbed the bridge of his nose with his finger. His face was sad and gloomy. He seemed to not see or hear anything happening around him, and was thinking about something alone, heavy and unresolved. This unresolved question that tormented him, there were hints from the princess in Moscow about Dolokhov’s closeness to his wife and this morning the anonymous letter he received, in which it was said with that vile playfulness that is characteristic of all anonymous letters that he sees poorly through his glasses, and that his wife’s connection with Dolokhov is a secret only to him. Pierre decidedly did not believe either the princess’s hints or the letter, but he was now afraid to look at Dolokhov, who was sitting in front of him. Every time his gaze accidentally met Dolokhov’s beautiful, insolent eyes, Pierre felt something terrible, ugly rising in his soul, and he quickly turned away. Unwittingly remembering everything that had happened with his wife and her relationship with Dolokhov, Pierre saw clearly that what was said in the letter could be true, could at least seem true if it did not concern his wife. Pierre involuntarily recalled how Dolokhov, to whom everything was returned after the campaign, returned to St. Petersburg and came to him. Taking advantage of his carousing friendship with Pierre, Dolokhov came directly to his house, and Pierre accommodated him and lent him money. Pierre recalled how Helen, smiling, expressed her displeasure that Dolokhov lived in their house, and how Dolokhov cynically praised the beauty of his wife, and how from that time until his arrival in Moscow he was not separated from them for a minute.

• DATE: XII-XIV centuries BC. e.
• STYLE: Mycenaean
• MATERIALS: Stone
• BUILT: by order of the Cretan rulers
• The legendary palace-fortress of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, whose history many times became the plot for great works of ancient Greek literature

Homer, in his epic poems The Iliad and Odyssey, described Mycenae, the legendary mountain stronghold of King Agamemnon, as “an indestructible citadel, rich in gold.” Both Homer and Aeschylus in their Oresteia called Mycenae a place of bloody massacre, where mortals the gods punish. Agamemnon was the leader of the army during the Trojan War. Then, so that the gods would grant a fair wind so that the navy could move, he sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia. The king returned victorious, but his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus killed him right in the bath. Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, took revenge on the murderers, and they accepted their death at his hand.

Myths and reality

Of all the archaeological sites in Greece that have a mythical past, Mycenae is the closest to Greek legend. Especially if we consider that legends intertwine stories from different times. Mycenae is located on the rocky hills above the Argive Valley, next to the main road between the cities of Corinth and Argos. The fortress walls and most of the buildings were built in 1380-1190 BC. e., although in this place since ancient times, from the 16th century BC. e„there were settlements of rulers. Today the citadel lies in ruins, but even now you can imagine its stunning splendor and marvel at the architectural achievements of the Mycenaean civilization.

The famous Lion Gate is the main ritual entrance to the fortress where the elite lived. Basically the city lay in front of them. To emphasize the splendor of the gate, the stonework there was treated better than in other places, and an amazing stone relief was installed above the gate. Two muscular and, alas, already headless lions in this relief stand on the sides of the column.

Behind the walls of the citadel

Just outside the walls of the citadel is the cemetery of the rulers, surrounded by a wall in a circle. In these tombs, the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered one of the most magnificent archaeological finds - many beautiful bronze daggers, bowls and goblets, tiaras and filigree gold chains and an amazing gold death mask. Schliemann then exclaimed: “I looked into the face of Agamemnon!” Although subsequent research has shown that the tombs appeared 300 years before the Trojan War, there is still no doubt about the wealth and greatness of the Mycenaean civilization.

Behind the walls of the fortress, under the hill, is the so-called Treasury of Atreus, a fine example of a Mycenaean stone “beehive mausoleum”

From the tombs, stairs lead directly to the royal palace on the top of the hill, the boundaries of its walls are still visible. In the center there is a courtyard, from there you can enter the megaron, a large reception hall with a traditional round hearth. The walls of this hall were once covered with bright paintings. The palace also had a throne room and many small rooms. In the east is the House with Columns, a majestic building whose courtyard is surrounded on three sides by columns. The staircase has also been partially preserved; it once led to the second floor.

At the eastern side of the fortress there was a secret spring with a reservoir, it lay underground, and a spiral staircase descended to it. The reservoir was built in the 12th century so that the people in the fortress could withstand a long siege. The fortress was most likely besieged by hostile Mycenaean bets or Dorian invaders from the north. By 1100 BC. e. the once thriving settlement was already abandoned.

Long before Greece was called ancient, around 1600 BC, the Eastern Mediterranean was inhabited by a civilization of traders and conquerors. These were the times of myths and legends.

The gods at that time often descended from, and mortals were ruled by their offspring. It was then that the well-known Perseus, the son of Zeus and the daughter of the Argive king, being the ruler of nearby Tiryns, founded the ancient city of Mycenae.

The city became so important that the last prehistoric period of Greek civilization is called “Mycenaean”.

A little history

Whether Perseus founded Mycenae having decided to leave a memory of himself also as a builder of cities, or as a sign of another victory is unknown. But many generations of his descendants ruled it, until the royal dynasty of Atreus came to replace it.

Some legends claim that Perseus chose this place because he lost the tip of his sword here (mykes), others that Perseus found a mushroom (mykes in Greek) and, to escape thirst, drank water from it.

A more prosaic legend says that Mycenae was founded by the Achaeans, an ancient warlike tribe.
Be that as it may, the city is located in a strategically convenient location. They laid it at the foot of one of the mountains in the northeast.

The first mention of Mycenae as a “gold-abundant” or “filled with gold” city was made by Homer in his epic.

Later, the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, during the excavations of Mycenae, found an explanation for this. The tombs and tombs on its territory were filled with gold jewelry and simply trinkets of very skillful work.

All this testified to the fabulous wealth of the rulers and nobility. Their remains were buried under a pile of gold items. Interestingly, not a single iron object was discovered.

Among the gold items found by archaeologists were: tiaras, finely crafted bracelets, copper cauldrons with elegant gold buttons, gold bowls and jugs, many gold animal figurines, death masks, the most famous of which is the mask of Agamemnon, as well as many bronze swords.

The archaeological finds discovered in the tombs became the largest treasure in the world, not only in quantity (more than 30 kg of gold items were found), but also in artistic and historical significance. Later they were surpassed only by the finds found in the tomb of Tutankhamun.

All artifacts were transferred to the Archaeological Museum of Athens and the Archaeological Museum of Mycenae.

The favorable geographical position of Mycenae facilitated the trade of the inhabitants.
Wine, perfume, fabrics, bronze, gold and amber products were exported.

Wealth grew rapidly and the state prospered. Mycenae became very influential, and according to scientists, controlled the entire Mediterranean. Their rulers even led the confederation of Peloponnesian kingdoms.

The culture, weapons and even fashion of Mycenae spread throughout known world. This was the reason for repeated attacks on the city. However, the Mycenaeans themselves were warlike.

During its existence, Mycenae and the Mycenaean state left a solid mark on history. The rulers of the city are heroes of legends and myths. The history of Mycenae is associated with many tragic and heroic events.

For example, the legendary Trojan War was started Mycenaean king Agamemnon. We will not go into the details of the divine civil strife associated with the apple of discord and the struggle of the Olympic beauties for the title of “most beautiful,” in which King Menelaus and his wife Helen the Beautiful were involved, which led to the fall of Troy.

Historians are still inclined to a more realistic version that it was the ruler of Mycenae Agamemnon who went to war against the city, since Troy competed with them for dominance in the region. The siege of the city lasted for a decade.

Researchers attribute these events to the 13th–12th centuries. BC e., but the date is controversial. Victory was granted by the gods to the king of Mycenae because he sacrificed his daughter, for which later, according to one legend, he was killed by his wife, who did not forgive him for the murder of her child.

According to another legend, during the long absence of her husband, Clytemnestra took a lover - Agamemnon's cousin. And when the legitimate spouse returned from the war, they simply killed him, expelled the children - the legal heirs to the throne, and began to rule Mycenae.

The rapid development of the Mycenaean civilization is as inexplicable as its sudden disappearance. It is not established exactly how and why their state fell. Historians have put forward various hypotheses according to which the destruction of the city and the death of the state could have occurred as a result of inter-class clashes.

According to other theories, a series of earthquakes and the destruction of trade routes caused the rapid fall of civilization. It is possible that this was finally facilitated by the invasion of the Sea People - the Dorians. But it is known for sure that the death of the Mycenaean civilization coincided with the end of the Bronze Age.

The “Bronze Collapse” was accompanied by the fall of states and the destruction of large cities. Writing and traditions were lost, trade came to naught. The Eastern Mediterranean has plunged into darkness.

How to get to Mycenae

Time is inexorable, and now we can only see the ruins of a once powerful city. This is all that has reached us.

Mycenae is one of the greatest monuments of the Bronze Age.
The city is located in the east of the rocky ridge of the Peloponnese Peninsula.

The landmark is the town of Mykenes, located 2 km away. Geographical coordinates of the ancient city: 37° 43? 50? With. sh., 22° 45? 22? V. d. From the capital of Greece - approximately 90 km to the southwest of the peninsula, or 32 km to the north from the Gulf of Argolikos.

You can get to Mycenae by regular bus from Athens from the KTEL Athenon bus station in about two hours, the ticket costs about 12 euros. But you can get to Mycenae on your own, armed with a navigator or map. You must first drive to the city of Argo, and from there go to Mycenes, passing another one - the Corinth Canal.

The ruins are located on the territory of the Mycenae archaeological park. Entrance to the park is paid. Tickets are sold at the entrance and cost 8 euros, and children under 18 do not need to purchase tickets. By presenting your ticket, you will be able to see the Mycenaean Acropolis, the Archaeological Museum and the Treasury of Atreus.

When booking an excursion to Mycenae via the Internet or in hotels, check if there is a Russian-speaking guide. As a rule, a visit to Mycenae in such excursions is planned along with other attractions, so the cost depends on the type of transport, the number of places visited and the category of excursion.

What to see

Like many cities, Mycenae had its own ruler, respectively a royal palace and a well-fortified citadel.

The city is surrounded by a 900-meter wall made of huge stones. The construction was carried out, no more, no less, by the giants Cyclops.

Otherwise, how else can one explain the origin of such a powerful defensive structure. The stones are fitted so tightly to each other that there is a feeling of solidity of the walls. Such masonry was commonly called cyclopean. The weight of some stones reaches 10 tons.

The Royal Palace was built on the top of a small hill at the foot of the mountain. This is the so-called upper city - the acropolis.

Not only the reigning dynasty lived here, but also other nobility and aristocracy. This is the center of political governance of the city-state. The territory also contained temples, warehouses and burial places of deceased rulers.

The center of the Royal Palace is a rectangular room with columns and a fireplace in the floor - the royal reception room.

The so-called Megaron served as the administrative center of the city and meetings, conferences and courts were held there.
Megaron also housed the symbol of royal power - the throne. In our time, only the foundation of the structure has been preserved.

The royal chambers are located on the northern side of the palace. A temple with round altars was also erected here, near which an ivory sculpture depicting two goddesses and a child was discovered.

Ordinary people lived outside the walls of the fortress at the foot of the hill. It is interesting that the buildings had a trapezoidal shape, with a short base directed towards the acropolis. Because of this, the entire city from above resembled a fan. The most famous buildings are the House of the Sphinx, the House of the Wine Merchant, the House of Shields and the House of the Oil Trader.

It was possible to get to the fortress only along the road through. This is the most famous architectural landmark of Mycenae.

The gate is built from four powerful limestone slabs. Their span is a square, the side of which is about 3 meters. They were most likely closed with wooden doors, which have not survived to this day.

Their existence can be judged by the indentations on the side walls. The pediment is decorated with a bas-relief depicting two lions, which were a symbol of the royal dynasty and personified its power.

Lions stand on their hind legs and lean them on a column. Their heads have not survived, and according to different versions they were made of either ivory or gold. This is the oldest sculptural composition in Europe.

A large staircase leads to the royal palace, starting from the courtyard at the Lion Gate. It is interesting that bureaucracy already existed then. Clay tablets found during excavations in the palace turned out to be financial reports, lists of slaves and artisans.

Mycenae had the greatest treasure for all fortresses - underground water sources.

The inhabitants dug a deep tunnel to a spring known as the Perseus Fountain. This fountain and a huge defensive wall helped them withstand long sieges.

Behind the walls of the citadel, archaeologists discovered giant domes - tombs of kings and nobles, built from powerful stone slabs. The tombs were camouflaged with a mound, and a long corridor, the dromos, led inside.

The corridor, through a high, up to 7 meters high, monumental entrance, led to an internal vaulted chamber. After the funeral, the tomb was closed, and all entrances were covered with earth. The most famous and well-preserved is the treasury or tomb of Atreus, the father of Agamemnon.

But the tomb was looted long before archaeologists found it.

On the territory of the fortress itself, as a result of excavations, royal graves were discovered, immediately behind the Lion Gate.

Heinrich Schliemann excavated five royal burials here. They contained the remains of nineteen dead, buried under piles of gold jewelry. The most famous find was the golden death mask.

According to Heinrich Schliemann, the mask belonged to Agamemnon himself. Later it turned out that the burials were made several centuries earlier than the time of the legendary Trojan War.
In 1999, the ruins of Mycenae were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Despite the fact that time has not been kind to the city, visiting it is very informative and interesting.

Mycenaean Greece

Greece entered the historical arena later than those countries mentioned earlier. Thanks to a visit to Greece in the 70s of the 2nd century AD. Pausanias, we have a unique opportunity to draw rich and varied information from the “Description of Hellas” (10 books). The forerunner of the future glory of Greece, as is known, was the Crete-Minoan civilization, which created the first state and original writing. Therefore, scientists often begin their narration with “Achaean Greece” or “Mycenaean Greece”. As we have seen, Mycenae was an important political center of Hellas for centuries, and the Mycenaean dialect was the oldest dialect of Greek. According to tradition, the founder of Mycenae was the ancient hero Perseus. Here he allegedly lost the tip of his sword, considering this a sign for the founding of the city. According to other versions, the name of the city was given by a water source or by a woman (princess Mycenae), whom Homer wrote about as “magnificently crowned” in his “Odyssey.” A. Losev even expressed the following guess: “If Homer speaks of some forgotten heroine Mycenae, then the question arises whether at one time Mycenae was not the goddess Mycenae, as in subsequent times Athena was the patroness of Athens.”

An extremely important role in the study of Ancient Greece is played by the study of written monuments of that time, starting from 2000 BC, the time when the tribes came to the territory of Hellas. From those former Achaean kingdoms, Knossos and Pylos, many documents remain in the form of written tablets. Although the Achaean scribes kept only current documentation on clay, not particularly caring about the long-term preservation of the tablets, their creations still survived to our era. Remaining unfired and only drying out, the documents were able to reach us safe and sound, apparently only thanks to an accidental, completely unforeseen burning in the fires that destroyed the premises of the palace archives. These sources, along with the works of scientists and writers, are taken into account in the subsequent analysis.

Perseus and Andromeda

Pausanias, giving a description of those places, at the same time pointed to the fiercest rivalry among the Greek tribes and policies: “The Argives destroyed Mycenae out of envy. During the invasion of the Medes, the Argives did not show any activity, but the Mycenaeans sent 80 people to Thermopylae, who took part with the Lacedaemonians in their feat (fighting next to them). This glorious behavior of theirs brought them death, irritating the Argives. To this day, part of the city wall and the gate on which the lions stand still remain from Mycenae. They say that all these structures are the work of the Cyclops, who built the fortress wall for Pretus in Tiryns. Among the ruins of Mycenae there is an (underground) spring called Perseus."

In the chain of historical connections, it should also be remembered that Atreus was the son of Pelops (i.e., the grandfather of Agamemnon and Menelaus). The entire history of the Atrid family is full of murders and crimes. They rose to power through killing brothers, stealing sons, persecuting them, and training them to be murderers of their fathers. Apparently, in the past, Pelops, who is called a Lydian and a Phrygian, was defeated and expelled from Troy by its king, Ilus. Thus, the war of the Atrides against Troy (according to this version) takes on a completely different meaning, namely their return to the land of their ancestors. According to ancient legend, Ilion could only be taken if the bones of Pelops were transported under the walls of Troy. In Mycenae, in the underground structures of Atreus and his sons, their treasures and wealth were kept. “Here is the grave of Atreus, as well as the graves of those who, together with Agamemnon, returned from Ilion and whom Aegisthus killed at the feast. And those of the Lacedaemonians who live near Amycles lay claim to the tomb of Cassandra; the second grave is Agamemnon, then the grave of the charioteer Eurymedon, then the graves of Teledamus and Pelops. They say that they were twins born by Cassandra, and that they were stabbed to death by Aegisthus as infants, killing their parents. And (the grave of) Electra; she was the wife of Pylades, given in marriage to him by Orestes. Hellanicus reports that from Electra Pylades had two sons - Medont and Strophius. Clytemnestra and Aegisthus are buried a little away from the wall; they were considered unworthy to lie within the walls of the city, where Agamemnon himself and those who were killed with him were buried.”

Treasury and Tomb of Atreus

The Mycenaean civilization occupied an intermediate position between Egypt and classical Greece, reaching its peak around 1600 BC. Then she spread her influence to most of the then ancient world (Egypt, Troy, Italy, the Eastern Mediterranean). Many works are dedicated to her, including the work of the Greek scientists K. Tsountas and I. Manatt “The Mycenaean Age” (1897) and the book by W. Taylor “The Mycenaeans”. According to long-standing Greek tradition, it is believed that the Dorian tribes invaded the Peloponnese from the north at the end of the 2nd millennium, and then penetrated Crete and the Dodecanese islands. Taylor believes that it is likely that the ancestors of the Greeks came from the east, passing through the northern Anatolian plateau to Troy (by land or sea - it is not clear). In other words, he admits that they could have Indo-Aryan origins, since Mycenaean pottery was in some ways similar to the gray ware from northeast Iran. The invaders brought with them new types of weapons, most notably cavalry and chariots, which allowed them to hold territory.

Mycenae settlement plan

During migration, certain tribes brought their language to new places of settlement. The Greeks themselves recognized the existence of three dialects: Ionian, Aeolian, Dorian and assumed the existence of three large tribes. According to many, “Mycenaean” is an archaic form of the Greek language, showing monotony wherever it was found - in Knossos, Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, etc. S. Marinatom (Athens) says the following about the Mycenaean culture. The first “Greeks,” in his opinion, invaded Greece at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. In the 16th century, the earliest Mycenaeans appeared, representing an agrarian population living in small villages or towns. The largest of these at that time was Orkhomenes. At that time, urban civilization existed only in Crete, which had a population already around 1580 BC. was familiar with Minoan culture. This was proven by excavations in Mycenae and confirmed by work in Peristeria (Triphylia). However, in other Mycenaean settlements the living conditions themselves were still very primitive. The scientist believes that the first rulers of those places may have come from Syria, which was at that time in contact with Egypt. They brought with them elements of eastern material culture and the influence of Minoan art. Having captured Mycenae and taken possession of its wealth, they became its first ruling dynasty. Eastern origin is indicated by the presence of double royal family and the custom of making a mask representing the dead alive, a custom well known in the Neolithic era to the inhabitants of Egypt and Syria. Unfortunately, archaeologists have not yet found the city archives of Mycenae, and therefore the history of Mycenaean Greece (Ahiyava) is studied from artifacts, in particular from Hittite writings.

Lion Gate at the Acropolis of Mycenae

The famous Lion Gate, decorated with a relief depicting two lionesses, speaks of how powerful the rulers of Mycenae were. To build such huge fortifications, it took the labor of thousands of people, because it is no coincidence that the legend would then spread that they were created by one-eyed giants - the Cyclops. Matching these structures were the stone tombs of the Mycenaean rulers - tholos. Speaking about one of them, the tomb of Agamemnon, the Polish researcher K. Kumanetsky wrote: “Both in this tomb and in others, what is striking first of all is the monumentality of the building itself: this has never been seen in Crete. Massive doors, more than five meters high, are covered on top by two huge blocks, one of which weighs, presumably, 120 tons... Similar “dome tombs”, or tholos, date back to the late Mycenaean era, i.e. by 1400-1200 BC This was a period of complete dominance of the Achaeans in the Aegean world and the increased power of the Mycenaean kings, who maintained direct relations with Egypt." You can partially imagine the impression the majestic tombs of the kings made on the souls of the Greeks by reading the poem “The Tomb of Agamemnon” by the Polish poet J. Slovacki:

Let the music of a whimsical structure

Accompanies the course of these thoughts.

In front of me are underground chambers,

Agamemnon's funerary vault.

Here the blood of the Atrids stained

I sit without words in the middle of nowhere

The golden harp is irretrievable,

Which descriptions have just reached.

I read antiquity in the cleft,

I can hear the speech of the Hellenes in the distance.

Mycenae was one of the most powerful city states. On the eve of the Trojan War, the entire Central and Eastern Mediterranean was under Mycenaean rule, but it was no longer as strong as before. In the middle of the 13th century BC. the capital of Mycenae itself suffered from a sudden invasion. It is possible that this attack occurred during civil war. By the way, the war against Troy is a reflection of the same trend of fierce rivalry between small but aggressive states in the region. Some attribute the fall of Troy to 1260 BC, others agree with Eratosthenes, who gave the date 1184 BC. Apparently, this happened in the last third of the Late Helladic period. Then many fortified cities of the mainland were destroyed: Mycenae, Tiryns, Media, Pylos. I must say that Mycenae was the oldest city Greece. G. Schliemann rushed here in 1876, reasonably believing that on the land where the graves of Agamemnon, Erimedon, Cassandra and other heroes were supposed to be located, the most amazing discoveries awaited him. He was not mistaken in paying attention first of all to the inside of the acropolis. The Mycenaean citadel was surrounded by walls made of huge stones (the width of the walls was 6 m). There are similar ruins of fortress walls in Greece, but the inhabitants of the mainland could not tell anything about them.

Cyclops Polyphemus

In Mycenae, Schliemann discovered five tombs, which in their scientific significance eclipsed the treasures of King Priam, which he found on the site of Troy. And this is what he found. In the fourth tomb, the archaeological expedition of G. Schliemann discovered five large copper cauldrons, one of which was filled with gold buttons (68 gold buttons without ornament and 118 gold buttons with carved ornament). Next to the cauldrons lay a rhyton - a silver bull's head (about 50 cm high) with steep, curved golden horns and a golden rosette in the forehead. The mouth, eyes and ears of this bull-rhyton were covered with a layer of gold. Two other heads of bull-rhytons made of sheet gold also lay nearby. In other graves, golden laurel wreaths, tiaras, and jewelry in the form of swastikas were found (which apparently indicates an Aryan source of origin). N. Ionina writes: “But the most remarkable among all the (golden masks) found was one mask, which was preserved much better than all the others. It reproduces features that have been considered Hellenic for centuries: a narrow face, a long nose, large eyes, a large mouth with somewhat plump lips... The mask has closed eyes, the tips of the mustache are slightly curled upward, the chin and cheeks are covered thick beard" True, P. Faure characterizes these masks as “very ugly.” The graves were literally filled with gold. But for G. Schliemann it was not the gold that was important, although there was almost 30 kilograms of it. “After all, these are the graves of the Atrides that Pausanias spoke about! These are masks of Agamemnon and his loved ones, everything speaks for this: the number of graves, the number of buried people (17 people - 12 men, 3 women and two children), and the wealth of things placed in them... After all, it is so huge that only royal family Schliemann had no doubt that the mask of a man with a beard covered the face of Agamemnon.” Later research showed that the mask was made almost three centuries before the birth of Agamemnon, but it is associated with the Mycenaean king and is called “The Mask of Agamemnon.”

Items of Cretan-Mycenaean culture: golden cup, mask, daggers

Other cities, Gla, Zigouris, Proimna, Berbati, Karakos, were abandoned by their inhabitants. As for the famous campaign against Troy, it probably took place a number of decades before the first events, as Homer and other later authors speak about. Many tribes found shelter and refuge in Greece. As A. Khomyakov wrote, all of Hellas, from the borders of Slavic Thrace to the southern tip of the Peloponnese, was inhabited by a “rabble of tribes.” The Hellenes came from the north. Epirus was the home of barbarian tribes, from the very borders of the Slavic land. And the ancient inhabitants of Hellas, the mysterious Pelasgians, disappeared mixed with northern newcomers, lost their way of life “from their influence military activities and forgot their language in the aggressive movement of alien enlightenment.” In ancient times, the Greeks were called Achaeans (the Italians called them Greeks). Tradition tells us little about the peoples who inhabited Greece before the arrival of the Greeks. They were divided into Dorians, Aetolians, Achaeans, Ionians, Aeolians (these are just names). The Greeks themselves called themselves Hellenes. According to legends, the family of Hellin's father included Aeolus, Dor, Achaeus and Ion. “The whole race of people originates from the Hellenes,” wrote Diogenes Laertius. Of course, both statements are not entirely true. Nevertheless, the great interest in Ancient Greece, the foremother of European civilization, the cradle of Christian Hellenism, is understandable. To this day European culture sees his “golden childhood” in Hellas, and in childhood there is always a fairy tale.

Samples of Dorian clothing

Of course, the “golden childhood of the Greeks” is a fairy tale inspired by the brilliant Homer, which is based on some completely real events. The Achaean society he described is much more reminiscent of a crowd of wild barbarians, who were deprived of their reason by Zeus the Provider. Unfortunately, there are not many sources from which one can study their gods and cults. Almost all the authentic texts have perished, and what was considered something like a “sacred gate for introduction to the Greek religion” (Homer, Hesiod, Sophocles) is now perceived as a secular source and gives little to the understanding of religion itself. The religion and mythology of the Greeks nevertheless represent one of the most striking and memorable aspects of world culture. Like other peoples, the Greeks had a widespread belief in spirits and cults of the dead. They revered trees, animals, idols, gods. In the traditional cults of the Hellenes we see features of savagery, tribal underdevelopment, and cruelty. For example, in Athens and in the large trading ports of Ionia, even in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, when it was already possible to talk about the “spring of civilization” that had come into its own, the Greeks adhered to the most savage and cruel rules in morality. Thus, in the cities, second-rate human material was specially kept in the form of degenerate human scum (cripples, idiots, etc.). When famine or plague occurred, the authorities usually sacrificed them. The unfortunates were stoned, burned alive, and before that they were beaten on their limbs with ritual rods. The ashes of the poor people who were scapegoats (“pharmacists”) were scattered over the sea.

Three Persian warriors

Or another example. On the morning of the famous Battle of Salamis, when the fate of Greece was being decided, commander Themistocles, hoping to appease the gods, burned three prisoners. These were beautiful young men, dressed in luxurious clothes and decorated with gold, and they were also the nephews of the Persian king. And so the commander-in-chief of the Greeks, an erudite, strangled them with his own hands on the ship, in full view of the fleet. Democritus, a scientist, the founder of atomistic materialism, with the cruelty of a sadist, demanded from young ladies that menstruating girls run around the fields three times before the harvest: supposedly, menstrual blood contains a charge of fruitful energy.

Corinth and Acrocorinth

The conquest of Greece took place over a long period of time. “At the beginning of the 16th century there is an increasing influence of Crete on their culture and, one might say, begins the influence known (to us) as the Age of Mycenae. Mycenaean-type states, similar to those described in the Iliad, began to form in Athens (although not very significant) and in Attica. Mycenaean power was strongest in the Peloponnese, where Pylos ruled Messenia, and in a group of fortresses in the Argolid dependent on Mycenae. Laconia, which lay between these two territories, has been practically unexplored, and its Mycenaean capital has not yet been discovered. It should be noted that all these states occupied fertile plains or hills. There were few such places in Greece, and they were separated from each other by high mountain ranges, so sometimes they could only be reached by sea. The northwestern region of Greece consisted mainly of mountains, so it is not surprising that this area played virtually no role in the history of Mycenae,” writes W. Taylor. The city of Mycenae lasted about 500 years and was probably destroyed around 1100 BC.

Acrocorinth – fortress walls

There is evidence indicating that Mycenaean influence can be traced not only in Greece, but also in Italy, where settlers colonized Apulia (this is confirmed by archaeological finds). Mycenaean influence is also noticeable in Sicily, where features of the same Rhodian culture are visible as in southern Italy. In ancient prehistoric times, fierce disputes arose between the Greeks, which led to wars (such as the famous War of the Seven Cities against Thebes, as a result of which both sides were destroyed).

Polis owe much of their rise and prosperity to their geographic location. Such was the ancient city-state of Corinth, founded near Isthmus - the only route from the Peloponnese to the rest of mainland Greece, between the gulfs of two seas - the Saronic and Corinthian. According to Pausanias, Corinth was considered the “son of Zeus”, being part of the power of Agamemnon and at first, according to Homer, representing a wretched settlement. The geographical conditions here were not very favorable. However, it was precisely the strategic and trade advantages of the place (control of routes between the seas, the ability to establish broad trade relations with the centers of the East and West) that made it an important link in the regional system. Availability of sources and high mountain Acrocorinth made it possible to populate, equip, and then defend the citadel from hostile invasions. Before the appearance of the Dorian tribes, the Phoenicians, other eastern peoples, as well as the Aeolian tribes who came here from Thessaly lived here. Around 900 BC The Dorians crossed here on ships. They initially settled in Arcadia, captured Argolis, and then invaded Corinthia. So Corinth was subjugated by them, as a result of which ethnic composition population has changed. The poet Eumelus wrote about the distant past of Corinth in his poem “Corinthian History”. It was he who identified Corinth with Homer’s Ephyra, the city in which Sisyphus (Sisyphus) reigned. Eumelus also connected the history of Corinth with the Aeolian-Thessalian myths of Jason and Medea. In accordance with this mythology, Sisif was considered the first king of Corinth. Bellerophon was also a local hero, whose fabulous horse Pegasus became not only the emblem of the city, but also a symbol of poetic ascent.

Fountain of the Lower Pyrene

From about the 8th century BC. the first great flowering of Corinth begins, when Corinth's political dependence on Argos ceased and it founded its first colonies in the West - Kerkyra in 730 BC. and Syracuse in 720 BC. The consequence of this process was the rapid development of its economy, industrial progress, and the export of Corinthian products to the West. Artistic crafts are also developing, as evidenced by numerous Proto-Corinthian and Corinthian vessels, painted tables from the sanctuary of the Archaic era, painted metopes of Fermat, and the Kypsela casket. The Corinthians were excellent sailors, reaching heights in this art during the period of the second Greek colonization. The Corinthian Aminocles was believed to have built it in 704 BC. the first trireme for the Samians. Subsequently, it was precisely the fact that the inhabitants of Corinth began to represent a formidable naval power and carried out intensive colonization that often aroused unfair anger and hatred towards them from Athens. The latter sought to destroy their rival in trade, which inevitably pushed Corinth into the arms of Athens' most formidable enemy, Sparta.

Theseus and Ariadne

It is curious that it was under the tyrants (Cypselus and his son Periander) that the economy, art and culture flourished highest altitudes. Periander was even named among the 7 main sages of ancient Greece. At the same time, Corinth became one of the most powerful powers of that era, developing relations with the kings and rulers of Asia Minor, the East and Egypt. Trade and production of various kinds of bronze and clay products, various fabrics attract more and more inhabitants and buyers here. The city became one of the favorite meeting places for rich people, merchants, sailors, warriors and women of a cheerful disposition. Hetaera was primarily attracted by the opportunity to make good money on a craft, because, to paraphrase Seneca, let’s say: apparently, man by nature is a lustful animal and prone to debauchery and meanness.

Hilt of a Mycenaean ceremonial sword

Love cannot live not only without money, reciprocity, but also without praises. That is why they say that a new genre of poetry arose in Corinth - dithyramb. Among the architectural monuments, the Temple of Apollo stands out. Not only all types of art are flourishing, but also engineering. Periander conceived the idea of ​​building a paved road - a “diolk” (drag) with deep gutters along which empty ships and goods could be transported on special platforms from one side of the Isthmus to the other.

Corinth during the Greco-Persian Wars (5th century BC) is one of the three great powers of the Greek world and participates in all battles against the Persians. Rivalry with Athens for supremacy at sea and in trade led to inevitable clashes with rivals. The rise of Athens and Sparta will soon relegate him, however, to secondary roles. Corinth became perhaps the main instigator of the Peloponnesian War. Corinth would later become the capital of the Achaean League (after 200 BC). However, dissatisfaction with the policies of the Roman power led to the fact that Corinth decided to break away from Rome. In 146 BC. The commander Lucius Mummius defeated the Achaean League in battle and destroyed Corinth to the ground. For a hundred years the city then lay in ruins, until finally Julius Caesar began to repopulate Corinth (from 44). His work was continued by Octavian Augustus. In the 1st century AD As a Roman colony and port, the city again experienced a period of growth and prosperity. It was in Corinth that Emperor Nero arrived to proclaim the freedom of the Greek cities (66-67 AD).

Ancient Greece was an association of city-states (polises), each of which had its own gods and heroes, laws and calendar. Theseus, who was considered the creator of the state, was especially revered in Athens. Many legends were created about him, which any Athenian schoolchild knew very well. The actions of this hero largely predetermined the future fate of the Athenian state. Before him, the inhabitants of Attica were often at odds, being both politically and spiritually divided. Having decided to unite them into a single people, Theseus patiently walked around the Greeks, trying to show them all the benefits of living together, the advantages of unity in battles against enemies. Being naturally very strong, he only rarely resorted to force as a last resort. Theseus also approved the general Attic holiday - Panathenaia. Every year in August, various gymnastic and musical competitions were held in Greece (and the Great Panathenaea was solemnly held every four years). The winners of the games were awarded wreaths or amphorae with olive oil. He is also credited with dividing the inhabitants of Attica into nobility, farmers and artisans. Theseus destroyed the previous communal councils, replacing them with a single council. This council was located in the center of the city, which it named Athens in honor of its patron goddess. Having accomplished so many glorious deeds, the Greek hero voluntarily laid down the burdens of power, showing himself to be a wise legislator and teaching a lesson to the rulers of subsequent eras who consider themselves “democrats.”

The “cultural soul” did not immediately find shelter in the hearts of the Greeks... The nomadic tribes that came to Hellas, regardless of whether they came from the Balkans, from Scythia or anywhere else, like other peoples, paid tribute to superstition and primitive savagery. At the same time, they grew cereals, hunted game, planted figs and olives (olives were the main food item of the Greeks), cultivated vineyards and made wine. The earth gave them food and minimal amount fruits (oil and wine), which could be put into commercial circulation, receiving wheat, fabrics, weapons, etc. for them. An important strategic factor was the ownership of the straits, through which all trade with grain markets on the Black Sea coast or in Egypt was carried out. After all, about half of the grain exported to Athens was delivered there from the Bosporan kingdom. The fact that bread in Greece and its colonies was considered a strategic commodity is also evidenced by the oath that the inhabitants of Tauride Chersonesos took: “I will not sell the bread received from the fields of (our) homeland, I will not export it to another place besides Kherson "

As we see, the Greeks two thousand years ago perfectly understood the need for state regulation in their grain farming (which, it seems, our ministers-economists do not understand). Greece's location was conducive to its prosperity. The continent was divided into three parts: northern Greece, central Greece (or Hellas proper), connected to Hellas by the isthmus of southern Greece (Peloponnese). The country, located behind the mountain ranges, was a natural citadel, the passage to which was very, very difficult due to narrow gorges, which was brilliantly proven by the 300 Spartans of King Leonidas with their feat (during the courageous defense of Thermopylae).

On the other hand, a number of Greek regions found themselves disunited, divided by nature itself. None big rivers, like the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Yellow River, Volga and Dnieper are not to be seen here. This complicated connections between the individual ethnic groups inhabiting the peninsula. Hence the difficulty in uniting local tribes. Civil strife more than once brought the Greeks to the brink of death (including in the battle with the Persians). What can we say, even if on the small island of Amorg (21 by 3 sq. miles) as many as three independent political communities were formed. Proximity to the sea also meant a lot (in the Peloponnese there is not a single point more than 7 miles from the sea, in central Greece - more than 8 miles). Of particular importance was the fact that the large number of islands that make up the archipelago form a kind of continuous bridge connecting Europe with Asia. Among the islands on the western coast of Greece was the island of Ithaca, the birthplace of the Homeric hero Odysseus.

Ithaca Island today

The lands of Attica were rich in iron, silver, building stone, marble, and alumina. In the same Attica there was also silver (in the south, in Lavria). In Greece there were cities such as Sybaris, which stood out for the wealth that the silver mine brought. For gold, the Greeks rushed further - to the northern coast, to Macedonia, Thrace, Lydia or Colchis. By the way, the legend about Jason’s journey for the Golden Fleece, according to Strabo, suggested this method of obtaining gold among some peoples: the skin of a ram, that is, the “golden fleece,” was immersed in water, as a result of which grains of gold settled on its wool. The aforementioned Sybaris, owning a harbor on the Etruscan Sea, was the most important intermediary in trade between Miletus and the Etruscans. It was mainly through mediation that he became rich, for which he exempted even the most expensive goods from customs duties. All this turned the eastern part of the country, where the metal deposits were located, into the most developed and prosperous. Oddly enough, being near the sea, the Greeks constantly experienced a great need for drinking water. Fresh water was worth its weight in gold here. Even the oath of the members of the union who guarded Delphi is known. They vowed never to take away “running water from the allied communities.” It is interesting that when setting out on a journey, the Greeks usually said to each other: “Bon voyage and fresh water.”

Ancient Greek ship

In the times described, the sea plays an increasingly important role (in matters of trade, life support and the defense capability of countries). Greece was no exception. If Egypt was created by the Nile, then the fate of Greece, Crete, Cyprus and Phenicia largely depended on how friendly they were with the sea... Pericles proudly told the Athenians: “After all, you believe that you rule only over your allies; I assert that from both parts earth's surface, accessible to people, - land and sea, - over one you dominate completely, and not only where our ships now sail; you can, if you wish, rule anywhere. And no one, not a single king, not a single people can now prevent you from going to sea with your powerful fleet.” Athens, heading the Maritime Union, was the largest maritime hegemon of that era (note that at one time this union included up to 200 states). Dominance at sea made it possible to control maritime trade.

Map of the city of Athens with the port of Piraeus

Streams of foreign goods poured into the port of Athens, Piraeus. It is estimated that the large port of Piraeus alone provided space for 372 ships at a time. The construction of the port cost the Athenians 100 talents (6 million drachmas), which is equivalent to 26 tons of silver. As a result, Athens became a monopolist in the trade of bread delivered from Pontus, Euboea, Rhodes and Egypt. After providing themselves with bread, the Athenians allowed the captains to go to other places, taking care that merchants, travelers, and pilgrims had refuge and shelter in other ports. “When capital is accumulated, it is good and useful to build city hotels near the piers for shipowners, appropriate places for buying and selling for merchants, and similar hotels in the city for those traveling to the city. And if premises and shops were set up for small traders in Piraeus and in the city itself, this would bring both decoration and great income to the city,” noted Xenophon. A very sensible remark.

Hippodamus - architect of Piraeus and a number of cities

The Greeks were well aware of the key importance of the sea in their lives. The temperate climate and generally poor soil did not allow them to rely solely on mineral wealth or agriculture. “Power over Greece is power over the sea,” the Greeks said. They used to call the Aegean Sea the “Tsar Sea”. The life of the peoples of the Mediterranean is replete with maritime events. Key paths within Aegean Sea were tightly controlled by the navy. After all, by the time of the Peloponnesian War, Athens had 300 triremes, Corcyra had 10, Chios - 60, Megara - 40 triremes. Even intellectuals took part in the battles for supremacy at sea: for example, the fleet of Samos in 441 was led by the philosopher Melis, who defeated the fleet of Athens led by Sophocles. The tribes in the south and west of Greece, where navigation first developed, soon formed a kind of intertribal community. Each of them “told the other everything that he knew from navigation and ethnography, everything that he had experienced at sea, all the information about shipbuilding.” The earliest to acquire stable maritime skills was the Dardanian tribe, who believed that their homeland was Crete. The historian E. Curtius classifies the Ionians who lived in Lydia as belonging to this branch. Lydia, with its excellent ports, became a rival of Phenicia in trade.

Antique ship in the port

To a large extent, one can judge the power of the Greeks on the basis of the data given in the Iliad. The leader of the Mycenaeans Agamemnon brought a hundred ships to Troy, the second place was for the Pylians - 90 ships, the third place for the Argives and Cretans - 80 ships each, the Spartans and Arcadians - 50 each, the Athenian and Myrmidon fleets - 50 ships each. A total of 1,186 ships arrived at Troy. The base of King Agamemnon's fleet was Iolcus, from where the Argonauts began their journey on the ship "Argo" ("Fast"). Until the end of antiquity, the Argo ship was considered the first floating ship. Agamemnon also had other naval bases, the strategic importance of which was great. It should be added that the marine life of the Greeks, in addition to ordinary trade, was inextricably linked with their robbery. All this was in order. Cretans, in order to clear the archipelago of pirates and become masters of the sea ​​routes, they themselves create pirate-military squadrons on Kiefer and Egilia. The Spartan Chilo always expected an attack from here. Squadrons of Greeks acted against the Phoenician pirates. King Minos went to Greece by sea to avenge his stolen son. His ships are guided by dolphins (in memory of their help, he establishes the cult of Apollo of Delphi). It is said that the busiest sea routes of those times - or the so-called “Apollo paths” - were also paved by smart dolphins.

Dolphins on the walls of the palace at Knossos

Journey of Odysseus. Odysseus and his companions

The sea became an arena of open robbery. The kings were no different from robbers, leading squadrons of pirates and boasting of wars and robberies (Iliad, XIV, 229-234). Achilles raids from Argolis to Mysia, steals Briseis from Lyrnessos, and razes the city allied to Troy to the ground. The son of Peleus exclaims: “I have destroyed twelve populous cities with ships; The eleven on foot took the fruitful Trojan land; In each of them he obtained a lot of priceless and glorious treasures.” Hercules destroys Troy in order to profit from the famous horses. Agamemnon proudly recalls how, having destroyed flowering Lesbos, he took from there many beautiful captives. Odysseus, a “pirate by vocation,” as soon as his ship was washed by the wind and currents to the Thracian shore, immediately begins to plunder the first nearby city, considering this a great merit:

Before Troy went

armored tribe of the Achaeans,

Nine times I'm on the ship

fast with brave

squad

I went against foreign people -

and we were lucky;

I took the best from the spoils,

and by lot also

I got a lot for my share;

increasing your wealth,

I have become powerful and respectable...

In another place, Odysseus confesses to King Alcinous that when he, who is rumored to be an inventor of tricks, sailed to the city of the Ciconians, Ismar, he, the king of Ithaca, together with his fellow bandits, behaved not at all as a peacemaker, but as a murderer and the robber:

Ismaru: we destroyed the city,

All the inhabitants were exterminated.

Saving wives and all sorts of things

having plundered a lot of treasures,

We began to divide the spoils so that

everyone could take their part.

Thus, the reader should not be mistaken either about Odysseus or about beautiful Greece, the talents and courage of whose sons we will quite rightly admire more than once. Even in the most heroic part of its history, Greece was in fact nothing more than " ideal place for robbery." The geographer Strabo also wrote about the undeniable propensity for piracy of the inhabitants of these places, noting their bloodthirstiness. The hunt for slaves gave rise to the profession of andrapodists - “slave makers.” The poet Lucian called the first such andrapodist Zeus himself, who kidnapped the handsome Ganymede. The historian A. Vallon noted the main sources of wealth ancient civilizations: “The richest source of slaves was always the primary source of slavery: war and maritime robbery. The Trojan War and the most ancient wars of the Greeks along the Asian and Thracian coasts gave them numerous captives... The war replenished the ranks of slaves, but with certain interruptions; sea ​​robbery contributed to this more constantly and continuously. This custom, which in Greece preceded trade and accompanied the first attempts at navigation, did not cease even when intercourse between nations became more regular and civilization more widespread; The need for slaves, which became more widespread, stimulated pirate activity with the lure of higher profits. How easy it was for this region, surrounded by the sea, and the shores, accessible almost everywhere, and the islands scattered throughout the sea! The horror that the North African barbarians (Berbers) not so long ago spread along the shores Mediterranean Sea Thanks to his quick and unexpected landings, he reigned everywhere in Greece.” Life back then was simply terrible. This is at least indicated by the custom of killing all strangers arriving from the sea. Among the “civilized” Greeks, Phoenicians, Cretans, Egyptians, Jews, and Assyrians, the rule of the Night of Bartholomew was in effect: kill everyone, God will recognize his own. The gods, apparently, are indifferent to the fate of people.

Odysseus with the sorceress Kirka

Hercules and the Argonauts (with spears, clubs, shields)

Regrettably, in Athens itself, this citadel of ancient democracy, open slavery flourished. Athens, which, according to the requirements of the law, supposedly had to hunt down the kidnappers of free people (having passed a law that punished caught Andrapodist kidnappers with death), in fact, whenever they could not be caught by the hand, they secretly patronize them. It was even forbidden to offend them under penalty of exclusion from citizenship. The reason for such patronage is simple and understandable. The state and individual citizens derived considerable benefits from the slave trade and its mediation. After all, this trade was subject to special taxes, and Athens was precisely one of the main places of such trade. Lucian in “The Auction of Souls,” describing the life of Aesop, draws many examples from the practice of the slave trade in Rome. But exactly the same order reigned in Greece, which, of course, was not and could not be any exception.

Ruins of Corinth

Speaking about this “flawed, restless and fragile” Mycenaean civilization, which lasted no more than 400 years in continental Greece and the Peloponnese, 200 years on the islands and only a few years in the distant colonies of Egypt, Asia Minor and Italy, P. Faure in in his magnificent book “Greece during the Trojan War”, he tried to establish what once destroyed the small kingdoms and fortified cities. He quite decisively rejects the idea of ​​external invasion and destruction. The same mysterious “peoples of the sea” that many sources mention (doing this, however, in a very vague, vague way) could hardly have become the root cause of the total catastrophe of the Mycenaean cities. After all, their independent rulers created powerful fortresses, had a strong army, excellent weapons for those centuries, and strong political and economic structures. Then what caused the deadly threat that swept away between 1250 and 1200 BC. these prosperous and wealthy centers?

Heroes of the Trojan War

It must be said that Faure himself convincingly answered the question posed: “And yet, in order to try to explain the catastrophe that destroyed so many “well-cut” palaces and beautifully fortified strongholds between 1250 and 1200, several reasons must be simultaneously taken into account or put together. The most common mechanism of disintegration could be the following: small monarchies flourished and strengthened so much thanks to agriculture, cattle breeding and the development of crafts that they aroused the hatred of subject peoples and less fortunate neighbors.

The power of the reigning house could be weakened by several misfortunes at once: shortages, shipwrecks, illness, rivalry, lack of mutual understanding, old age of the ruler. All this shocked society from top to bottom. A whole swarm of small feudal lords or local leaders rebelled, refused to pay taxes and submit to bureaucratic control, and, on occasion, did not disdain piracy and robbery. The bravest conspired among themselves and went to take the palaces, where, as everyone knew, there were full of treasures, and the rightful owner, like Odysseus or Achilles, went to Troas to seek luck. Stories of tragic poets about Oedipus, who took possession of the city of Cadmus, or about Theseus, who reigned in Athens and threw the old man Aegeus from the top of the acropolis, about the Seven against Thebes, about the bloody “showdowns” of Atreus, Thyestes and their heirs, about the flight of Alcmaeon, the last king of Pylos, - this whole terrible series of riots and fights over inheritance seems to generally reflect the everyday reality of the second half of the 13th century BC. And, if we look into the history of Greece in the 13th century AD, we will see a completely similar picture, and in the same cities - Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Argos, Nauplia or Modon. Byzantium was destroyed much more by internal squabbles than by attacks from external enemies.” The French historian reasonably believes that there is a high probability that the Greeks fell victim to the onslaught of neighbors or fellow citizens, that is, civil wars rather than external wars.

Although external wars undoubtedly played a role... Just as the aging “fathers of the nation” in the Soviet Union tried to find answers to acute social problems within the country in external expansion, it is possible that the leaders of the Greeks, who gathered on a campaign against Troy, tried to remove a heavy burden of social burdens from part of his people, inviting them to obtain gold, wealth and glory in foreign lands by robbery. Faure writes about the “giant mass of the poor” who had the most meager income. All these carpenters, scribes, blacksmiths, saddlers, weavers and shipwrights, creating material wealth, building palaces and fortifications, themselves barely made ends meet. Naturally, they all looked with deep hatred at the luxurious palaces of tsars, oligarchs, war barons, generals, just as three thousand years later the poor, often completely powerless workers of Russia look at the fabulous palaces of the new “feudal lords.”

THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF EUROPE: MINOAN CRETE AND ACHEAAN (MYCENEAN)