home Health technologies Summary of the lesson on ecology "Habitat and environmental factors. General patterns of the action of environmental factors on organisms

Summary of the lesson on ecology "Habitat and environmental factors. General patterns of the action of environmental factors on organisms

Habitat - this is that part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts. The components and properties of the environment are diverse and changeable. Any living creature lives in a complex, changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes.

Individual properties or elements of the environment that affect organisms are called environmental factors. Environmental factors are diverse. They can be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living beings, promote or hinder survival and reproduction. Environmental factors have different natures and specific actions. Among them are abiotic And biotic, anthropogenic.

Abiotic factors - temperature, light, radioactive radiation, pressure, air humidity, salt composition of water, wind, currents, terrain - these are all properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms.

Biotic factors - these are forms of influence of living beings on each other. Each organism constantly experiences the direct or indirect influence of other creatures, comes into contact with representatives of its own species and other species - plants, animals, microorganisms, depends on them and itself influences them. The surrounding organic world is an integral part of the environment of every living creature.

Mutual connections between organisms are the basis for the existence of biocenoses and populations; their consideration belongs to the field of syn-ecology.

Anthropogenic factors - these are forms of activity of human society that lead to changes in nature as the habitat of other species or directly affect their lives. Over the course of human history, the development of first hunting, and then agriculture, industry, and transport has greatly changed the nature of our planet. The importance of anthropogenic impacts on the entire living world of the Earth continues to grow rapidly.

Although humans influence living nature through changes in abiotic factors and biotic relationships of species, human activity on the planet should be identified as a special force that does not fit into the framework of this classification. Currently, the fate of the living surface of the Earth, all types of organisms, is in the hands of human society and depends on the anthropogenic influence on nature.

The same environmental factor has different significance in the life of co-living organisms of different species. For example, strong winds in winter are unfavorable for large, open-living animals, but have no effect on smaller ones that hide in burrows or under the snow. The salt composition of the soil is important for plant nutrition, but is indifferent to most terrestrial animals, etc.

Changes in environmental factors over time can be: 1) regularly periodic, changing the strength of the impact in connection with the time of day, or the season of the year, or the rhythm of the tides in the ocean; 2) irregular, without a clear periodicity, for example, changes in weather conditions in different years, catastrophic phenomena - storms, showers, landslides, etc.; 3) directed over certain, sometimes long, periods of time, for example, during cooling or warming of the climate, overgrowing of water bodies, constant grazing of livestock in the same area, etc.

Among environmental factors, resources and conditions are distinguished. Resources organisms use and consume the environment, thereby reducing their number. Resources include food, water when it is scarce, shelters, convenient places for reproduction, etc. Conditions - these are factors to which organisms are forced to adapt, but usually cannot influence them. The same environmental factor can be a resource for some and a condition for other species. For example, light is a vital energy resource for plants, and for animals with vision it is a condition for visual orientation. Water can be both a living condition and a resource for many organisms.

2.2. Adaptations of organisms

Adaptations of organisms to their environment are called adaptation. Adaptations are any changes in the structure and function of organisms that increase their chances of survival.

The ability to adapt is one of the main properties of life in general, since it provides the very possibility of its existence, the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. Adaptations manifest themselves at different levels: from the biochemistry of cells and the behavior of individual organisms to the structure and functioning of communities and ecological systems. Adaptations arise and develop during the evolution of species.

Basic adaptation mechanisms at the organism level: 1) biochemical– manifest themselves in intracellular processes, such as a change in the work of enzymes or a change in their quantity; 2) physiological– for example, increased sweating with increasing temperature in a number of species; 3) morpho-anatomical– features of the structure and shape of the body associated with lifestyle; 4) behavioral– for example, animals searching for favorable habitats, creating burrows, nests, etc.; 5) ontogenetic– acceleration or deceleration of individual development, promoting survival when conditions change.

Ecological environmental factors have various effects on living organisms, i.e. they can influence both irritants, causing adaptive changes in physiological and biochemical functions; How limiters, causing the impossibility of existence in these conditions; How modifiers, causing morphological and anatomical changes in organisms; How signals, indicating changes in other environmental factors.

2.3. General laws of action of environmental factors on organisms

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

1. Law of optimum.

Each factor has certain limits of positive influence on organisms (Fig. 1). The result of a variable factor depends primarily on the strength of its manifestation. Both insufficient and excessive action of the factor negatively affects the life activity of individuals. The beneficial force of influence is called zone of optimum environmental factor or simply optimum for organisms of this species. The greater the deviation from the optimum, the more pronounced the inhibitory effect of this factor on organisms. (pessimum zone). The maximum and minimum transferable values of the factor are critical points, behind beyond which existence is no longer possible, death occurs. The endurance limits between critical points are called ecological valence living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor.

Rice. 1. Scheme of the action of environmental factors on living organisms

Representatives of different species differ greatly from each other both in the position of the optimum and in ecological valency. For example, arctic foxes in the tundra can tolerate fluctuations in air temperature in the range of more than 80 °C (from +30 to -55 °C), while warm-water crustaceans Copilia mirabilis can withstand changes in water temperature in the range of no more than 6 °C (from +23 up to +29 °C). The same strength of manifestation of a factor can be optimal for one species, pessimal for another, and go beyond the limits of endurance for a third (Fig. 2).

The broad ecological valence of a species in relation to abiotic environmental factors is indicated by adding the prefix “eury” to the name of the factor. Eurythermic species that tolerate significant temperature fluctuations, eurybates– wide pressure range, euryhaline– different degrees of environmental salinity.

Rice. 2. Position of optimum curves on the temperature scale for different species:

1, 2 - stenothermic species, cryophiles;

3–7 – eurythermal species;

8, 9 - stenothermic species, thermophiles

The inability to tolerate significant fluctuations in a factor, or narrow environmental valence, is characterized by the prefix “steno” - stenothermic, stenobate, stenohaline species, etc. In a broader sense, species whose existence requires strictly defined environmental conditions are called stenobiontic, and those that are able to adapt to different environmental conditions - eurybiont.

Conditions approaching critical points due to one or several factors at once are called extreme.

The position of the optimum and critical points on the factor gradient can be shifted within certain limits by the action of environmental conditions. This occurs regularly in many species as the seasons change. In winter, for example, sparrows withstand severe frosts, and in summer they die from chilling at temperatures just below zero. The phenomenon of a shift in the optimum in relation to any factor is called acclimation. In terms of temperature, this is a well-known process of thermal hardening of the body. Temperature acclimation requires a significant period of time. The mechanism is a change in enzymes in cells that catalyze the same reactions, but at different temperatures (the so-called isozymes). Each enzyme is encoded by its own gene, therefore, it is necessary to turn off some genes and activate others, transcription, translation, assembly of a sufficient amount of new protein, etc. The overall process takes on average about two weeks and is stimulated by changes in the environment. Acclimation, or hardening, is an important adaptation of organisms that occurs under gradually approaching unfavorable conditions or when entering territories with a different climate. In these cases, it is an integral part of the general acclimatization process.

2. Ambiguity of the factor’s effect on different functions.

Each factor affects different body functions differently (Fig. 3). The optimum for some processes may be a pessimum for others. Thus, air temperature from +40 to +45 °C in cold-blooded animals greatly increases the rate of metabolic processes in the body, but inhibits motor activity, and the animals fall into thermal stupor. For many fish, the water temperature that is optimal for the maturation of reproductive products is unfavorable for spawning, which occurs at a different temperature range.

Rice. 3. Scheme of the dependence of photosynthesis and plant respiration on temperature (according to V. Larcher, 1978): t min, t opt, t max– temperature minimum, optimum and maximum for plant growth (shaded area)

The life cycle, in which during certain periods the organism primarily performs certain functions (nutrition, growth, reproduction, settlement, etc.), is always consistent with seasonal changes in a complex of environmental factors. Mobile organisms can also change habitats to successfully carry out all their vital functions.

3. Diversity of individual reactions to environmental factors. The degree of endurance, critical points, optimal and pessimal zones of individual individuals do not coincide. This variability is determined both by the hereditary qualities of individuals and by gender, age and physiological differences. For example, the mill moth, one of the pests of flour and grain products, has a critical minimum temperature for caterpillars of -7 °C, for adult forms -22 °C, and for eggs -27 °C. Frost of -10 °C kills caterpillars, but is not dangerous for the adults and eggs of this pest. Consequently, the ecological valency of a species is always broader than the ecological valence of each individual individual.

4. Relative independence of adaptation of organisms to different factors. The degree of tolerance to any factor does not mean the corresponding ecological valency of the species in relation to other factors. For example, species that tolerate wide variations in temperature do not necessarily also need to be able to tolerate wide variations in humidity or salinity. Eurythermal species can be stenohaline, stenobatic, or vice versa. The ecological valencies of a species in relation to different factors can be very diverse. This creates an extraordinary diversity of adaptations in nature. The set of environmental valences in relation to various environmental factors is ecological spectrum of the species.

5. Discrepancy in the ecological spectra of individual species. Each species is specific in its ecological capabilities. Even among species that are similar in their methods of adaptation to the environment, there are differences in their attitude to some individual factors.

Rice. 4. Changes in the participation of individual plant species in meadow grass stands depending on moisture (according to L. G. Ramensky et al., 1956): 1 – red clover; 2 – common yarrow; 3 – Delyavin’s cellery; 4 – meadow bluegrass; 5 – fescue; 6 – true bedstraw; 7 – early sedge; 8 – meadowsweet; 9 – hill geranium; 10 – field bush; 11 – short-nosed salsify

Rule of ecological individuality of species formulated by the Russian botanist L. G. Ramensky (1924) in relation to plants (Fig. 4), then it was widely confirmed by zoological research.

6. Interaction of factors. The optimal zone and limits of endurance of organisms in relation to any environmental factor can shift depending on the strength and in what combination other factors act simultaneously (Fig. 5). This pattern is called interaction of factors. For example, heat is easier to bear in dry rather than humid air. The risk of freezing is much greater in cold weather with strong winds than in calm weather. Thus, the same factor in combination with others has different environmental impacts. On the contrary, the same environmental result can be obtained in different ways. For example, plant wilting can be stopped by both increasing the amount of moisture in the soil and lowering the air temperature, which reduces evaporation. The effect of partial substitution of factors is created.

Rice. 5. Mortality of pine silkworm eggs Dendrolimus pini under different combinations of temperature and humidity

At the same time, mutual compensation of environmental factors has certain limits, and it is impossible to completely replace one of them with another. The complete absence of water or at least one of the basic elements of mineral nutrition makes the life of the plant impossible, despite the most favorable combinations of other conditions. The extreme heat deficit in the polar deserts cannot be compensated by either an abundance of moisture or 24-hour illumination.

Taking into account the patterns of interaction of environmental factors in agricultural practice, it is possible to skillfully maintain optimal living conditions for cultivated plants and domestic animals.

7. Rule of limiting factors. The possibilities for the existence of organisms are primarily limited by those environmental factors that are furthest away from the optimum. If at least one of the environmental factors approaches or goes beyond critical values, then, despite the optimal combination of other conditions, the individuals are threatened with death. Any factors that strongly deviate from the optimum acquire paramount importance in the life of a species or its individual representatives at specific periods of time.

Limiting environmental factors determine the geographic range of a species. The nature of these factors may be different (Fig. 6). Thus, the movement of the species to the north may be limited by a lack of heat, and into arid regions by a lack of moisture or too high temperatures. Biotic relationships can also serve as limiting factors for distribution, for example, the occupation of a territory by a stronger competitor or a lack of pollinators for plants. Thus, pollination of figs depends entirely on a single species of insect - the wasp Blastophaga psenes. The homeland of this tree is the Mediterranean. Figs introduced to California did not bear fruit until pollinating wasps were introduced there. The distribution of legumes in the Arctic is limited by the distribution of the bumblebees that pollinate them. On Dikson Island, where there are no bumblebees, legumes are not found, although due to temperature conditions the existence of these plants there is still permissible.

Rice. 6. Deep snow cover is a limiting factor in the distribution of deer (according to G. A. Novikov, 1981)

To determine whether a species can exist in a given geographic area, it is necessary first to determine whether any environmental factors are beyond its ecological valence, especially during its most vulnerable period of development.

Identification of limiting factors is very important in agricultural practice, since by directing the main efforts to their elimination, one can quickly and effectively increase plant yields or animal productivity. Thus, on highly acidic soils, the wheat yield can be slightly increased by using different agronomic influences, but the best effect will be obtained only as a result of liming, which will remove the limiting effects of acidity. Knowledge of limiting factors is thus the key to controlling the life activities of organisms. At different periods of the life of individuals, various environmental factors act as limiting factors, so skillful and constant regulation of the living conditions of cultivated plants and animals is required.

2.4. Principles of ecological classification of organisms

In ecology, the diversity and diversity of methods and ways of adaptation to the environment create the need for multiple classifications. Using any single criterion, it is impossible to reflect all aspects of the adaptability of organisms to the environment. Ecological classifications reflect the similarities that arise among representatives of very different groups if they use similar ways of adaptation. For example, if we classify animals according to their modes of movement, then the ecological group of species that move in water by reactive means will include animals as different in their systematic position as jellyfish, cephalopods, some ciliates and flagellates, the larvae of a number of dragonflies, etc. (Fig. 7). Environmental classifications can be based on a wide variety of criteria: methods of nutrition, movement, attitude to temperature, humidity, salinity, pressure etc. The division of all organisms into eurybiont and stenobiont according to the breadth of the range of adaptations to the environment is an example of the simplest ecological classification.

Rice. 7. Representatives of the ecological group of organisms that move in water in a reactive manner (according to S. A. Zernov, 1949):

1 – flagellate Medusochloris phiale;

2 – ciliate Craspedotella pileosus;

3 – jellyfish Cytaeis vulgaris;

4 – pelagic holothurian Pelagothuria;

5 – larva of the rocker dragonfly;

6 – swimming octopus Octopus vulgaris:

A– direction of the water jet;

b– direction of movement of the animal

Another example is the division of organisms into groups according to the nature of nutrition.Autotrophs are organisms that use inorganic compounds as a source to build their bodies. Heterotrophs– all living beings that need food of organic origin. In turn, autotrophs are divided into phototrophs And chemotrophs. The former use the energy of sunlight to synthesize organic molecules, the latter use the energy of chemical bonds. Heterotrophs are divided into saprophytes, using solutions of simple organic compounds, and holozoans. Holozoans have a complex set of digestive enzymes and can consume complex organic compounds, breaking them down into simpler components. Holozoans are divided into saprophages(feed on dead plant debris) phytophages(consumers of living plants), zoophages(in need of living food) and necrophages(carnivores). In turn, each of these groups can be divided into smaller ones, which have their own specific nutritional patterns.

Otherwise, you can build a classification according to the method of obtaining food. Among animals, for example, groups such as filters(small crustaceans, toothless, whale, etc.), grazing forms(ungulates, leaf beetles), gatherers(woodpeckers, moles, shrews, chickens), hunters of moving prey(wolves, lions, blackflies, etc.) and a number of other groups. Thus, despite the great dissimilarity in organization, the same method of mastering prey in lions and moths leads to a number of analogies in their hunting habits and general structural features: leanness of the body, strong development of muscles, the ability to develop short-term high speed, etc.

Ecological classifications help to identify possible ways in nature for organisms to adapt to the environment.

2.5. Active and hidden life

Metabolism is one of the most important properties of life, which determines the close material-energy connection of organisms with the environment. Metabolism shows a strong dependence on living conditions. In nature, we observe two main states of life: active life and peace. During active life, organisms feed, grow, move, develop, reproduce, and are characterized by intense metabolism. Rest can vary in depth and duration; many body functions weaken or are not performed at all, as the level of metabolism drops under the influence of external and internal factors.

In a state of deep rest, i.e., reduced substance-energy metabolism, organisms become less dependent on the environment, acquire a high degree of stability and are able to tolerate conditions that they could not withstand during active life. These two states alternate in the lives of many species, being an adaptation to habitats with an unstable climate and sharp seasonal changes, which is typical for most of the planet.

With deep suppression of metabolism, organisms may not show visible signs of life at all. The question of whether it is possible to completely stop metabolism with a subsequent return to active life, i.e., a kind of “resurrection from the dead,” has been debated in science for more than two centuries.

First time phenomenon imaginary death was discovered in 1702 by Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, the discoverer of the microscopic world of living beings. When the drops of water dried, the “animalcules” (rotifers) he observed shriveled, looked dead, and could remain in this state for a long time (Fig. 8). Placed again in water, they swelled and began active life. Leeuwenhoek explained this phenomenon by the fact that the shell of the “animalcules” apparently “does not allow the slightest evaporation” and they remain alive in dry conditions. However, within a few decades, naturalists were already arguing about the possibility that “life could be completely stopped” and restored again “in 20, 40, 100 years or more.”

In the 70s of the XVIII century. the phenomenon of “resurrection” after drying was discovered and confirmed by numerous experiments in a number of other small organisms - wheat eels, free-living nematodes and tardigrades. J. Buffon, repeating the experiments of J. Needham with eels, argued that “these organisms can be made to die and come to life again as many times as desired.” L. Spallanzani was the first to draw attention to the deep dormancy of seeds and spores of plants, regarding it as their preservation over time.

Rice. 8. Rotifer Philidina roseola at different stages of drying (according to P. Yu. Schmidt, 1948):

1 – active; 2 – beginning to contract; 3 – completely contracted before drying; 4 - in a state of suspended animation

In the middle of the 19th century. it was convincingly established that the resistance of dry rotifers, tardigrades and nematodes to high and low temperatures, lack or absence of oxygen increases in proportion to the degree of their dehydration. However, the question remained open whether this resulted in a complete interruption of life or only its deep oppression. In 1878, Claude Bernal put forward the concept "hidden life" which he characterized by the cessation of metabolism and “a break in the relationship between being and environment.”

This issue was finally resolved only in the first third of the 20th century with the development of deep vacuum dehydration technology. The experiments of G. Ram, P. Becquerel and other scientists showed the possibility complete reversible stop of life. In a dry state, when no more than 2% of water remained in the cells in a chemically bound form, organisms such as rotifers, tardigrades, small nematodes, seeds and spores of plants, spores of bacteria and fungi withstood exposure to liquid oxygen (-218.4 °C ), liquid hydrogen (-259.4 °C), liquid helium (-269.0 °C), i.e. temperatures close to absolute zero. In this case, the contents of the cells harden, even the thermal movement of molecules is absent, and all metabolism naturally stops. After being placed in normal conditions, these organisms continue to develop. In some species, stopping metabolism at ultra-low temperatures is possible without drying, provided that the water freezes not in a crystalline, but in an amorphous state.

The complete temporary stoppage of life is called suspended animation. The term was proposed by V. Preyer back in 1891. In a state of suspended animation, organisms become resistant to a wide variety of influences. For example, in an experiment, tardigrades withstood ionizing radiation of up to 570 thousand roentgens for 24 hours. Dehydrated larvae of one of the African chironomus mosquitoes, Polypodium vanderplanki, retain the ability to revive after exposure to a temperature of +102 °C.

The state of suspended animation greatly expands the boundaries of life preservation, including in time. For example, deep drilling in the thickness of the Antarctic glacier revealed microorganisms (spores of bacteria, fungi and yeast), which subsequently developed on ordinary nutrient media. The age of the corresponding ice horizons reaches 10–13 thousand years. Spores of some viable bacteria have also been isolated from deeper layers hundreds of thousands of years old.

Anabiosis, however, is a fairly rare phenomenon. It is not possible for all species and is an extreme state of rest in living nature. Its necessary condition is the preservation of intact fine intracellular structures (organelles and membranes) during drying or deep cooling of organisms. This condition is impossible for most species that have a complex organization of cells, tissues and organs.

The ability to anabiosis is found in species that have a simple or simplified structure and live in conditions of sharp fluctuations in humidity (drying up small bodies of water, upper layers of soil, cushions of mosses and lichens, etc.).

Other forms of dormancy associated with a state of decreased vital activity as a result of partial inhibition of metabolism are much more widespread in nature. Any degree of reduction in the level of metabolism increases the stability of organisms and allows them to spend energy more economically.

Forms of rest in a state of decreased vital activity are divided into hypobiosis And cryptobiosis, or forced peace And physiological rest. In hypobiosis, inhibition of activity, or torpor, occurs under the direct pressure of unfavorable conditions and ceases almost immediately after these conditions return to normal (Fig. 9). Such suppression of vital processes can occur with a lack of heat, water, oxygen, with an increase in osmotic pressure, etc. In accordance with the leading external factor of forced rest, there are cryobiosis(at low temperatures), anhydrobiosis(with a lack of water), anoxybiosis(under anaerobic conditions), hyperosmobiosis(with high salt content in water), etc.

Not only in the Arctic and Antarctic, but also in the middle latitudes, some frost-resistant species of arthropods (collembolas, a number of flies, ground beetles, etc.) overwinter in a state of torpor, quickly thawing and switching to activity under the rays of the sun, and then again lose mobility when the temperature drops . Plants that emerge in the spring stop and resume growth and development following cooling and warming. After rain, bare soil often turns green due to the rapid proliferation of soil algae that were in forced dormancy.

Rice. 9. Pagon - a piece of ice with freshwater inhabitants frozen into it (from S. A. Zernov, 1949)

The depth and duration of metabolic suppression during hypobiosis depends on the duration and intensity of the inhibitory factor. Forced dormancy occurs at any stage of ontogenesis. The benefits of hypobiosis are rapid restoration of active life. However, this is a relatively unstable state of organisms and, over a long duration, can be damaging due to the imbalance of metabolic processes, depletion of energy resources, accumulation of under-oxidized metabolic products and other unfavorable physiological changes.

Cryptobiosis is a fundamentally different type of dormancy. It is associated with a complex of endogenous physiological changes that occur in advance, before the onset of unfavorable seasonal changes, and organisms are ready for them. Cryptobiosis is an adaptation primarily to the seasonal or other periodicity of abiotic environmental factors, their regular cyclicity. It forms part of the life cycle of organisms and occurs not at any stage, but at a certain stage of individual development, timed to coincide with critical periods of the year.

The transition to a state of physiological rest takes time. It is preceded by the accumulation of reserve substances, partial dehydration of tissues and organs, a decrease in the intensity of oxidative processes and a number of other changes that generally reduce tissue metabolism. In a state of cryptobiosis, organisms become many times more resistant to adverse environmental influences (Fig. 10). The main biochemical rearrangements in this case are largely common to plants, animals and microorganisms (for example, switching metabolism to varying degrees to the glycolytic pathway due to reserve carbohydrates, etc.). Exiting cryptobiosis also requires time and energy and cannot be accomplished by simply stopping the negative effect of the factor. This requires special conditions, different for different species (for example, freezing, the presence of droplet-liquid water, a certain length of daylight hours, a certain quality of light, mandatory temperature fluctuations, etc.).

Cryptobiosis as a survival strategy in periodically unfavorable conditions for active life is a product of long-term evolution and natural selection. It is widely distributed in wildlife. The state of cryptobiosis is characteristic, for example, of plant seeds, cysts and spores of various microorganisms, fungi, and algae. Diapause of arthropods, hibernation of mammals, deep dormancy of plants are also different types of cryptobiosis.

Rice. 10. An earthworm in a state of diapause (according to V. Tishler, 1971)

The states of hypobiosis, cryptobiosis and anabiosis ensure the survival of species in natural conditions of different latitudes, often extreme, allow the preservation of organisms during long unfavorable periods, settle in space and in many ways push the boundaries of the possibility and distribution of life in general.

The habitat of an organism is the totality of abiotic and biotic conditions of its life. The properties of the environment are constantly changing, and any creature adapts to these changes in order to survive.

The impact of the environment is perceived by organisms through environmental factors called environmental factors.

Environmental factors- these are certain conditions and elements of the environment that have a specific effect on the body. They are divided into abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic.

Abiotic factorsname the entire set of factors in the inorganic environment that influence the life and distribution of animals and plants. Among them there are physical, chemical and edaphic.

Physical factors - these are those factors whose source is a physical state or phenomenon (mechanical, wave, etc.). For example, the temperature, if it is high, will cause a burn; if it is very low, it will cause frostbite. Other factors can also influence the effect of temperature: in water - current, on land - wind and humidity, etc.

Chemical factors- these are the factors that come from the chemical composition of the environment. For example, if the salinity of the water is high, life in the reservoir may be completely absent (Dead Sea), but at the same time, most marine organisms cannot live in fresh water. The life of animals on land and in water, etc., depends on the sufficiency of oxygen levels.

Edaphic factors , i.e. soil, is a set of chemical, physical and mechanical properties of soils and rocks that affect both the organisms living in them, i.e. those for which they are a habitat, and on the root system of plants. The influence of chemical components (biogenic elements), temperature, humidity, soil structure, humus content, etc. is well known. on plant growth and development.

Biotic factors- the totality of influences of the life activity of some organisms on the life activity of others, as well as on the inanimate environment. In the latter case, we are talking about the ability of the organisms themselves to influence their living conditions to a certain extent. For example, in a forest, under the influence of vegetation cover, a special microclimate or microenvironment is created, where, in comparison with open habitats, its own temperature and humidity regime is created: in winter it is several degrees warmer, in summer it is cooler and more humid. A special microenvironment is also created in tree hollows, burrows, caves, etc.

Biotic factors include intraspecific competition and interspecific relationships.

Intraspecific competition is the struggle for the same resources that occurs between individuals of the same species. This is an important factor in the self-regulation of populations.

Interspecific relationships are much more diverse. Two species living nearby may not influence each other at all, they may influence each other favorably or unfavorably. Possible types of combinations reflect different types of relationships:

Anthropogenic factors- factors generated by man and affecting the environment (pollution, soil erosion, destruction of forests, etc.).

Among the abiotic factors, climatic (temperature, air humidity, wind, etc.) and hydrographic factors of the aquatic environment (water, current, salinity, etc.) are often distinguished.

Most factors change qualitatively and quantitatively over time. For example, climatic - during the day, season, by year (temperature, light, etc.).

Factors whose changes are repeated regularly over time are called periodic. These include not only climatic, but also some hydrographic ones - ebbs and flows, some ocean currents. Factors that arise unexpectedly (volcanic eruption, predator attack, etc.) are called non-periodic.

The division of factors into periodic and non-periodic is very important when studying the adaptability of organisms to living conditions.

Section 5

biogeocenotic and biosphere levels

organization of living

Topic 56.

Ecology as a science. Habitat. Environmental factors. General patterns of action of environmental factors on organisms

1. Basic questions of theory

Ecology– the science of the patterns of relationships between organisms with each other and with the environment. (E. Haeckel, 1866)

Habitat– all conditions of living and inanimate nature under which organisms exist and which directly or indirectly affect them.

The individual elements of the environment are environmental factors:

abiotic	biotic	anthropogenic
physico-chemical, inorganic, inanimate factors: t , light, water, air, wind, salinity, density, ionizing radiation.	influence of organisms or communities.	human activity
straight	indirect
– fishing; – construction of dams.	– pollution; – destruction of forage lands.
By frequency of action – factors acting
strictly periodically.	without strict frequency.
By direction of action
directional factors actions	uncertain factors
– warming; – cold snap; – waterlogging.	– anthropogenic; – pollutants.

Adaptation of organisms to environmental factors

Organisms adapt more easily to the factors acting strictly periodically and purposefully. Adaptation to them is hereditarily determined.

Adaptation is difficult organisms to irregularly periodic factors, to factors uncertain actions. In that specificity And anti-ecological anthropogenic factors.

General patterns

effects of environmental factors on organisms

Optimum rule .

For an ecosystem or an organism, there is a range of the most favorable (optimal) value of an environmental factor. Outside the optimum zone there are zones of oppression, turning into critical points beyond which existence is impossible.

Rule of interacting factors .

Some factors can enhance or mitigate the effect of other factors. However, each of the environmental factors irreplaceable.

Rule of limiting factors .

A factor that is in deficiency or excess negatively affects organisms and limits the possibility of manifestation of the power of other factors (including those at optimum).

Limiting factor – a vital environmental factor (near critical points), in the absence of which life becomes impossible. Determines the boundaries of species distribution.

Limiting factor – an environmental factor that goes beyond the limits of the body’s endurance.

Abiotic factors

Solar radiation .

The biological effect of light is determined by the intensity, frequency, spectral composition:

Ecological groups of plants

according to lighting intensity requirements

The light regime leads to the appearance multi-tiered And mosaic vegetation cover.

Photoperiodism – the body’s reaction to the length of daylight hours, expressed by changes in physiological processes. Associated with photoperiodism seasonal And daily allowance rhythms.

Temperature .

N : from –40 to +400С (on average: +15–300С).

Classification of animals according to the form of thermoregulation

Mechanisms of adaptation to temperature

Physical	Chemical	Behavioral
regulation of heat transfer (skin, fat deposits, sweating in animals, transpiration in plants).	regulation of heat production (intensive metabolism).	selection of preferred positions (sunny/shaded places, shelters).

Adaptation to t carried out through the size and shape of the body.

Bergman's rule : As you move north, average body sizes in populations of warm-blooded animals increase.

Allen's rule: in animals of the same species, the size of the protruding parts of the body (limbs, tail, ears) is shorter, and the body is more massive, the colder the climate.

Gloger's Rule: animal species living in cold and humid areas have more intense body pigmentation ( black or dark brown) than the inhabitants of warm and dry areas, which allows them to accumulate a sufficient amount of heat.

Adaptations of organisms to vibrations tenvironment

Anticipation rule : southern plant species in the north are found on well-warmed southern slopes, and northern species at the southern borders of the range are found on cool northern slopes.

Migration– relocation to more favorable conditions.

Numbness– a sharp decrease in all physiological functions, immobility, cessation of nutrition (insects, fish, amphibians during t from 00 to +100С).

Hibernation– a decrease in the intensity of metabolism, maintained by previously accumulated fat reserves.

Anabiosis– temporary reversible cessation of vital activity.

Humidity .

Mechanisms for regulating water balance

Morphological	Physiological	Behavioral
through body shape and integument, through evaporation and excretory organs.	through the release of metabolic water from fats, proteins, carbohydrates as a result of oxidation.	through the choice of preferred positions in space.

Ecological groups of plants according to humidity requirements

Hydrophytes	Hygrophytes	Mesophytes	Xerophytes
terrestrial-aquatic plants, immersed in water only with their lower parts (reeds).	terrestrial plants living in conditions of high humidity (tropical grasses).	plants of places with average moisture (plants of the temperate zone, cultivated plants).	plants of places with insufficient moisture (plants of steppes, deserts).

Salinity .

Halophytes are organisms that prefer excess salts.

Air : N 2 – 78%, O2 – 21%, CO2 – 0.03%.

N 2 : digested by nodule bacteria, absorbed by plants in the form of nitrates and nitrites. Increases drought resistance of plants. When a person dives underwater N 2 dissolves in the blood, and with a sharp rise is released in the form of bubbles - decompression sickness.

O2:

CO2: participation in photosynthesis, a product of the respiration of animals and plants.

Pressure .

N: 720–740 mm Hg. Art.

When rising: partial pressure O2 ↓ → hypoxia, anemia (increase in the number of red blood cells by one V blood and contents Nv).

At depth: partial pressure of O2 → solubility of gases in the blood increases → hyperoxia.

Wind .

Reproduction, settlement, transfer of pollen, spores, seeds, fruits.

Biotic factors

1. Symbiosis- useful cohabitation that benefits at least one:
A) mutualism	mutually beneficial, obligatory	nodule bacteria and legumes, mycorrhiza, lichens.
b) protocooperation	mutually beneficial, but optional	ungulates and cowbirds, sea anemones and hermit crabs.
V) commensalism (freeloading)	one organism uses another as a home and source of nutrition	gastrointestinal bacteria, lions and hyenas, animals - distributors of fruits and seeds.
G) synoikia (lodging)	an individual of one species uses an individual of another species only as a home	bitterling and mollusk, insects - rodent burrows.
2. Neutralism– cohabitation of species in one territory, which does not entail either positive or negative consequences for them.
		moose are squirrels.
3. Antibiosis– cohabitation of species that causes harm.
A) competition	– –	locusts – rodents – herbivores; weeds are cultivated plants.
b) predation	+ –	wolves, eagles, crocodiles, slipper ciliates, predator plants, cannibalism.
	+ –	lice, roundworm, tapeworm.
G) amensalism (alelopathy)	0 –	individuals of one species, releasing substances, inhibit individuals of other species: antibiotics, phytoncides.

Interspecies relationships

Trophic	Topical	Phoric	Factory
communications
Food.	Creating one type of environment for another.	One species spreads another.	One species builds structures using dead remains.

Living Environments

Living environment is a set of conditions that ensure the life of an organism.

1. Aquatic environment

homogeneous, little changeable, stable, fluctuations t – 500, dense.

lim factors:

O2, light,ρ, salt regime, υ flow.

Hydrobionts:

plankton - free floating,

nekton - actively moving,

benthos - bottom dwellers,

Pelagos - inhabitants of the water column,

neuston – inhabitants of the upper film.

2. Ground-air environment	complex, varied, requires a high level of organization, low ρ, large fluctuations t (1000), high atmospheric mobility.
lim factors:	tand humidity, light intensity, climatic conditions.
Aerobionts

3. Soil environment	combines the properties of water and ground-air environments, vibrations t small, high density.
lim factors:	t (permafrost), humidity (drought, swamp), oxygen.
Geobionts, edaphobionts
4. Organismal environment	abundance of food, stability of conditions, protection from adverse influences.
lim factors:
symbionts

Habitat- this is that part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts. The components and properties of the environment are diverse and changeable. Any living creature lives in a complex and changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes and consuming matter, energy, and information coming from outside.

Adaptations of organisms to their environment are called adaptation. The ability to adapt is one of the main properties of life in general, since it provides the very possibility of its existence, the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. Adaptations manifest themselves at different levels: from the biochemistry of cells and the behavior of individual organisms to the structure and functioning of communities and ecological systems. Adaptations arise and change during the evolution of species.

Individual properties or elements of the environment that affect organisms are called environmental factors. Environmental factors are diverse. They can be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living beings, promote or hinder survival and reproduction. Environmental factors have different natures and specific actions. Environmental factors are divided into abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic.

Abiotic factors- temperature, light, radioactive radiation, pressure, air humidity, salt composition of water, wind, currents, terrain - these are all properties of inanimate

nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms.

Biotic factors- these are forms of influence of living beings on each other. Each organism constantly experiences the direct or indirect influence of other creatures, comes into contact with representatives of its own species and other species - plants, animals, microorganisms, depends on them and itself influences them. The surrounding organic world is an integral part of the environment of every living creature.

Mutual connections between organisms are the basis for the existence of biocenoses and populations; their consideration belongs to the field of synecology.

Anthropogenic factors- these are forms of activity of human society that lead to changes in nature as the habitat of other species or directly affect their lives. Over the course of human history, the development of first hunting, and then agriculture, industry, and transport has greatly changed the nature of our planet. The importance of anthropogenic impacts on the entire living world of the Earth continues to grow rapidly.

Although humans influence living nature through changes in abiotic factors and biotic relationships of species, human activity on the planet should be identified as a special force that does not fit into the framework of this classification. Currently, almost the entire fate of the living surface of the Earth and all types of organisms is in the hands of human society and depends on the anthropogenic influence on nature.

Changes in environmental factors over time can be: 1) regularly periodic, changing the strength of the impact in connection with the time of day or season of the year, or the rhythm of ebbs and flows in the ocean; 2) irregular, without a clear periodicity, for example, without changes in weather conditions in different years, phenomena of a catastrophic nature - storms, showers, landslides, etc.; 3) directed over certain, sometimes long periods of time, for example, during cooling or warming of the climate, overgrowing of water bodies, constant grazing of livestock in the same area, etc.

Environmental environmental factors have various effects on living organisms, i.e. can act as stimuli causing adaptive changes in physiological and biochemical functions; as limitations that make it impossible to exist in given conditions; as modifiers that cause anatomical and morphological changes in organisms; as signals indicating changes in other environmental factors.

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

Here are the most famous ones.

J. Liebig's law of minimum (1873):

A) the body's endurance is determined by the weak link in the chain of its environmental needs;
b) all environmental conditions necessary to support life have an equal role (the law of equivalence of all living conditions), any factor can limit the existence of an organism.

The law of limiting factors, or F. Blechman's law (1909):environmental factors that have maximum significance in specific conditions especially complicate (limit) the possibility of the species existing in these conditions.

W. Shelford's Law of Tolerance (1913): The limiting factor in the life of an organism can be either a minimum or maximum environmental impact, the range between which determines the amount of endurance of the organism to this factor.

As an example explaining the law of the minimum, J. Liebig drew a barrel with holes, the water level in which symbolized the endurance of the body, and the holes symbolized environmental factors.

The law of optimum: each factor has only certain limits of positive influence on organisms.

The result of the action of a variable factor depends, first of all, on the strength of its manifestation. Both insufficient and excessive action of the factor negatively affects the life activity of individuals. The favorable force of influence is called the zone of optimum of the environmental factor, the inhibitory effect of this factor on organisms

(pessimum zone). The maximum and minimum transferable values of a factor are critical points, beyond which existence is no longer possible and death occurs. The limits of endurance between critical points are called the ecological valency of living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor.

Representatives of different species differ greatly from each other both in the position of the optimum and in ecological valency.

An example of this type of dependence is the following observation. The average daily physiological need for fluoride in an adult is 2000-3000 mcg, and a person receives 70% of this amount from water and only 30% from food. With prolonged consumption of water low in fluoride salts (0.5 mg/dm3 or less), dental caries develops. The lower the concentration of fluoride in water, the higher the incidence of caries in the population.

High concentrations of fluoride in drinking water also lead to the development of pathology. So, when its concentration is more than 15 mg/dm 3, fluorosis occurs - a kind of mottling and brownish coloration of the tooth enamel, the teeth are gradually destroyed.

Rice. 3.1. The dependence of the result of an environmental factor on its intensity or simply optimum, for organisms of this species. The stronger the deviations from the optimum, the more pronounced

Ambiguity of the factor's effect on different functions. Each factor affects different body functions differently. The optimum for some processes may be a pessimum for others.

Rule of interaction of factors. Its essence lies in the fact that alone factors can enhance or mitigate the effect of other factors. For example, excess heat can be to some extent mitigated by low air humidity, the lack of light for plant photosynthesis can be compensated by an increased content of carbon dioxide in the air, etc. It does not follow from this, however, that the factors can be interchanged. They are not interchangeable.

Rule of limiting factors: factor , which is in deficiency or excess (near critical points), negatively affects organisms and, in addition, limits the possibility of manifestation of the power of other factors, including those at optimum. For example, if the soil contains in abundance all but one of the chemical elements necessary for a plant, then the growth and development of the plant will be determined by the one that is in short supply. All other elements do not show their effect. Limiting factors usually determine the boundaries of distribution of species (populations) and their habitats. The productivity of organisms and communities depends on them. Therefore, it is extremely important to promptly identify factors of minimal and excessive significance, to exclude the possibility of their manifestation (for example, for plants - by balanced application of fertilizers).

Through his activities, a person often violates almost all of the listed patterns of action of factors. This especially applies to limiting factors (habitat destruction, disruption of water and mineral nutrition of plants, etc.).

Identification of limiting factors is very important in agricultural practice, since by directing the main efforts to their elimination, one can quickly and effectively increase plant yields or animal productivity. Thus, on strongly acidic soils, the wheat yield can be slightly increased by using various agronomic influences, but the best effect will be obtained only as a result of liming, which will remove the limiting effect of acidity. Knowledge of limiting factors is thus the key to controlling the life activity of organisms. At different periods of the life of individuals, various environmental factors act as limiting factors, so skillful and constant regulation of the living conditions of cultivated plants and animals is required.

The law of energy maximization, or Odum's law: the survival of one system in competition with others is determined by the best organization of the flow of energy into it and the use of its maximum amount in the most effective way. This law also applies to information. Thus, The system that has the best chance of self-preservation is one that is most conducive to the supply, production, and efficient use of energy and information. Any natural system can develop only through the use of material, energy and information capabilities of the environment. Absolutely isolated development is impossible.

This law has important practical significance due to the main consequences:

A) Absolutely waste-free production is impossible, therefore, it is important to create low-waste production with low resource intensity both at the input and at the output (cost-effectiveness and low emissions). The ideal today is the creation of cyclical production (waste from one production serves as raw material for another, etc.) and the organization of reasonable disposal of inevitable residues, neutralization of unremovable energy waste;
b) any developed biotic system, using and modifying its living environment, poses a potential threat to less organized systems. Therefore, the re-emergence of life in the biosphere is impossible - it will be destroyed by existing organisms. Consequently, when influencing the environment, a person must neutralize these impacts, since they can be destructive for nature and man himself.

Law of limited natural resources. The one percent rule. Since planet Earth is a natural limited whole, infinite parts cannot exist on it, therefore all natural resources of the Earth are finite. Inexhaustible resources include energy resources, believing that the energy of the Sun provides an almost eternal source of useful energy. The mistake here is that such reasoning does not take into account the limitations imposed by the energy of the biosphere itself. According to the one percent rule a change in the energy of a natural system within 1% takes it out of equilibrium. All large-scale phenomena on the Earth's surface (powerful cyclones, volcanic eruptions, the process of global photosynthesis) have a total energy that does not exceed 1% of the energy of solar radiation incident on the Earth's surface. The artificial introduction of energy into the biosphere in our time has reached values close to the limit (differing from them by no more than one mathematical order of magnitude - 10 times).

General patterns of action of environmental factors on organisms

The total number of environmental factors affecting the body or biocenosis is enormous, some of them are well known and understood, for example, water and air temperature; the effect of others, for example, changes in gravity, has only recently begun to be studied. Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

Law of optimum (tolerance)

According to this law, first formulated by V. Shelford, for a biocenosis, an organism or a certain stage of its development, there is a range of the most favorable (optimal) factor value. Outside the optimum zone there are zones of oppression, turning into critical points beyond which existence is impossible.

The maximum population density is usually confined to the optimum zone. Optimum zones for various organisms are not the same. For some, they have a significant range. Such organisms belong to the group eurybionts(Greek eury – wide; bios – life).

Organisms with a narrow range of adaptation to factors are called stenobionts(Greek stenos - narrow).

Species that can exist in a wide range of temperatures are called eurythermic, and those that are able to live only in a narrow range of temperature values - stenothermic.

The ability to live in conditions with different salinity of water is called euryhaline, at various depths - eurybacy, in places with different soil moisture - euryhygricity etc. It is important to emphasize that the optimum zones in relation to various factors differ, and therefore organisms fully demonstrate their potential if the entire range of factors has optimal values for them.

The ambiguity of the effects of environmental factors on various body functions

Each environmental factor has a different effect on different body functions. The optimum for some processes may be oppressive for others. For example, air temperature from + 40 to + 45 ° C in cold-blooded animals greatly increases the rate of metabolic processes in the body, but at the same time inhibits motor activity, which ultimately leads to thermal torpor. For many fish, the water temperature that is optimal for the maturation of reproductive products turns out to be unfavorable for spawning.

The life cycle, in which at certain periods of time the organism primarily performs certain functions (nutrition, growth, reproduction, settlement, etc.), is always consistent with seasonal changes in the totality of environmental factors. At the same time, mobile organisms can change their habitats to successfully fulfill all the needs of their lives.

Diversity of individual reactions to environmental factors

The ability to endure, critical points, zones of optimum and normal life activity change quite often throughout the life cycle of individuals. This variability is determined both by hereditary qualities and by age, sex and physiological differences. For example, adult freshwater carp and perch fish species, such as carp, European pike perch, etc., are quite capable of living in the water of inland sea bays with a salinity of up to 5-7 g/l, but their spawning grounds are located only in highly desalinated areas, around river mouths, because the eggs of these fish can develop normally at a water salinity of no more than 2 g/l. Crab larvae cannot live in fresh water, but adult crabs are found in the estuaries of rivers, where the abundance of organic material carried by the river flow creates a good food supply. The mill moth butterfly, one of the dangerous pests of flour and grain products, has a critical minimum temperature for life for caterpillars of -7 °C, for adult forms -22 °C, and for eggs -27 °C. A drop in air temperature to -10 °C is fatal for caterpillars, but not dangerous for adult forms and eggs of this species. Thus, the ecological tolerance characteristic of the species as a whole turns out to be broader than the tolerance of each individual at a given stage of its development.

Relative independence of adaptation of organisms to different environmental factors

The degree of endurance of an organism to a particular factor does not mean the presence of a similar tolerance in relation to another factor. Species that can survive in a wide range of temperature conditions may not be able to withstand large fluctuations in water salinity or soil moisture. In other words, eurythermal species can be stenohaline or stenohyric. A set of environmental tolerances (sensitivities) to various environmental factors is called ecological spectrum of the species.

Interaction of environmental factors

The optimum zone and limits of endurance in relation to any environmental factor can shift depending on the strength and combination of other factors acting simultaneously. Some factors can enhance or mitigate the effect of other factors. For example, excess heat can be mitigated to some extent by low air humidity. The wilting of the plant can be stopped both by increasing the amount of moisture in the soil and by lowering the air temperature, thereby reducing evaporation. The lack of light for plant photosynthesis can be compensated for by an increased content of carbon dioxide in the air, etc. It does not follow from this, however, that the factors can be interchangeable. They are not interchangeable. A complete lack of light will lead to the rapid death of the plant, even if the soil moisture and the amount of all nutrients in it are optimal. The combined action of several factors, in which the effect of their influence is mutually enhanced, is called synergy. Synergism is clearly manifested in combinations of heavy metals (copper and zinc, copper and cadmium, nickel and zinc, cadmium and mercury, nickel and chromium), as well as ammonia and copper, synthetic surfactants. With the combined effect of pairs of these substances, their toxic effect increases significantly. As a result, even small concentrations of these substances can be fatal to many organisms. An example of synergy may also be an increased threat of freezing during frost with strong winds than in calm weather.

In contrast to synergy, certain factors can be identified whose impact reduces the power of the resulting effect. The toxicity of zinc and lead salts is reduced in the presence of calcium compounds, and hydrocyanic acid - in the presence of ferric oxide and ferrous oxide. This phenomenon is called antagonism. At the same time, knowing exactly which substance has an antagonistic effect on a given pollutant, you can achieve a significant reduction in its negative impact.

The rule of limiting environmental factors and the law of the minimum

The essence of the rule of limiting environmental factors is that a factor that is in deficiency or excess has a negative effect on organisms and, in addition, limits the possibility of manifestation of the power of other factors, including those at optimum. For example, if the soil contains in abundance all but one of the chemical or physical environmental factors necessary for a plant, then the growth and development of the plant will depend precisely on the magnitude of this factor. Limiting factors usually determine the boundaries of distribution of species (populations) and their habitats. The productivity of organisms and communities depends on them.

The rule of limiting environmental factors made it possible to come to the justification of the so-called “law of the minimum.” It is assumed that the law of the minimum was first formulated by the German agronomist J. Liebig in 1840. According to this law, the result of the influence of a set of environmental factors on the productivity of agricultural crops depends primarily not on those elements of the environment that are usually present in sufficient quantities, but on those for which are characterized by minimal concentrations (boron, copper, iron, magnesium, etc.). For example, shortage boron sharply reduces the drought resistance of plants.

In a modern interpretation, this law reads as follows: the endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs. That is, the vital capabilities of an organism are limited by environmental factors, the quantity and quality of which are close to the minimum required for a given organism. Further reduction of these factors leads to to the death of the organism.

Adaptive capabilities of organisms

To date, organisms have mastered four main environments of their habitat, which differ significantly in physicochemical conditions. This is the water, land-air, soil environment, as well as the environment that is the living organisms themselves. In addition, living organisms are found in layers of organic and organomineral substances located deep underground, in groundwater and artesian waters. Thus, specific bacteria were found in oil located at depths of more than 1 km. Thus, the Sphere of Life includes not only the soil layer, but can, under favorable conditions, extend much deeper into the earth’s crust. In this case, the main factor limiting penetration into the depths of the Earth is, apparently, the temperature of the environment, which increases as the depth from the soil surface increases. It is considered active at temperatures above 100 °C life is impossible.

Adaptations of organisms to environmental factors in which they live are called adaptations. Adaptations are any changes in the structure and function of organisms that increase their chances of survival. The ability to adapt can be considered one of the main properties of life in general, since it provides the ability for organisms to survive and reproduce sustainably. Adaptations manifest themselves at different levels: from the biochemistry of cells and the behavior of individual organisms to the structure and functioning of communities and entire ecological systems.

The main types of adaptations at the organism level are the following:

· biochemical - they manifest themselves in intracellular processes and may relate to changes in the work of enzymes or their total quantity;

· physiological - for example, increased respiratory rate and heart rate during intense movement, increased sweating when temperature rises in a number of species;

· morphoanatomical- features of the structure and shape of the body associated with the lifestyle and environment;

· behavioral - for example, the construction of nests and burrows by some species;

· ontogenetic - acceleration or deceleration of individual development, promoting survival when conditions change.

Organisms most easily adapt to those environmental factors that change clearly and steadily.

Diagnostics and diseases. Medicines from A to Z

Summary of the lesson on ecology "Habitat and environmental factors. General patterns of the action of environmental factors on organisms