Starting with the classics

As you know, Rus' was baptized in 988. But this date is very arbitrary, although the onset of Christian culture is counted from it. This conditional date speaks only of the state adoption of Christianity. Culture was already slowly entering this territory before Vladimir. We remember the baptism of Vladimir’s grandmother, Princess Olga - already under her, Christian churches appeared, and it is interesting that Christian churches have both Latin and Orthodox services. The year 988 still fits into the undivided church, into the history of the undivided church. But the fact of baptism and state acceptance made it possible precisely to build culture on a state level. And we already see that the first generation of Christians is creating a high culture.

As a rule, all cultures begin with a certain run-up, like, say, Greek culture: archaic, classic, decadent. Old Russian culture begins, oddly enough, with the classics. And now the son of Prince Vladimir, the baptizer of Rus', Yaroslav, builds the magnificent Church of St. Sophia in Kyiv, imitating, of course, the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. And Nestor the Chronicler in his “Tale of Bygone Years” interprets the coming of Christianity to Rus' as the coming of beauty. He writes, describing the history of Prince Vladimir’s adoption of Christianity in Rus', when the ambassadors who came from Constantinople, from Constantinople, told him about the incredible beauty of Constantinople Sophia, and how they said that “they did not know whether they were in heaven or on earth, but God dwells there with man.”

Sofia Kyiv

And Prince Yaroslav also builds the temple of St. Sophia in honor of Christ, Sophia - the wisdom of God, and fills this temple with beauty. He builds it in the image and likeness of the Constantinople temple, but the image and likeness were understood very freely. Now, of course, the Church of St. Sophia in Kyiv does not look the same as under Yaroslav, it looks like a temple in the Ukrainian Baroque style, because it was rebuilt in the 17th century. under Metropolitan Peter Mogila.

But if we look at the reconstruction of this temple, we will see that this is a five-nave domed basilica, in general, already becoming a cross-domed temple. Multidome. If you remember, the Constantinople Church has a single dome, and there, in fact, the triumph of the dome creates the entire spatial icon. Here is a temple with 13 domes, i.e. this is already a new concept of the temple, because on the galleries, on the choirs of the second floor, these domes were supposed to illuminate the place where the prince stayed with his courtiers.

But still, the concept of the temple is Byzantine, because the temple is an image of the cosmos, the temple is an image of heaven on earth, where the majestic Pantocrator looks at us from the dome, surrounded by angels, lorate archangels, as they are called, i.e. they are in such special clothes, deacons and courtiers, with ripids on which is written “Agios, agios, agios” - “Holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts”...

And if we consider that this is the middle of the 11th century, then this is what in Byzantium was called the “Macedonian Renaissance,” a post-conoclastic era that affirmed the triumph of Orthodoxy through images. Here we see such a courageous, formidable, brutal, I would say, Pantocrator, who combines in himself the image of Christ, and the image of God the Father who creates, and the image of the Holy Spirit, who comes with power to Earth. Those. This is a concept of images in which all the power of the visible and invisible, of course, image of the Trinity is combined. Then such images will disappear from Byzantine art (we saw a similar image, very close, in Byzantium, for example, in the Daphne monastery, this is the same time), and, of course, from Russian art. But this is how Christian art was established in Rus'. I repeat, this is the first generation of Christians in Rus'. Those. We already see grandiose structures and grandiose images.

When you enter the Church of Hagia Sophia, what you see first of all is not even the Pantocrator in the dome, but a huge image of Our Lady Oranta with her hands raised in prayer. She stands as if protecting the church. She personifies the praying Church. It is no coincidence that it was popularly called the Unbreakable Wall.

As we know, in pre-Mongol churches, as, in fact, in Byzantine and Greek churches, the altar barrier was low in relation to the high apse, and all the altar images were visible to those who entered the temple and prayed. And the program especially for the altar section is very indicative of this early period. Our Lady of Oranta, the Unbreakable Wall, personifying the Church, below her is a series of Eucharists in the version “Communion of the Apostles”, and Christ is given here in two images: to the right and to the left of the throne. On the one hand, he gives the apostles communion with blood, he gives them the cup, on the other hand, he gives them bread, and gives them communion with his flesh. This is also not accidental, because the newly baptized people had to adopt precisely the Greek, Orthodox position in relation to the sacrament as a sacrament under two types. In the West, the practice of communion under one form has already appeared, and then, as we know, it is this practice that will be established in the West, in Catholic culture, in the Catholic Church for many centuries.

This image of the Mother of God on a shining golden background (and all this is a mosaic, both the dome and the altar part were decorated with mosaics according to the Byzantine tradition) - this was most likely done by the Greeks. But since this is a huge temple, then, of course, they recruited a team of assistants from local craftsmen. And this joint creativity will be very significant for Rus' in the pre-Mongol period. We know from the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon the legend about the construction of the Assumption Church of this monastery: that the Mother of God herself sent masons, architects and icon painters to decorate this temple. This legend conveys this miracle of the emergence of such majestic temples, which Rus' did not know before, because pagan Rus', of course, did not know either temples, icons, or any developed art. There was probably some kind of pagan folklore, etc.

But bookishness, architecture, icon painting, monumental arts - frescoes, mosaics - of course, all this came from Byzantium. And the triumph of Orthodoxy was expressed in this: everything that Byzantium had accumulated, it seemed to transfer to Rus'. In this sense, Rus' was very lucky, because it seemed to receive everything formed - liturgy, theology, books, and art, all this came already formed. So it all starts with a very high bar. Then, when the Tatar-Mongol invasion comes to Rus', everything will collapse, everything will go into some kind of survival, art will even suffer some kind of crisis, and then it will gradually begin to emerge, and by Rublev’s time there will be, as it were, a second peak, a second such rebirth.

But, of course, everything begins with such magnificent art, and St. Sophia in Kyiv, of course, is evidence of this. Below the row of the apostles, the communion of the apostles, we see a row of holy fathers, flanked by two figures of deacons. This is the “Great Entrance”, the fathers come out to serve the liturgy. This is a part that will later become an independent plot of “The Liturgy of the Holy Fathers.” And here it is simply standing before Christ, who serves the liturgy of these great theologians. This is like the theological foundation of the church. If the image of the Mother of God is the Church itself, if the Eucharist is an image of the creation of the Church through the communion of the apostles with the Body and Blood of Christ, then this altar composition ends with this theological foundation of the Church. Here we see John Chrysostom, and Basil the Great, and Gregory the Theologian, etc., i.e. all such great fathers.

This spatial icon, composed of these different compositions, was, of course, supposed to inspire the newly baptized people with the grandeur Christian faith. And of course, for sure, it was. On the altar pillars, again according to the Byzantine tradition, the Annunciation is depicted. It’s like a continuation of this theme - the Church, the building of the Church, salvation... And then this composition will move to the royal doors, when the iconostasis is being built. In the meantime, she is on the altar pillars. Those. between the archangel and the Mother of God the space of eternity opens up, which begins with the Church. Church as entry into eternity.

As I already said, it was made with a mosaic, and, as the restorers calculated, there are twenty shades of blue, eighteen shades of green, a very diverse range of gold, which are laid, these smalt tiles are placed at different angles. And it all shines, it all sparkles. This, of course, could not but produce a great effect. The worst thing is that after the destruction of Kyiv by the Tatars, the mosaic will never be restored. Actually, we only had it in Kyiv, because it is an expensive art and, of course, requires great skill. And, of course, it is mainly of Greek origin.

But Sophia of Kiev is also rich in frescoes, and the frescoes here are no less beautiful. Somehow they talk more about mosaics, but the frescoes here are wonderful. They are less well preserved, but nevertheless they are remarkable because they are expressive images. These are images of the future with huge eyes, with expressive faces that seem to peer into eternity, with very typical facial features. Then, especially at the end, the Russian icon will greatly unify these faces, but here this is not the case, here it seems that the personal characteristics of each saint are conveyed. Look at the Apostle Paul, for example.

It is interesting that there is also a secular portrait here. As we remember, in many churches of Byzantium there were portraits of emperors bearing gifts to Christ or worshiping the throne of the Virgin Mary. We see this here too. Here on the walls are depicted Yaroslav going out to the liturgy with his sons, and Queen Irina going out with her daughters. Yaroslav and Irina, ktitors, builders of this temple, are also represented here. We can say that this is a rare case (there were also such cases of depictions of princes) - such a ktitor’s portrait in the church art of Ancient Rus'.

Fragments of pre-Mongol art

As I said, only in Kyiv were there mosaics, and they were preserved, of course, in such a large volume in Sofia. But the St. Michael’s Golden-Domed Monastery was also decorated with mosaics. Unfortunately, in the 1930s the Bolsheviks blew it up. But the restorers, who just a few years before had been intensively engaged in the restoration of this temple, preserved some fragments. In particular, they preserved a fragment of the communion of the apostles. The same composition was repeated, apparently 50-60 years later, already at the beginning of the 12th century. this temple was decorated, and the craftsmen imitated, of course, the temple of St. Sophia. We do not know what the entire altar composition looked like, but, in any case, we see here the same composition, where Christ gives communion to the apostles under two types. Stylistically, this is a slightly different art, maybe even there is a little something Romanesque in it, such rougher proportions. Perhaps students of those Greeks who made Sophia worked here. In any case, these are also magnificent mosaics. The image of St. Dmitry of Thessalonica from the same temple is today kept in the Tretyakov Gallery.

Evidence of the high culture that existed in pre-Mongol Rus' is, of course, bookishness. Here is the “Ostromir Gospel”, for example. A large volume decorated with beautiful miniatures. Bookishness also comes to Rus' with Christianity, and again we immediately see magnificent miniatures. We see beautiful screensavers, initial letters. Those. the book, both in Byzantium and in Rus', was received from it, perceived not just as it is today - as a source of information, but it was also a kind of temple of the word. That's why it was decorated. And these decorations, of course, are simply a masterpiece of book art. And this again testifies to the high standard from which ancient Russian culture begins.

If we talk about icons, nothing has survived from the early Kyiv period. For a long time the icon of Pechersk Mother of God, where the Mother of God sits on a throne with Christ in her arms and the Pechersk saints Anthony and Theodosius stand before her, was considered the work of Olympius of Pechersk, the first icon painter... Well, maybe not the first in general, but the first whom we know by name thanks to the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, and he is such a patron of Russian icon painters. For a long time it was considered his work. But now it is considered a later work, the 13th century. It is called Svensko-Pecherskaya because it was then kept in the Svensky Monastery. Nevertheless, even if this is the end of the pre-Mongol period, we can see from this icon that the iconography of this time, at least in Kyiv or within the Kyiv borders, in Southern Rus', was at a high level. The Russians turned out to be good students. They accepted this Byzantine system, already formed, already verified, having passed through the crucible of iconoclasm. But they brought a lot of their own into it.

This can be seen, by the way, in the architecture, because each principality, having adopted the general cross-domed type of temple, built absolutely its own temples, unlike each other. The architectural school is also unique in each principality. Later they will also strive for unification of architecture, but this will happen later, and pre-Mongol Rus' provides stunning examples. For example, Sofia in Novgorod is absolutely different from Sofia in Kyiv, just as Sofia in Kiev is absolutely different from the one in Constantinople, which, in fact, served as its prototype. Novgorod churches are like warriors in helmets, so tall, very strong, growing out of the ground, reaching towards the sky.

Sofia Novgorodskaya

Unfortunately, very few paintings have survived in Sofia Novgorod, but they also indicate that if the Greeks did not work here (although we don’t know, maybe they did), then masters who knew Greek art well worked. This fits well into the Byzantine area, which, strictly speaking, was quite wide at that time. Byzantium sent its artists and, through the icons they brought, influenced almost the entire Christian ecumene.

Particularly interesting is the composition of Saints Constantine and Helen holding a cross. This is a parallel to the establishment of Christianity: Vladimir and Olga in Rus', and Constantine and Elena in Byzantium.

An amazing 11th century icon has been preserved. Saints Peter and Paul. Now, of course, it is no longer there, it is in the Russian Museum, but it testifies to this early Novgorod stage, of course, very Byzantine. Again, one can argue whether it was written by a Russian master who studied very well with the Greeks, or whether a Greek wrote it for a Russian church, but nevertheless we see that in the pre-Mongol period there was indeed a very close connection, such a direct ancestral umbilical cord, as they say, she keeps Russian iconography tied to Byzantium. Then, after the crisis, after the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Russian icon painting will more and more acquire national features, but here it is, let’s say, a variant of the Byzantine style.

But it is interesting that Rus' was connected not only with Byzantium. Art was also connected with the West. This is evidenced, for example, by the Magdeburg Gates of Hagia Sophia in Novgorod. They are, of course, a work of Western European art brought here. But not only these gates were, as it were, an emissary of the Western tradition. Rus' was an open state in the pre-Mongol period. Dynastic marriages... We remember that the three daughters of Yaroslav the Wise became the Queen of France, the Queen of Hungary and the Queen of Sweden. And, as a matter of fact, Irina herself, buried here in Novgorod, in Hagia Sophia, already under the monastic name Anna, her original name was Ingigerda, she came from a Swedish royal family, her father was Olaf the Holy, who baptized the Swedes and Norwegians. Those. This connection with Europe also gave a lot to Ancient Rus'. These wonderful Magdeburg Gates, of course, could not but influence, say, Novgorod culture. Then nothing like this will happen. There will be other examples, but this, of course, is unique.

Novgorod iconography, of course, is primarily associated with the miraculous icon of the Sign of the Mother of God, which became famous as the defender of Novgorod. Then even a whole plot of the miracle of the Icon of the Sign appears - the salvation of Novgorod from Suzdal troops and internecine warfare, when the Suzdal prince attacked Novgorod, it is also called “the battle of the Novgorodians with the Suzdalians.” This icon has been preserved, it now stands in the Church of St. Sophia, double-sided, external, and although it actually has signs that she was fired at with arrows when she was carried along the walls of the city - we remember that she cried, according to the chronicle, when the Suzdal residents fired at her , she turned away from them, darkness fell on the Suzdalians, and they mixed up, and the Novgorod troops were able to drive the besiegers away from the city.

The icon is actually two-sided, with two saints on the reverse side. The inscriptions have not been preserved, so they argue about who these are - Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Mother of God, which may be quite acceptable, or there is an opinion, I don’t know how well-founded it is, that these are Saints Adrian and Natalia. In general, these early Christian saints were very popular in Ancient Rus'. We saw them on the frescoes of St. Sophia of Kyiv, and here they are present. But be that as it may, it is interesting that in the early period many icons were external. Because, again, the movement of icons during religious processions, during processions was very significant. Those. This movement of the icon from the temple to the street was also supposed to create this new Christian cosmos. At all early liturgies, according to researchers, were more active: the Gospel was carried throughout the entire church, incense was burned in the church not only during the evening service, etc. Now our liturgy is somehow more motionless, a person just stands in one place and that’s it. But these processions with icons were very, very frequent. And indeed we see that many early, pre-Mongol icons are external, i.e. double-sided, so that when the icon is carried, it can be seen from both sides.

Novgorod churches and icons

Novgorod churches, as I said, have a special style, they are very brutal, very laconic, with such unique powerful proportions. Here, for example, is the St. Nicholas Cathedral, or the famous Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, in which the restorers performed a miracle when they assembled frescoes from small pieces from a literally destroyed church. It has now been restored.

And, of course, we cannot bypass the Yuryev Monastery, St. George’s Cathedral, which was built in the 12th century. Just like such a warrior in a helmet, he stands guard over the Christian faith. From this temple comes a wonderful image of St. George, a huge worship icon. It is also double-sided, with the Virgin Mary depicted on the other side. True, it was rewritten in the 14th century, so we are not talking about it now. But the front side, George... Well, or rather, it is a worship side, it was taken out to the middle of the temple, placed, and therefore, as it were, both sides are actually front. But the image of George as the patron of this temple is magnificent here. And we also see absolutely such a Greek type with such thick curls, with huge eyes... In general, almost all pre-Mongol icons have emphasized huge eyes with such a very complex written, complex script of the faces, more dense and multi-layered, and a simpler partial script, which was also often characteristic of Greek masters. Therefore, art historians argue whether this master is Russian or Greek. In general, Russian icons are, of course, a little simpler technically than Greek ones. But, let’s say, a golden background is most often a sign of a Greek icon, because Russian icon painters often even replaced the golden background with, say, red or yellow - such symbolic equivalents.

Another life-size icon of St. George, also associated with this temple. Here the face, however, was rewritten in the 14th century, but these huge, more than two-meter icons (the previous Saint George was slightly smaller, up to two meters) were also characteristic of the pre-Mongol period, because there were few icons, but each of them was significant , each of them was an event both artistic and religious.

Or, for example, this famous Annunciation of Ustyug - it also comes from the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery, where the Mother of God stood up to meet the approaching archangel, and under her hand, which lies on her chest, we already see the emerging image of the Savior, the Infant Christ, who in this the moment begins in her. It is interesting that the segment above, in the sky, is perceived today as if God the Father is sitting there on the cherubim. Nothing like this! In the early period, no one ever depicted God the Father. Here Christ is depicted in eternity, in heaven, seated on cherubim, and Christ, who now, through the consent of the Mother of God, who answered “yes” to God, with consent to the welcoming speech of the archangel, begins to live in history, is conceived in its womb and comes through this into earthly life. These are theologically interesting things that, again in the early period, should have been clearly shown to the newly baptized people, revealing the secrets of the faith. Because the icon has always been perceived as it was called in the Middle Ages - “The Bible for the illiterate.” It sounds so strange today, but it was perceived as a doctrinal document, as a testimony of faith.

Another example of early Novgorod, pre-Mongol culture is the Anthony Monastery, the Nativity Cathedral. Few, but remarkable frescoes have been preserved here, which indicate that it was quite possible that Greeks worked in Novgorod. Or, at least, the masters who learned from the Greeks.

Or, for example, Staraya Ladoga. Today a very small town, it was once of course of greater importance. St. George's Cathedral also preserves magnificent frescoes from the 12th century, which indicate, of course, that a Greek master most likely worked here. Even so far from Byzantium, in the north, Greek craftsmen worked. Of course, the Russians and Greeks were working side by side at this moment.

Luminous painting, of course, is very characteristic of the 12th century, the Komninian time, in Byzantium. And it comes to Rus' too. Here is this magnificent, of course, image of George with this touching princess, who leads an already tamed dragon on her belt. Those. he is trampled not by a spear, but by the hoof of his horse, George, the princess leads him. Even the fact that the dragon is not killed here, but tamed, is also such a unique, perhaps even theological, contribution of the master of Staraya Ladoga to the development of this theme, already traditional by this time.

A wonderful icon from the Desyatinny Monastery in Novgorod. It dates back to the 11th century, i.e. quite an early version. But we see here a very developed composition of the Assumption and, of course, masterfully made. But most likely, this was already done by a Russian master, because even technically this icon was painted simpler than Greek icons. In general, it is often the restorers who can answer the debate about whether a Greek master painted or a Russian master painted, because the nuances of technology, Russian and Greek, of course, are slightly different.

Speaking about icons, of course, it is impossible not to recall the wonderful Savior Not Made by Hands of the 12th century, originating from Novgorod. This icon is a classic, such an ancient Russian icon classic, because with a minimum of image, the whole Christology is revealed here: huge eyes, looking as if to the side, but at the same time keeping the viewer in suspense, the circle of the halo in which the cross is inscribed, the initials of Christ IS XC - that's all. But it seems that the entirety of the image and confession of the Church of Christ is presented here.

This icon, by the way, is also portable, also double-sided, and on the other side is the veneration of the Cross. This combination of a solemn face and on the reverse side of the Cross, which is worshiped by angels, is also such dogmatic-artistic perfection, because on this one icon you can really tell about the essence of Christianity, and it represents what we call the triumph of Orthodoxy.

Icons of Russian masters

Well, the image of Nikola is generally one of the most beloved for Rus'. It is interesting that researchers noticed: until the 14th century. Almost no one was even called Nikola in Rus', just as they were not called Jesus or Mary in honor of the Mother of God - all Marys are usually in honor of Mary Magdalene or Mary of Egypt. So they treated Nikola with such reverence. It is no coincidence that there is even an expression: “Nikola is the Russian god.” And they tried, of course, among the saints, first of all, to write precisely Nicholas of Myra. It’s some kind of mystery why St. Nicholas is so loved in Rus', but nevertheless, several wonderful pre-Mongol icons testify to love for this saint.

And this Nikola Lipny is also a huge icon; large icons are very typical for pre-Mongol Rus', so, I repeat, one icon could replace an entire iconostasis. But the iconostases were small, so many saints were combined in one icon. In the middle is St. Nicholas himself, and across the margins are images of various saints, also very revered. The hand of the Russian master is already visible here. Although the face is clearly sculpted according to a tradition very similar to the Greek one, although it is already simplified, the scheme is taken more. But such a variety of colors and ornaments, and some fancy crosses - this, of course, is already such a Slavic, so to speak, detail, which was not typical for the Greeks. Nevertheless, this just means that by the end of the pre-Mongol period, independence was gained in the iconographic language.

Or, for example, this icon: John, George, Blasius. Of course, it is impossible for a Greek to imagine such, so to speak, different-scale characters on one icon. Most likely, this icon was commissioned as a family icon, where the father was named Ivan, and his children were George and Vlasiy. This is how the icon painter presented Saint George and Saint Blaise as little children next to the giant John Climacus, although they were painted, of course, in their age characteristics. Now this is the acquisition of some kind of understanding of the icon, language, etc. Even the red background, so beloved by Novgorodians, is represented here.

As I said, Russian icons are somewhat simpler technically, but emotionally they are often even richer than Greek icons. In any case, this Belozersk Icon of the Mother of God - we see a very deep image, very rich, very, I would say, touching and tragic at the same time. Although we see that, perhaps, there is not so much glazing here, which the Greek masters loved so much, not so many color nuances, etc. All this is written simpler - simpler technically, but not simpler spiritually.

Pskov

Pskov, the younger brother of Novgorod. If Novgorod was called “Mr. Veliky Novgorod,” then next to it, not very far from it, Pskov was always a little in its shadow. The Novgorod diocese was even united. But Pskov is also a great example of pre-Mongol culture. Less has been preserved here, but nevertheless, here there are churches from the pre-Mongol period, and the Kremlin itself, of course, rebuilt many, many times, and, in fact, here is the Trinity Cathedral itself, built on the foundation of the temple that was built by Princess Olga - this , of course, is also a great reserve of pre-Mongol culture.

And the most interesting monument here is the Mirozhsky Monastery, or rather, even its Transfiguration Cathedral, where in the 12th century. Novgorod Archbishop Niphon, who was Greek, brought Greek icon painters, brought Greek masters who beautifully painted this temple. In general, it is interesting that in Rus' there is an unspoken practice that one Greek metropolitan - one Russian metropolitan, they alternated like this, as a rule, it gave a lot, because the Greek metropolitans always brought masters with them. We will see this later in Moscow, when both Theognostus and Metropolitan Cyprian brought craftsmen with them. And so Nifont, too, all the way to Novgorod (and then sent them to Pskov) brought with him the craftsmen who magnificently decorated this Transfiguration Cathedral with such piercing blue... There is blue and white colors They create such an interesting mystery between themselves. Beautiful, magnificent Greek, exactly Greek, there is no doubt about it, the frescoes here. And, of course, the work of Greek masters in the 11th century, in the 12th century, in the 13th century there are already fewer of them, and then, unfortunately, ties with Byzantium are temporarily interrupted due to the Tatar-Mongol yoke, but these works of Greek masters They gave a lot for the development of Russian icon painting, Russian art, both monumental and easel.

Not many early icons have survived in Pskov, but here is, of course, a magnificent example of the pre-Mongol period - “Prophet Elijah Seated in the Desert” with a life. This is an early version of the hagiographic icon. We know the Novgorod hagiographic icons of this time, St. George and others. The hagiographic genre will gain popularity and widespread use in later times. But even in pre-Mongol times we also see a hagiographic icon in this example. Here, of course, the very image of Elijah, who listens to God in the desert, is magnificent. His gesture of his hand near his ear and his concentrated eyes looking into the distance indicate that he is sitting and listening. As we know, he listened to God, and the Lord said that he was not in fire, not in a storm, not in a strong wind, but “in a quiet breath of wind,” or “a thin voice of cold,” as it sounds in Church Slavonic. This amazing moment is conveyed in this icon. Again, this kind of emotional spiritual subtlety of the Russian masters manifested itself very early.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is another territory that displays completely its own versions of the art of pre-Mongol times. And probably the most famous pre-Mongol temple of Vladimir is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the first Intercession Church in general on Russian soil. As we know, in fact, the Feast of the Intercession itself was introduced here by Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky in memory of his heavenly patron, the holy fool Andrei of Constantinople, who saw the Mother of God standing in heaven in the Blachernae Church, and then another siege from Constantinople was lifted. It is this image of the Protection of the Mother of God, patronage, that Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky brings into his politics and cultural activities in general. A complex personality, an ambiguous personality, but definitely a very charismatic leader.

From the same time, an icon remained, which, unfortunately, was very much destroyed, but a great example of Byzantine art is the Mother of God of Bogolyubskaya. According to legend, he saw her and captured himself kneeling before the image of the Mother of God praying. True, restorers do not find traces of the kneeling figure of the prince on this icon, but in the subsequent tradition it was often the Mother of God of Bogolyubskaya who was depicted with kneeling characters, sometimes even real ones - the first Romanovs were kneeling, for example, or the Solovetsky monks, etc. Those. this tradition comes from here.

And this icon itself shows that Greek masters also reached these lands - this, of course, is the work of a Greek master. Even in such a destroyed, ruined state, we still see that this is such a sophisticated Komninian painting, where everything is built on nuances, where there are such noble facial features, deep, inward-looking eyes. And this, of course, is also evidence of the openness of pre-Mongol culture to various trends, but first of all, of course, deep ties with Byzantium.

The churches of Vladimir, too, as we see, are very different from the churches of Kyiv, Novgorod, Pskov and any other land, because in each principality, I repeat, there arose its own school of architecture, its own school of icon painting. There was no unification. Here it is: on the one hand, there was princely strife, and on the other hand, “many flowers,” as they say, truly bloomed. Here is the Vladimir Cathedral. It was, however, single-headed, but then, under Vsevolod the Big Nest, it received five heads. But it is here that Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky brings a wonderful Greek icon brought from Constantinople to Kyiv - the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God. It is here that it receives the name Vladimirskaya. And the appearance of such icons in Rus', of course, greatly stimulated Russian painters. From the 12th century Only the faces have been preserved, but these, of course, are amazing faces, faces of wonderful beauty!

By the way, at the exhibition “Holy Rus'” there were once presented, they are now stored in the Louvre, amazing works that, of course, also existed in Rus' and influenced, but now they are not in our museum. These are the barmas, or armillas of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, which were presented to him by Frederick Barbarossa. This is part of the coronation decoration of the German emperor by a Byzantine master. Those. we even see how objects were used in ancient times, in the Middle Ages - the work of a Byzantine master ends up in Germany and participates in the coronation of the German emperor. Then this German emperor gives it to his sworn brother, friend - the Prince of Vladimir, with whom he corresponded and communicated, Andrei Bogolyubsky. This is a very interesting story that shows how art in general circulated and how close cultural ties were in the Middle Ages. It seems to us that everything developed in parallel and had little contact. Nothing like this! All this was mixed, all this mutually influenced.

And at the request of Andrei Bogolyubsky, Friedrich Barbarossa sends masons to Vladimir. And therefore, what we know as a feature of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, this decoration of its stone carvings, was brought from Germany, brought from Romanesque art. And in general, there are even studies that, most likely, some Vladimir churches were built by Italian masters from Northern Italy, i.e. lands that are right between Italy and Germany, and Frederick Barbarossa also took part in this, sending masons here, not only carvers, but also architects. The most lacy and decorated one, of course, is the Church of St. Dmitry, which was built by Andrei Bogolyubsky’s younger brother Vsevolod Bolshoye Gnezdo. And this, quite possibly, was already done by Russian craftsmen who learned this art of stone carving from German, or Italian, whatever you want to call it, well, Romanesque masons. Here is such a magnificent David, for example, around whom there are various animals, and he sings of the greatness of God.

Suzdal churches are less decorated, but they also have masks, mascarones, with which, for example, the Nativity Cathedral is decorated. All this will also go away later, after the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Unfortunately, it will go away. Much that was such a cultural conquest of pre-Mongol Rus' will be lost, and Rus' will be emerging from this darkness for several decades, and chroniclers call the Tatar-Mongol yoke “the darkness that came to Rus' for our sins.” They will get out of this darkness, and through the efforts of Sergius and his associates a new light will come.

In Suzdal, it is worth paying attention to the gates of the Nativity Cathedral. There are two gates. These were made using the technique of gold tracing on copper, as it is called, when gold is etched and such amazing pictures appear on black copper. This, perhaps, was the last great work in Suzdal, because it was made in the 30s, and already in the 40-50s the Tatar hordes came and destroyed these temples and cities.

And I would like to end this conversation about pre-Mongol Rus' with this icon, which is, undoubtedly, absolutely the work of an ancient Russian master. It comes from Yaroslavl, from the Transfiguration Cathedral. Oranta! The image of Oranta is an altar image. We started with Oranta, which was part of the mosaic decoration of St. Sophia of Kyiv. And we end with Oranta, which is already written on the board, like an icon, because it is simpler, cheaper and more mobile. There were no mosaics, of course, anywhere else outside of Kyiv, but this amazing image of Oranta as the Mother of God, the Church bringing Christ to the world, is also presented in this icon. The magnificent icon, the Yaroslavl Oranta, also called the “Great Panagia,” is an altar image painted by a Yaroslavl master. Here we already see - this is the turn of the 12th - 13th centuries - that Russian icon painting is gaining its face. Yes, this is a variant of the Byzantine style, but it is a very independent option. And this, of course, is a magnificent art, which, I repeat, unfortunately, has its limits - it ends with the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

Literature

1. History of icon painting. Origins. Traditions. Modernity. VI – XX centuries M., 2002.
2. Komech A.I. Old Russian architecture of the late 10th - early 12th centuries: Byzantine heritage and the formation of an independent tradition. M., 1987.
3. Kolpakova G. S. Art of Ancient Rus': Pre-Mongol period. M.: Azbuka, 2007.
4. Lazarev V.N. Byzantine and Old Russian art. M., 1978.
5. Lazarev V. N. Mikhailovsky mosaics. M., 1966.
6. Lazarev V.N. Russian icon painting from its origins to the beginning of the 16th century. M., 1994.
7. Popova O.D., Sarabyanov V.D., Mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia of Kyiv. M.: Gamma-Press, 2017.
8. Sarabyanov V.D., Smirnova E.S. History of ancient Russian painting. M., Ed. PSTGU, 2007.

Church of the Sorrows Andreevka (Shmitovo). Photo by Sergei Sinenko

ANCIENT RUSSIAN ART, the art of Ancient Rus', as well as art consistent with ancient Russian traditions. Having absorbed the traditions of East Slavic culture and the advanced experience of art from Byzantium and the Balkan countries, ancient Russian art created outstanding monuments of church and secular architecture, wonderful mosaics, frescoes, icons, miniatures, reliefs, decorative items, and numerous church chants of various genres.

Holy Ascension Church built in 1906 in the village. Voznesenka

In the region it is represented primarily by monuments of church architecture, as well as samples of icon painting kept in churches and home iconostases, as well as in the museum named after. M.V. Nesterov and in private collections. Old Russian art also includes traditions of church music, preserved in the practice of Orthodox worship.

St. Nicholas Church in the village. Kagi built in the 1890s. The temple on a high hill above the village is visible from everywhere; thanks to its favorable location and impressive size, it dominates the surrounding space. It is important to recreate the original appearance of the temple, restore the bell tower

For more information, see the article: Old Russian art – “Art. A modern illustrated encyclopedia." Ed. prof. Gorkina A.P.; M.: Rosman; 2007.)

Old Russian art is a medieval period in the history of Russian art, which lasted from the formation of the state of Kievan Rus to the reforms of Peter the Great (9th-17th centuries). It arose as a result of the fusion of the traditions of East Slavic pagan art and Byzantine Christian culture, the heritage of which was actively developed after the Baptism of Rus' (988).

The history of ancient Russian art is usually divided into two stages: the art of Kievan Rus (9th – mid-13th centuries) and the art of the formation of the Moscow state (14th–17th centuries). In the artistic culture of Kievan Rus, in turn, periods are distinguished: pre-Christian, associated with the formation of the Rurik power (9th - late 10th centuries); entry into the sphere of Byzantine Christian culture - from the Baptism of Rus' (988) to the end of the reign of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1125); the development of art in the principalities of the period of feudal fragmentation, interrupted by the invasion of Batu in 1237 (12th - early 13th centuries).

From the pre-Christian period, mainly works of decorative and applied art have been preserved, testifying to the high level of development of artistic crafts (tury horns with silver inlays in animal style from the Black Grave in Chernigov, 10th century). Being pagans, the ancient Slavs worshiped the natural elements. Mythological images - embodiments of the elements (images of the sun, horse, bird, flower, etc.) are preserved to this day in folk art. The Slavs built temples (sanctuaries), where they erected idols (stone or wooden sculptures) of the revered gods: Perun, Khorsa, Stribog, Simargl, Mokosha, etc. Temples could have an oval shape (Kiev, ca. 980) or multi-petaled, associated with symbolism of the sun (Peryn, near Novgorod).

The Baptism of Rus' strengthened the ties of Rus' with the countries of the Christian world, and above all with Byzantium; enriched Russian art with new images and technical techniques. The arrival of many Byzantine masters in Rus' contributed to the rapid development of architecture (especially temple architecture), icon painting, and book miniatures. Wooden Christian churches were built as early as 989; The first large stone church in Kyiv was the court Tithe Church (990–996), erected by architects from Byzantium (not preserved). An outstanding architectural monument of this period is the Cathedral of St. Sophia (the Wisdom of God) in Kiev (founded in 1037 by Prince Yaroslav the Wise) - a huge five-nave cross-domed church with two staircase towers, surrounded on three sides by two-story galleries and crowned with 13 domes. The dedication of the Cathedral of St. Sophia emphasized the continuity with the center of the Orthodox world - the Church of St. Sophia of Constantinople. As in Byzantine buildings, plinth was used as a building material - wide and flat baked bricks of almost square shape. The Kiev temple was decorated with mosaics and frescoes (1040s) made by Byzantine masters and their Russian students. The solemn and majestic mosaic image of Our Lady Oranta (Praying) in the central apse received in Rus' the name “ Unbreakable Wall" In the beginning. 12th century The strict solemnity of the picturesque decoration of Sophia of Kyiv is replaced by more refined and contemplative images (mosaics and frescoes of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv, ca. 1113). During the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God was brought to Rus' - an outstanding monument of Byzantine icon painting, which became a model for Russian masters. During the period of familiarization with Christian culture, cities grew. Temples of the turn of the 11th–12th centuries. in Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl and other cities become smaller in size, their architectural forms are smoother, and inner space more unified and visible. The largest center of artistic life was Novgorod, where in the 12th century. Democratic government took shape (actual power belonged not to the prince, but to the mayor, boyars and merchants, and the people's council). Novgorod artistic culture, reflecting the tastes of broad layers of citizens, was distinguished by greater simplicity, strict laconicism of forms in architecture (St. Sophia Cathedral, 1045-50; St. Nicholas Cathedral on Yaroslav's Court, 1113; St. George's Cathedral of the St. George's Monastery, 1119), full-blooded images, color contrast gamma in monumental painting and icon painting. Literacy spread everywhere, the art of decorating handwritten books (Ostromir Gospel, created for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, 1056-57) and artistic crafts flourished.

In the beginning. 12th century Within the unified Kyiv tradition, the prerequisites for the development of local art schools were formed. The role of the cultural center passed from weakened Kyiv to Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. Vladimir architects erected white stone churches. Under Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1189), the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Nerl (1165), and magnificent stone princely mansions in Bogolyubovo (1158-65) were built. The interiors were decorated with frescoes and icons in gold frames, sewing (embroidered fabrics), and precious utensils. A distinctive feature of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture was carved sculptural decor. The walls of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir (1194-97), the St. George Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1230-34) were completely covered with carved reliefs, creating the impression of patterned fabric thrown over the stone masses of buildings. In Novgorod in the second half. 12th century the type of small one-domed cubic church with lowered side apses and a staircase in the thickness of the wall for entering the choir is emerging (Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, 1198). Novgorod painting of the 12th century. distinguished by heightened emotionality and sometimes drama (frescoes of the St. George Church in Staraya Ladoga, ca. 1165; Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, 1199, etc.). Almost all surviving icons are from the 12th half. 13th century (“The Savior Not Made by Hands with the Glorification of the Cross”, “Angel of Golden Hair”; both - late 12th century; “Assumption”, early 13th century, etc.) come from Novgorod (icons of other principalities have been lost).

In 1237-38. Almost all Russian cities were devastated by Batu’s hordes, the population was exterminated, churches were burned, valuables were destroyed, craftsmen were taken to foreign lands. Only Novgorod and Pskov escaped this fate, which became centers where the surviving creative forces gathered. In con. 14th century One of the greatest masters of the era, a native of Byzantium, Theophanes the Greek, worked in Novgorod. The images he created are imbued with tragic spirituality (fresco of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street, 1378). The work of Theophanes the Greek influenced the masters of Novgorod and Moscow.

In the 14th century Moscow, where the descendants of Alexander Nevsky reigned, became the center of gathering Russian lands. Metropolitan Peter (1308-26) did a lot for its rise, moving his residence to Moscow from Vladimir, which was still nominally considered the capital of Rus'. Founded by Peter and completed by Prince Ivan Kalita, the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin (1475-79) was one of the first stone buildings that continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture (it has not survived). Active construction was carried out during the reign of Metropolitan Alexy (1354-78) under the princes Dmitry Donskoy and his son Vasily Dmitrievich (white stone walls of the Kremlin, 1367-68; Cathedral of the Chudov Monastery, 1365). The Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Kremlin (1393), the Assumption Cathedral “on Gorodok” in Zvenigorod (c. 1400) are small one-domed cubic churches, marked by graceful proportions and noble restraint. The Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (the first third of the 15th century) is designed as a pyramidal volume, which is emphasized by the rows of kokoshniks tapering upward. Reaches its highest flowering in the 15th century. painting in the works of Andrei Rublev. In 1405, the Moscow icon painter decorated the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin together with Theophan the Greek. In contrast to the frantically passionate and tragic art of the Byzantine master, the work of Andrei Rublev is imbued with quiet prayerful contemplation and gentle, bright sadness. In his icons and frescoes, the world above (heavenly) and the world below (earthly) for the first time appeared in an indissoluble spiritual unity. In the icon “Trinity” (1420s), the idea of ​​harmony and unity, so important in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo, was heard in full force. Painters from the circle of Theophanes the Greek created richly illustrated liturgical handwritten books (the Khitrovo Gospel; some miniatures may have been made by Andrei Rublev or masters close to him). The work of Andrei Rublev had a huge influence on Moscow painting not only of the 15th century, but also of subsequent centuries.

In 1480, during the reign of Ivan III, the final liberation from the Tatar-Mongol yoke took place. Moscow was turning into the capital of a powerful state. The visible embodiment of Muscovy's new role as a great European power was the magnificent ensemble of buildings on Cathedral Square, the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin, created at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. Russian and Italian architects. In the metropolitan environment, the refined and enlightened art of Dionysius was formed, who decorated the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin with icons and created grandiose fresco ensembles in the White Lake area (wall paintings of the Ferapontov Monastery, 1502). Decorative and applied arts are flourishing. Representatives of princely and boyar families ordered embroidered shrouds, carved and precious utensils from craftsmen, which became valuable contributions to monasteries and churches.

In the 16th century tent churches were erected in Muscovy (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, 1532). An outstanding monument of the era was St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow (1555-61). For icon painting of the 16th century. characterized by a rich iridescent color scheme, an abundance of details, and a detailed narrative (“The Militant Church,” 1550s, dedicated to the victory of the Russian army near Kazan). The taste for grace and luxury is reflected in numerous works of decorative and applied art and in the decoration of books. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian printed book, “The Apostle.”

In the 17th century The Armory Chamber became the center of artistic production in the Moscow state, where the best Russian and foreign masters worked, among whom S. F. Ushakov was the most famous. In the culture of the 17th century. The secular principle intensified, interest in scientific knowledge of the world appeared. This century became a transitional era to the art of the New Age. Parsuns are distinguished by a unique fusion of ancient traditions and new trends - the first portrait images in Russian art (of members of the royal and boyar families), created using the icon-painting technique. In the 18th century, when secular trends completely prevailed in Russian culture, the traditions and images of ancient Russian art were preserved for a long time in the vast Russian provinces.

2012-12-02T10:05:36+06:00 Culture of the peoples of BashkortostanChurch of the Sorrows Andreevka (Shmitovo). Photo by Sergei Sinenko ANCIENT RUSSIAN ART, the art of Ancient Rus', as well as art consistent with ancient Russian traditions. Having absorbed the traditions of East Slavic culture and the advanced experience of the art of Byzantium and the Balkan countries, ancient Russian art created outstanding monuments of church and secular architecture, wonderful mosaics, frescoes, icons, miniatures, reliefs, decorative...CULTURE OF THE PEOPLES OF BASHKORTOSTAN Dictionary-reference book CULTURE OF THE PEOPLES OF BASHKORTOSTAN Dictionary-reference book[email protected] Author In the Middle of Russia

ancient Russian fine art rublev

Icon painting played an important role in Ancient Rus', where it became one of the main forms of fine art. The earliest ancient Russian icons had the traditions, as already mentioned, of Byzantine icon painting, but very soon in Rus' their own distinctive centers and schools of icon painting arose: Moscow, Pskov, Novgorod, Tver, Central Russian principalities, “northern letters”, etc. Their own Russian saints also appeared , and their own Russian holidays (Protection of the Virgin Mary, etc.), which are clearly reflected in icon painting. The artistic language of the icon has long been understandable to any person in Rus'; the icon was a book for the illiterate.

The works of art of Moscow of the 14th-15th centuries, known today, allow us to assert that Andrei Rublev and his associates were formed in an artistic environment that was at a very high level. Although none of Andrei Rublev's contemporaries surpassed him in art, nevertheless, the masters who worked with him often evoke in us a feeling of respectful surprise at the significance of their creations. What Rublev elevated to the level of high style was prepared in the artistic environment that surrounded him. He was not alone; there were like-minded people and comrades around him. Actually, we do not see the imitator students next to him; they appeared later, after he completed his creative path. Even in the last years of the great artist’s life, masters work with him without losing their face. They independently work to solve the same problems that faced Rublev and, in general, Russian artistic thought of that time. But no one but him was able to bring into harmony and agreement everything that had to be embodied in art in such a significant era of Russian life. Considering everything created by Russian artists of the distant past, artists of the era preceding Andrei Rublev and his time, and, in addition, masters of the South Slavic countries and the Greeks, we see that Rublev was able to select all the best that was contained in their works. By creatively translating the richness of this diverse artistic culture, he acquired his own visual language, native and understandable to everyone around him. He managed in his work to reflect the best aspirations and aspirations of the Russian people at the decisive moment of their struggle for their national existence.

Therefore, it is necessary to comprehend in his artistic works those values ​​that were a reflection of the truly popular views and tastes of his time.

In the youth of Andrei Rublev and the masters of his generation, a significant event took place, which was already recognized by contemporaries as the decision of the fate of the Russian people - the Battle of Kulikovo Field. The victory left a deep imprint on the people's consciousness. The Russian people have proven in practice their willingness to sacrifice their lives for the sake of their homeland. Awareness of the power of this love strengthened in the Russian people a sense of true human dignity, courage and fearlessness. This is clearly evidenced by the words of the author of “Zadonshchina” - a military story about the Battle of Kulikovo. Written (possibly by Sophony Ryazan) with an orientation towards the Tale of Igor’s Campaign, which was caused by the general ideological position of the authors: the unity of the Russian principalities in the face of an external enemy... Modern encyclopedia: “Princes and boyars and daring people, leave all your houses and wealth, wives both children and livestock, receive the honor and glory of this world, lay down their heads for the Russian land and for the Christian faith.”

As is known, very few monuments of early Moscow painting have survived, although the chronicle speaks of the great scope of painting in Moscow. Under the year 1342 it is said that in one fire in Moscow 18 churches burned down, and it is added that in 13 years this was already the fourth fire (Nikon Chronicle). In the following years, the Metropolitan, Prince and Princess, taking care of the restoration of the churches, entrusted their painting to Russian masters, Greeks and their Russian students.

Among the monuments of this period, the icon of Boris and Gleb on horseback from the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (State Tretyakov Gallery) is of particular interest, which is considered to be the work of a Russian master who collaborated with the Greeks or studied with them, since the writing techniques and style of the icon reveal in it the master’s familiarity with monuments of Paleologian art. The icon is outstanding a work of art and speaks not about the master’s borrowing of Byzantine painting techniques, but about their free implementation in a monument filled with original content.

The cult of Boris and Gleb has always been associated with the idea of ​​brotherly love and unity of the Russian princes. Their lives were often read by the clergy for edification in times of discord and disagreement between the princes.

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The icon shows, against the backdrop of high conventional rocky hills, a lively scene filled with action and pathos. Boris and Gleb ride side by side on horses, marching warlike in step. The brothers, as usual, are dressed in ordinary Russian princely clothes, the horses are wearing rich attire - everything is accurately and carefully depicted by the artist. In their faces, conveyed using techniques close to Byzantine painting of that time, i.e. with a sharp juxtaposition of light and shadow, features of the Russian type are still visible through the conventions, especially in the face of Boris. In the coloring, although somewhat dark, one can feel the cheerful and intense sound of colors - red, reddish-yellow, green, dark gray, common in Russian painting.

There seems to be a conversation going on between the brothers. Gleb turns to Boris, who, looking into the distance in front of him, listens to him attentively. In the agreements of the princes and their speeches, the expression “to mount a horse” meant to start a war, which was usually followed by the condition of mutual assistance: “then you, my brother, must also mount a horse.” It is quite obvious that such an icon seemed to call on the princes to follow the example of Boris and Gleb, avoiding strife, helping each other in brotherly love and, if necessary, unitedly and militantly speaking out against the enemy. In the upper right corner, the Savior in heaven blesses, as if giving instructions to the brothers. Images of Boris and Gleb are not rare in the 14th century. The icon of Boris and Gleb with a life from Kolomna (State Tretyakov Gallery) dates back to the same century. The brothers are shown standing next to each other with swords and crosses in their hands, i.e. in the form of a martyr. If we compare their faces with those depicted on the just described icon of the 1340s, we will see that typically Russian beauty is reflected much more clearly in them. They are Russian, their eyes are larger and more transparent, their noses are straight. Painting techniques are different. The faces are sculpted softly with a gradual transition from shadow to light, the paints, instead of dense and thick strokes, cover the surface fluidly and transparently.

To the era immediately adjacent to the Battle of Kulikovo, i.e. The icon of St. Nicholas and St. George of the Moscow school (State Russian Museum) dates back to the end of the 14th century. George is given in the form of a slender young warrior. His weapons and military armor are depicted with love and attention by the artist. In his hands is a heavy sword and a thin spear. Despite his youth, the warrior has a courageous and impressive posture. The face, stern and gentle, reflects concentrated depth into one’s inner world and unyielding determination. He looks away and does not communicate with the viewer; one senses some alienation and loneliness of the hero. This is the face of a man who has seen death before him and is again in full military readiness. When you look at his figure with wide shoulders and strong legs, images of warriors of the 11th-12th centuries come to mind. The painting techniques of this monument lack the features of the Paleologian style. He stands freely, but straight, without bending.

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The transitions from shadow to light are soft and gradual, only the volume is sculpted more definitely than in Boris and Gleb from Kolomna. The colors are light and transparent, the cinnabar of the cloak is combined with green, yellow and brown tones. The entire image appears in clear, even lighting, in which all the details of the armor and weapons are noticeably revealed. Apparently, the master carefully peered into the artistic techniques of painting of the distant past and the faces of ancient icons, trying to understand their expression. For the artist of the late 14th century, this warrior owes some of the heaviness of his figure, the decisiveness of his gaze and the natural ease of his military posture to the long-standing military culture of the Russians and the charm of the images of the heroic past for the artist of the late 14th century. Only the former severity of the former appearance of the warriors of the pre-Mongol period has softened, more subtlety has appeared in the facial features, its power is no longer exaggerated. George is portrayed as an ordinary participant in battles, but he is elevated in his human dignity, and the pathos of heroism is given in him in a different way than before, in a new way. What was the change?

Often the Russian people of the Middle Ages did not find an explanation for the feats accomplished in the heat of military inspiration, and attributed them to George, Dmitry of Thessalonica, Boris and Gleb and the Archangel Michael, whom they called in their military terminology “the commander of the perfect regiment.” They considered them as real participants in the battle. This kind of intervention of ordinary patrons is found, for example, in the description of the Battle of Kulikovo.

How much ideas about the character of the Moscow warrior have changed in comparison with the image of the hero of the pre-Mongol period can be seen from the description of the battle of Dmitry Donskoy with Oleg Ryazansky at Skornishchovo in 1371. The chronicler (Trinity Chronicle and the Moscow Code of the late 15th century) calls the Ryazan people “the stern people of the world, ferocious and become arrogant, humble the people, inflamed with greatness.” He condemns them for their contempt for the Muscovites, whom, having not experienced in battle, the Ryazan people call “weak, fearful and not strong,” and for the fact that, relying on their strength, they considered it unnecessary to arm themselves, but only took “trap” those. ropes to tie Muscovites with. Further, he describes how the Ryazan people in an evil and fierce battle were defeated by the “humble”, as the chronicler puts it, Muscovites and how Prince Oleg himself barely escaped with a small retinue. Narrating about this victory of the Muscovites, the chronicler condemns, using the example of the Ryazan people, the type of warrior, although brave, but imprudent, overly relying on his own prowess and not commensurating his strength with the strength of the enemy. At the same time, he admires Muscovites who “do not rise with pride.”

In the depiction of George on the icon “Nicholas and George” from the Russian Museum, the pathos of heroism is not as exaggerated as in the works of the pre-Mongol period, but more commensurate with human capabilities. He is closer to the truth of life, to those people from whose midst the heroes of the battles of that time emerged. George does not suppress the viewer with his exclusivity; the viewer seems to see himself in him, only in an exalted form.

The icon we examined, “Saints Nicholas and George,” dates back to the time when Andrei Rublev was still young. This is the art of the older generation. By the very beginning of the 15th century. Another wonderful monument rises, the creation of a Russian woman.

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The design for sewing was usually given by the icon painter, the execution was carried out by the embroiderer. There is an assumption that the design for this sewing was made by an artist who personally knew Sergius. The appearance of the old man is far from canon. Before us is a man with a strong and original character: his mouth is energetically compressed, his eyes are set somewhat askew, close together and full of penetrating concentration. Artistic sewing techniques are very diverse, picturesque and expressive. The features of Sergius’s complex appearance are masterfully emphasized: the peculiar outline of the forehead, the narrow frame of the face with somewhat prominent cheekbones, the closeness of the eyes and their unequal shape, the difference in the pattern of the eyebrows, the asymmetry of the nose, beard and all the features of the face and head with a lot of hair. The keen eye of the artist sees the varying thickness of the beard, noticing the sparse hairs on the cheeks where it begins. In his entire appearance there is great restraint and composure for purposeful action and at the same time great breadth of soul, something courageous, but not strict. The slender and full of movement figure of Sergius is dressed in modest clothes, in the depiction of which the embroiderer even managed to convey the color and texture of homespun woolen fabric and the simplicity of sewing a canvas stole. One can feel from everything that the artist was completely inspired by the living personality of Sergius, and he seemed to be characterizing him as a historical figure. When you look at this work, what least comes to mind are the conventional signs of a “saint” given in the lives, and what comes to mind is Sergius, carrying out diplomatic missions that no one else could do in the stormy turmoil of internecine disagreements. I remember how he “closed” the churches in Nizhny Novgorod, when in 1365 he persuaded Boris Konstantinovich to make peace with his elder brother, who had seniority rights to reign in Nizhny Novgorod, and with this unprecedented measure for that time he achieved, together with the great prince, reconciliation of brothers; then - his visit and inducement to peace of such an evil enemy of Moscow as Oleg Ryazansky. What comes to mind is not the “benevolent words” that life speaks of, but something else: willpower, knowledge of life and people, the inexorability of the arguments of the practical mind. Before us is a living, active person who “spoke few words, but taught great deeds,” i.e. Taught more by deed, and not by word, that Sergius, who “disobeyed not the slightest, nor hesitated, but with much diligence,” went and chose places for new monasteries and laid their foundation “with his own hands.” In order to more clearly imagine the changes that took place in art at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. , one should compare the image of Sergius on an embroidered shroud with the images created by Theophan the Greek. The contrast will be astounding: if the titanic strong elders of Theophanes are majestic and lonely, if the strength of their character is aimed at establishing their individuality, then in the image of Sergius a character is given that suppresses the features of isolation. The entire figure of Sergius is shown in movement towards the viewer. He is insightful and full of attention.

In the works of Andrei Rublev and the masters of his circle, many images of people also amaze with their vitality and vivid reflection of the national image.

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Rublev very likely knew the artist who created this image of Sergius, and perhaps collaborated with him. He got used to appreciating and admiring people who not only knew how to die on the battlefield, but also devote their entire lives to serving what they saw as the salvation of the Russian people.

In the Archangel Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, where the ashes of Dmitry Donskoy rest, in the local row of the iconostasis, there is an icon “Archangel Michael” with a life. It dates back to the beginning of the 15th century. and with some features of style it is already adjacent to the work of Rublev. There is an assumption that it could have been made by order of Evdokia, the wife of Dmitry Donskoy. Her life says that shortly before her death in 1407, she had a dream in which the Archangel Michael appeared to her and ordered his image. She rejected several icons, and finally one satisfied her. This icon was placed by Evdokia in the Church of the Nativity of Our Lady in memory of the victory on the Kulikovo Field.

The flexible, courageously stern figure of the Archangel Michael, dressed in military armor, is full of tension and readiness for rapid action. In his left hand he holds a sheath, from which he pulled out a sword with his right hand and raised it threateningly. His body is curved like a bow. The fragile face with lush hair is delicate and full of restrained passion. It captivates the imagination as an unusual vision - it captures the romance of the victory won on the Kulikovo Field.

Rice. 5

End of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. There were times when the self-awareness of the people deepened, its character was nurtured by historical conditions in accordance with the ideas of the unity of the Russian land.

Andrei Rublev and the masters of his circle said a new word at this important historical moment, and what they said about the man of his time was borne in the depths of the people's consciousness, was called to life and raised to the level of an ideal.

It is especially important to consider from this side the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir in 1408. Unfortunately, we can only judge the frescoes of Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny from individual scenes of the “Last Judgment” in the middle and southern naves, several figures on the pillars and minor fragments of gospel scenes . But even the little that has survived to this day is of great importance for the history of Russian artistic and spiritual culture as a whole.

In the inexorable, harsh idea of ​​​​the “Last Judgment” of the Middle Ages, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny invested so much deeply vital content, so much sympathy for man, that it turned out to be radically rethought.

Rice. 6

From a formidable event, the scene of “The Last Judgment” turned under the brush of Andrei Rublev into a triumph of philanthropy. The frescoes are located in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and is a cultural monument taken under the protection of UNESCO. They allocated only an insignificant place to retribution for sins; judging by the later record, it was depicted only symbolically. The “Last Judgment” for them is the beginning of the “kingdom of the righteous.” He was associated with a deeply popular idea of ​​​​restoring truth and justice, trampled on earth.

In the image of the Savior Rublev (vault of the middle nave), “who is coming to judge the living and the dead,” there is not even a shadow of frightening menace. Dressed in golden robes, full of youthful strength and movement, he soars easily and freely. blue halo, surrounded by the winged faces of “ethereal forces”. He is the embodiment of triumph, humanity and creative enthusiasm. In Rublev's style, impeccably inscribed in the circle, he is not limited by it. Touching its limit with his foot, he seems ready to step out of it, which is why the composition, full of monumental clarity and completeness, acquires life and movement. He is the entire embodiment of the poetic image of light. Above the Savior, also in the vault, two angels are flying a scroll with the image of the moon and stars, which means the end of the earthly world; they seem to be closing the book of life.

Above the angels are depicted four kingdoms, whose dominion ceases with the end of life on earth. They give way to the kingdom of truth and justice. Four symbolic animals are closed in an earthly circle. The winged panther, the “Kingdom of Macedon,” boldly rushes forward, terrifying with its military power and the surprise of its attack. A winged lion strides widely in it - the “Roman Kingdom”, striving for world domination. Standing stubbornly, with his head down and his eyes squinting suspiciously, is the completely real owner of the Russian forests, the bear - the “Kingdom of Babylon”, asserting dominance within its borders. It is said about him that he “hundred (that is, stands) in one place.” Terribly baring his teeth, he walks, raising his predatory muzzle, a “monstrous beast”; he has horns and a human face, and on his tail is a snake's head. This is the destructive “Kingdom of Antichrist,” “consuming and destroying all flesh and arrogantly desecrating every holy thing.”

There were many interpretations of the four beasts of the vision of the prophet Daniel, and often the characteristics of the kingdoms were based on the existing historical situation. Even such church authorities as John Chrysostom considered their interpretation “infallible” in relation to their time.

It is possible that Andrei Rublev, like his contemporary Luka Smolnyanin, a patriot of his city, who illustrated the Psalter in 1395 (i.e. just 12 years before the painting of the frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral) could mean: by the lion - united Poland and Lithuania , where the Roman Catholic religion became dominant; under the panther - the aggressive Teutonic Order; under the bear is the Principality of Moscow, which was persistently engaged in establishing strong power and unity within its borders; under the monstrous beast are the Tatars, with whose cruelty the Russians associated the idea of ​​the onset of the “Last Judgment”.

In a semicircle under the arch adjacent to the vault, there is a composition of the “Prepared Throne” (“Etymasia”), towards which the flying “Savior in Power” seems to be rushing. On the throne lies a book in which the deeds of people are written. At its foot, kneeling on their knees are the trembling ancestors - Adam and pretty Eve, the culprits of the fall of people. Near them is a vessel with atoning blood and scales - a symbol of justice.

The Mother of God and John the Baptist selflessly stretch out their hands to the throne, as if rushing to help people. Their faces have hardly been preserved, but in their hasty aspiration, in the veil of the Mother of God that has bunched up in front and in the disheveled beard of the Forerunner, human emotion is felt.

On the sides of the scene at the throne are the apostles Peter and Paul and the angels standing behind them, which connects the image on the wall with the sitting apostles on the slopes of the vault. The entire composition is perfectly inscribed in a semicircle above the arch and framed below with a modest floral ornament. The bowed figures rhythmically echo the outline of the arch and vault.

The consideration of architectural forms is also visible in the placement of the other ten apostles on the slopes of the vault. Closed rows seem to support the arch. The halos, reminiscent of an ornament, echo the circles in which the Savior and the animals of the kingdoms are inscribed.

Among the angels on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral there are many naively simple-minded, inquisitively attentive and sadly thoughtful girlish faces. Apparently, what was seen in life was embodied under the brush of artists. Following the basic laws in the depiction of the apostles, the artists essentially went far beyond their limits and gave a whole gallery of vitally truthful images of Russian people with those moral virtues that were realized and appreciated by the people in the crucible of difficult trials.

The epic “The Last Judgment” is presented by artists, like Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” in deeply folk and patriotic images. This is especially felt in the “Procession of the Righteous”, which is shown in the form of a crowded crowd located on the right on a pillar in the central nave, in the passage to the southern nave and in the vault of the southern nave. Striving for the truth of life, the artists neglected the unity of the composition and arranged it in separate groups.

Instead of the usual figure of a single saint, the pillar depicts a close-knit group of righteous women facing the “Prepared Throne.” They not only have simple Russian faces, but also Russian clothes. What occupies them is not a vision, not a dream; there is no detachment in them, on the contrary, their attention is directed to something vital and common to them, they are preparing, each according to their character and temperament, for some significant, important action - they are preparing for a feat. In the foreground is, apparently, St. Catherine is a young maiden wearing a crown. If you mentally eliminate this detail of the iconic convention, then the viewer will see the typical face of a Russian girl. The artist did not try to make her beautiful, this is the most ordinary face, of which there are many, but its expression makes her beautiful and spiritual. The other wives are also typical Russian women. The artist managed to capture national features and character in such a way that the remoteness of centuries loses its power: the images come closer to us and are perceived as something familiar and well-known. It is not the anticipation of the bliss of heaven that occupies their thoughts. All their mental strength is directed towards decisive and final action on earth. It is believed that with this feeling of readiness for heroism, the Russian sons cut off their path to retreat on the Kulikovo Field. The question of the role of the Russian woman in the era of liberation from the Tatar yoke and the creation of the Russian centralized state would not be clear, and much could only be guessed at if this document had not remained. The artist conveys the high dignity, firmness, courage and subtle grace of Russian women, their willingness to sacrifice themselves. These images of husbands and wives reflected the high national self-awareness of the Russian people. It is not the moment that leads to a heroic act, often unconscious and accidental, that is extolled by the artist, but a person’s awareness of the value of his sense of selflessness.

On the wall of the opening to the southern nave there is a crowd of righteous people with worried faces. They seem to enter the middle nave, where the main action of the court takes place; the artists brought them extremely close to those who are in the temple. In the vault of the southern nave, the procession of the righteous heads to the doors of heaven, led by the apostles Peter and Paul. With a passionate appeal, Paul stretches out his hand with an unrolled scroll: “Come with me...” In contrast to his willful tension, Peter steps lightly and swiftly. His face, facing the crowd, is animated by kindness and trust in people, he is passionate and carries others along with him. The movement of the crowd, consisting of separate groups, occurs obliquely, from bottom to top, which gives the whole composition the dynamism of ascension.

What is reflected in the images of wives is literally repeated in the faces of the righteous. There is more excitement and movement in this composition than in the procession of wives.

Rice. 10

The old man and the medieval man are remarkable for their significance. They wear hats like prophets, but this does not prevent them from being seen as types of ordinary Russian people. They have the same attention and the same determination as their wives, only more expression. The artist considers their life mission to be the same, but the wives are given a more prominent and more responsible place in the painting. Whether these two compositions were painted by the same artist or different ones will be shown by future research. Now I just want to give an assessment of this phenomenon in the history of ancient Russian painting and culture in general.

Nothing outwardly ostentatious attracted the artist; the significance of the plan determined the complete truthfulness and sincerity of the feeling. This is reflected in the centuries-old culture of personality. Each time, at decisive moments of historical existence, the power of the people's spirit is called to action, and amazing feats are accomplished. We should pay tribute to the artists who were able to capture in their creations the images of those who reflected the greatest truth of the manifestation of national character.

Between the compositions, against the bluish-gray background of the walls, like bindweeds, thin white stems with brown, green, yellow leaves and delicate flowers with stamens rose up. Amazing in their grace, these ornaments, despite their stylization, have not lost their life-like truthfulness. These modest decorations were the fruit of a loving observation of nature and turned out to be much closer to it than the strong, but less mobile ornaments of the era of Andrei and Vsevolod.

Unfortunately, one very interesting link in the complex composition of “The Last Judgment” has been almost lost by time and is barely visible - the participation of nature in its action. Above the entrance to the southern nave are the personifications of Water and Earth in the form of two female figures. On the left, the Earth is strong, holding a coffin in her hand with a proud posture; behind her, weak-willed, like the shadows of Hades, stand the dead, shrouded in a shroud. In front of her is a snake with a round head and a scaly body, above is an elephant and an angry lion, similar to the image of a sitting lion in the Khitrovo Gospel. On the right is Water - a woman with long wavy hair, just like a mermaid, holding a once-sunk ship with a broken mast, under which one can see sea ​​monster with a beak and two legs. Such a strange beast also appears in the Khitrovo Gospel, but there it is depicted with a long intertwined scaly tail. One must think that they were written by the same hand. A very real fish swims below: on the side, below, moving to the ledge of another wall, a cranked water creature wriggles and a real, authentically depicted crab crawls. Birds with long necks stand at the top and one in the center, above the entrance, splashes in the water - the fast, fleeting movement of its wings is conveyed amazingly correctly.

Thus, all representatives of the animal world of earth, water and air are given: four-legged animals, reptiles, water creatures and birds. Those whom the artist might have known from books and works of art are also depicted. For example, an elephant is already on the reliefs of the cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, and crabs that appeared on early Christian reliefs depicting the story of the prophet Jonah against the backdrop of the Nile landscape could have passed into Byzantine art. Apparently, these sources were known to Rublev and gave rise to the depiction of marine wonders, including the crab.

In the ancient Slavic worldview, reflected in Russian folk poetic imagery, many animals and birds participated in human life and foreshadowed future events. Thus, in the description of the fortune-telling of Dmitry Donskoy and Dmitry Volynets on the night before the Battle of Kulikovo, they heard how “geese and swans were constantly splashing their wings with an unusual thunderstorm” foreshadowed. The cackling of geese and the splashing of swan wings is also mentioned by the author of “Zadonshchina” before the invasion of Mamai’s regiments on the Russian land. Wasn’t it the same meaning of the foreshadowing of the “Last Judgment” thunderstorm that the artist put into it when he depicted a bird splashing in the water on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral? This is all the more likely since the land in female image has long lived in folk poetic imagery. In the same fortune-telling, Dmitry Donskoy and Volynets listen to how the earth cries for the Tatars, who must die on the Kulikovo field, “like a wife with a Hellenic voice,” and in Russian - “like a girl crying out in a mournful voice,” “like some kind of pipe to hear pitifully.”

With the greatest certainty, one can attribute to Rublev the wonderful angel leading the baby John the Baptist on the wall to the left at the entrance to the altar. Unfortunately, only the lower part and some fragments of this composition have survived. With ancient grace, turning back as he walks, the angel leads the little Forerunner by the hand, who, like a child, can barely keep up with his light step. The action takes place against the backdrop of a golden ocher desert landscape with green trees and rocky hills. The bright spaces on the angel's green robe, his blue tunic, the baby's white shirt and the highlights on the slides seem to glow. The whole scene is imbued with rhythm and movement.

In Theophanes the Greek, the body, the flesh, is something in itself dark and ponderous; it only begins to live in his art when he illuminates it with the lightning light of his imagination. The form will cease to exist if the highlights are lost. His temperament required expression and contrast to convey spirituality.

Let's compare the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral with the detail of the “Last Judgment” on the icon of the late 14th century, associated, as we assume, with the work of Theophanes the Greek (State Tretyakov Gallery, listed as found on the bell tower of Ivan the Great in the Moscow Kremlin). The icon depicts a crowd of righteous people emerging from darkness into dazzling light; in the foreground are those rising from coffins. Among the righteous one can see the elders and hermits typical of Theophanes, terrifying with their inhuman tension. The contrast of light and shadow gives the entire image an extraordinary character, stunning the viewer with its tragedy and gloominess of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution. Before us is a mysterious and fantastic world.

Rice. eleven

Rublev seemed to separate spirit and matter less than other medieval people; he saw light, airy, living flesh in their inextricable unity. As a result, he and the masters of his circle always have a light palette. He doesn't need a shadow to highlight the power of the light. Light vibrating tones themselves express light and are always the background for more intense and bright sounds, such as the famous blue or amber-yellow, rose-red, etc. In the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral, everything happens in a bright, airy environment, in spiritual and spatial proximity to the viewer.

How much the content of the Assumption frescoes was related to reality and how much the life of the era was reflected in them can be judged by the events that took place very soon after they were painted and were typical of the 14th-15th centuries. The chronicles say: on December 1, 1408, Edigei came to Moscow with all the Tatar strength. They scattered “from the land of Ryazan to Galich and to Belaozer”, “like angry wolves.” “And then in the entire Russian land there was a great pain among all Christians and there was inconsolable crying and sobbing and screaming... everyone was struggling and everyone was confused, because there were many misfortunes and losses for all people, both greater and lesser, near and far.” Everyone was “in a state of grief and sorrow, overwhelmed with sorrow.” In this common disaster, as can be seen from the words of the chronicler, a sense of equality, a sense of humanity was born: “it’s pitiful not to see and worthy of the tears of many,” as one Tatar “led up to forty Christians to the needy.” Many were cut off, others died from frost, hunger and thirst. Fathers and mothers cried when they saw their “children being killed,” and “children wept” when they were separated from their parents; “And there was not,” says the chronicler, “one who has mercy or delivers and helps.”

In these trials, as we know, amazing characters emerged. So, in 1410, in front of the frescoes of Andrei Rublev and Daniil in the Assumption Cathedral, the following event occurred: in the summer, Prince Danilo Borisovich from Nizhny Novgorod brought Tsarevich Talycha and sent his boyar Semyon Karamyshev with him into exile to Vladimir. They came to Vladimir “unknown through the forest” from across the Klyazma River, “like people sleeping at noon”; The city did not have a fence at that time, and the governor was absent. The “damned” first took the city herd, and then began to flog and rob people, and then “bringing the Holy Mother of God to the church, the sacristan, priest Patrick, shut himself up in it with other people.” Patrikey hid the church vessels and people at the top of the church and then, removing the stairs, stood in front of the “image of the Most Pure One, weeping.” The Tatars and the messengers of the Nizhny Novgorod prince, burst into the temple, seized Patrikey and began to cruelly torture him about where the precious forge and the people who were with him were hidden; “He didn’t say anything about it, but he endured a lot of torment: he was in a frying pan, and he cut chips through his nails and his legs, he pulled a snake, dragged along the horse’s tail, and so in that torment he died.” “This is the malice,” the chronicler concludes, “disconnected from your Christian brethren.”

It was an era of severe moral failures and greatest exploits. Great was the role of those people and that art who were able to carry faith in the best that was in the Russian person, and through the power of charm to support and cultivate in him high patriotism and humanity. Selflessness gave birth to deep joy and faith in victory and the possibility of unification in the Russian people as a whole.

In the images of some of the apostles on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral, even through canonically established features, the eyes of those people who knew how to see and love the world often look at us. John’s face is full of such tenderness and kindness that the viewer feels like the gaze of those people close to him who love him. This look is perceived by the heart and gives great joy and a feeling of fullness of life. Apparently, one of the famous creations of Andrei Rublev, the Savior from the Zvenigorod rank, should be attributed to the first decade of the 15th century, an image that made a huge impression on the Russian people.

Icons of the Savior, attributed to the Moscow school of the 15th century, usually imitated this model to one degree or another. The latter circumstance usually forced us to consider the image of the Savior from Zvenigorod to be what is called a canon. But shouldn’t the question be posed somewhat differently: did it not represent, at the time when it was written, a completely unusual phenomenon and only purely outwardly followed the established requirements of the canon? Of course, in it the Russian ideal image of Christ was found for the first time, different from the images of previous art, which sometimes amazes the viewer with the severity of its expression. Rublevsky Spas is the embodiment of typically Russian good looks. Not a single element of Christ’s face is overly emphasized - everything is proportional and consistent: he is Russian, his eyes are not exaggerated, his nose is straight and thin, his mouth is small, the oval of his face, although elongated, is not narrow, there is no asceticism at all, his head has a thick mass hair rises with calm dignity on a strong, slender neck.

The most significant thing about this new look is the look. It is directed directly at the viewer and expresses lively and active attention to him; he feels a desire to delve into a person’s soul and understand him. The eyebrows are freely raised, which is why there is no expression of either tension or sorrow, the gaze is clear, open, and benevolent. Before us is a strong and active person who has enough mental strength and energy to give himself to support those who need it. The Zvenigorod Spas is larger than the life size of a person. He is full of greatness. In addition, there is a rigor of inner purity and spontaneity in him, there is complete trust in a person.

The “Savior” from Zvenigorod seemed to complete Rublev’s search for the image of the Russian Christ, already anticipated in the “Savior” of the central nave and the “Savior in Power” of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.

Later, as if on the way between the creation of the Zvenigorod rank and the work of Rublev and Daniil in the Trinity Cathedral of the Sergius Monastery, another wonderful image was created. This is “John the Baptist” (Andrei Rublev Museum), a hermit-ascetic and martyr for the truth. This image was especially close to the monk Rublev, who poeticized it in the spirit of Russian asceticism of his difficult time.

“John the Baptist” was once included in the waist-length Deesis row of the iconostasis, like the icons of the Zvenigorod rank. The figures of the “Deesis” from the Nikolo-Peshnoshsky Monastery (near Dmitrov), unlike the icons from Zvenigorod, were not exaggerated, but were almost proportionate to a person and thus seemed to be even closer to the viewer.

As a hermit, the Forerunner is dressed in a bluish mantle (clothing made of skins), visible only on the chest, since a green himation is draped over it, the color reminiscent of the dark green of oak forests. Its brittle folds glow with light greenish gaps, transparent like dew on tree leaves, being a poetic image of the shining moral purity of the Forerunner. John is courageously broad-shouldered, fair-haired, and light-eyed. In its appearance one can feel the similarity and spiritual kinship with the “Savior” from the Zvenigorod rite and the images of the apostles and saints on the frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. A bowed head, a high forehead, straightened, sadly compressed eyebrows, a self-absorbed gaze, a thin nose and sensitively tender silent lips testify to the intense work of thought, to the presence of the deity, which, according to accepted iconography, is expressed in a broad, calm and extremely delicate prayer gesture beautiful hands with thin elongated fingers. A soft but decisive line outlines the courageous silhouette of the Forerunner, freely, harmoniously and steadily inscribed in the golden background of the icon. The Forerunner is full of silence and meekness. Only in the flowing fluidity of curls thick hair and beard, depicted with pure Rublevsky perfection, one can feel John’s inner agitation. Before us is not a prophet, a stern preacher-ascetic, as Byzantine art created John the Baptist, but a lover of truth, a contemplator of the Russian “green mother of the desert”, glorified by the poetry of Russian spiritual verses. This is the image of a selfless, highly moral ideal of a silent monk, sensitive to the beauty of the world, brought up in the spirit of Sergius of Radonezh and embodied in the works of Andrei Rublev and his friends.

Rublev's images were born in an era when the people were looking for figures and defenders of their interests, when the pathos of individual heroism of the past gave way, as we have already seen, to the pathos of a nationwide movement for liberation from foreign yoke. As a result, the ability to self-sacrifice, perseverance and long-term commitment acquired particular importance. In Rublev's era, national self-awareness was elevated to the highest level; Every Russian person fought for Rus' and its unity, in whom the consciousness of a community of national interests awoke. In the image of the Savior from Zvenigorod, the Forerunner and others, we see the embodiment of the dream of an ideal personality; The Russian people, including Rublev, sought and found this ideal personality in their own environment. Hence Rublev’s innovation in the images he created. The thoughtful, sincere, humane artist was in complete harmony with the reality around him. He was invested with the people's trust, and therefore expressed himself in life fully and freely. His ideals coincided in spirit with folk ideas. With his images, Rublev supported the people's faith in their own strength. During the invasion of Edigei, the Trinity-Sergius Monastery was destroyed and burned. Nikon, the successor of Sergius, gradually restored it and in 1422 began construction of the now existing white stone cathedral. He invites Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny to paint the temple, but since they were in a hurry to paint the temple, many other artists also worked with them. The frescoes of Rublev's era in the cathedral, as shown by the work of restorers, have not been preserved at present, but the iconostasis has survived almost completely. So many artists took part in its creation that it is rare that two or three icons can be attributed to one artist. Almost every work of this iconostasis is worthy of a special monograph. But we will focus only on a few details and compositions that amaze with the vitality or originality of the design. In the center of the festive row is the “Eucharist”.

The composition is divided into two icons: “Distribution of bread” and “Distribution of wine”. Both icons were made by different masters. In the “Distribution of Bread” on the left, as usual, the ciborium, the throne and Christ distributing bread are depicted. A group of apostles approaches him. Apostle Peter accepts bread from the hands of Christ. The action takes place against the backdrop of ordinary wards. Peter's face is typical of an ordinary Russian person and expresses touching gratitude towards the one who gives him bread. He accepts bread as alms; the other apostles stand huddled together like the poor, waiting for their turn. The two young apostles on the left seem to have been snatched straight from life, they are concentrated and thoughtful, they are wearing unusual attire for apostles - this is not a tunic and himation, but clothes with wide collars, reminiscent of homespun caps that peasants used to wear. Perhaps these are the simple robes that the monks of the Trinity Monastery wore at that time. The master of this composition is an excellent colorist, light and clear, but he is not very concerned about the grace of forms: his architecture of a Hellenistic character seems to be knocked together with simple clumsiness from wood; the dome of the ciborium has a somewhat simplified shape; The apostles are completely unsophisticated. The artist doesn't care about making their group look pretty. His intention is deep, and he does not think about the external effect. This is especially striking when compared with the elegant harmony and grace of the composition “Distribution of Wine”, in which the architecture is complex and skillfully constructed, the colors are subordinated to a somewhat dark range of brown, yellow, dark green and dark pink tones. On the beautifully painted throne cover there is a light gold pattern; a group of apostles moves as if in a dance; their clothes flutter beautifully, their proportions are elongated, their lines are rhythmically coordinated, their facial expressions are complex and intense. The master is a sophisticated artist who understands the distribution of wine as a kind of inspired action elevated above everyday life. The conventional language of the master of the “Distribution of Wine” emphasizes the ingenuously vigilant attention to life’s truth in the master of the “Distribution of Bread.”

The artist's interpretation of the sacrament of the Eucharist as alms was completely in the popular spirit of that time. If we remember that in 1422 there was a famine throughout the Russian land, and it was “a cold winter,” people were dying “of hunger and cold,” and other “dead cattle, horses, dogs, cats, and people of people yadosha,” then one wonders whether the vital fidelity of this scene was not inspired by the artist’s recent impressions of reality. And the chronicle itself in these cases describes everything with impartial accuracy. I would like to imagine in the clear, sober and truthful artist of the “Distribution of Bread” a man from the people, who is entrusted with one of the most important themes, on a par with the aristocratically sophisticated master of the “Distribution of Wine”. The artists of the Trinity iconostasis feel a great interest in the young faces whom they looked closely at in life. These observations helped them create an unusually charming image of the young man Dmitry Solunsky, full of the gentle grace typical of Rublev’s era. It was created by poetic imagination and is full of artistic truth, reflecting the lyrical feeling of the Russian man in all his maturity. Dmitry of Thessalonica bows like a ripe ear of corn. Young in years, he “has an old meaning.” Rublev's art is characterized by elders with unfading youth of feelings and young men with the wisdom of elders - apparently, these were the best Russian people of his time. The fruit of inspired insight was the image of the wives at the coffin. Three women contemplating the miracle of the resurrection, compositionally fused together, are the living embodiment of the grace of Russian femininity. They reflect three ages: the middle one - young - captivates with virginal gullibility, the right - elderly - with the impeccability of simplicity - and modesty, the left - middle-aged - with the awareness of the strength of her character and the charm of her femininity. Their images are close to the wives from the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, mentioned above. Along with such poetic reflections of reality, in the holidays of the Trinity iconostasis there is also something that is, apparently, directly related to the exciting moments of the reality surrounding the artist. There are two more compositions in the iconostasis, connected by semantic content.

The first belongs to the brush of one of the best artists who worked on the iconostasis, and is closest in techniques to Rublev, the other - to an artist who, more than others, gravitates towards the techniques of painting of the 14th century.

The theme depicted in the first composition is as follows. Christ, preparing to wash the disciples' feet, teaches them that the greatest of them should be a servant to all. Peter, not understanding the meaning of what is happening, does not want to allow the teacher to humiliate himself by washing his feet. During the dialogue, Christ says: “if I do not wash you, you have no part with me,” that is, in the future life. Peter, frightened by these words, says, pointing to his head: “Lord! Not only my feet, but also my hands and head.” In the iconography of this subject, his gesture is traditional; the other apostles usually just prepare to follow Peter's example, some of them taking off their sandals, others looking on or turning to each other.

A special feature of the design of this work is the general thoughtfulness of the apostles. One of them is especially remarkable - the medieval one, located on the right, just opposite Christ. He sits, leaning back freely; his hand rests on his chest; his pose and facial expression indicate that he is deep in thought, withdrawn into himself. The face and pose are so vitally true that his image is very powerful. With general concentration, Peter's gesture turns into a call to think about what is happening. The general concentration of the apostles is, as it were, reflected in the composition closed in an oval. The bluish, greenish, brownish, pinkish and amber-yellow tones, coordinated in a somewhat muted soft palette, are covered with a light silvery haze. Everything is permeated as if by the light of a foggy day. The atmosphere of this work is calming and induces contemplative reverie. This composition contains a moment where an example of the elder serving the younger is shown: “the greater must be the servant of the lesser.”

The idea of ​​serving the Russian land was leading in that era, and was reflected in the entire spirit of our ancient chronicles. People capable of this service were invested with popular trust and were an active force that brought to life the progressive aspirations and aspirations of the masses. Dmitry Donskoy fought with the Tatars on the Kulikovo field “in the face, standing in front.” Many told him: “Mr. Great Prince, do not stand in front to fight, but behind or on the wing, or somewhere in the opposite place.” To this he replied: “Yes, I will say: my brethren, let us pull together from one, and I will begin to cover my face or bury myself behind. But just as I want in word, as well as in deed, in advance of everyone and before everyone, to lay down my head for my brothers and for all Christians, and others, who have seen it, will accept boldness with zeal.”

The artist of the "Washing of the Feet" clearly called on the audience to reflect on the wonderful teaching that the greatest should be the servant of all. Turning to another composition - to “The Last Supper”, among the apostles sitting around the table, you first notice the swift and greedy movement of Judas, like a bird of prey. Leaning forward, he reached out to the bowl on the table. All the apostles were in restrained excitement, Christ uttered the words: “One of you will betray me.” The beloved disciple reclines on his chest and, at Peter’s request, asks him the question: “Who is the traitor?” Christ answers: “And behold, the hand of him that betrayeth me is with me at the table.” Judas's gesture thus reveals him as a traitor. His outstretched hand and figure in a dark robe stand out sharply against the pink background of the table; behind him rise dazzlingly bright cold yellow color chambers with a dark opening and a portal repeating the curve of Judas’s back. The curls of the portal resemble the heads of birds of prey. The color contrasts of yellow and dark green, pink and almost black give the impression of tension and anxiety. The image of the portal, as if repeating the movement of Judas, enhances the characteristics of Judas’ greed and rapacity. The remarkable thing is that his face is young and his, although unkind, beauty is amazing. Next to him sits an apostle in a dark robe, he has curly hair, the characteristic face of a man of strong will and great temperament. He was deep in thought, but his whole appearance was full of energy; he looks forward, and his right hand makes a gesture towards Judas, as if wanting to stop his movement. The lines outlining Judas and this apostle are so compositionally related to each other that both figures are distinguished from all others. The question involuntarily arises: what is hidden behind the amazing interpretation of this topic?

We must remember that the greatest evil that hindered the unification of Rus' in the 14th-15th centuries was internal strife. The chronicle, in a vivid comparison of Oleg Ryazansky and Dmitry Donskoy, already treats this topical topic for that time, calling Oleg more than once “the new Judas, a traitor to his enraged ruler.” She passionately brands Oleg, calling him a bloodsucker, loquacious, thin, flattering, murderous, an apostate from light into darkness, and extremely extols Dmitry Donskoy, admiring his modesty, courage, and willingness to sacrifice himself for the sake of the Russian people.

In the icon, the artist could not act like the chronicler - to depict Judas as disgusting, as was usually done in Western painting and often in Greek; Russian people did not allow his tact and taste in understanding the beautiful. In Russian icons, Judas is usually young and not marked by anything from the other apostles, but, apparently, the master of the Trinity iconostasis had a very lively attitude to the theme: he wanted to warn, to keep a person from betrayal, revealing in his work the nature of this disaster. Such images inclined those who did not understand the interests of the people to take a critical attitude towards themselves and their actions. In everything one can feel great gentleness and knowledge of the human soul, a great ability to educate and convince with love, condescension, but with unyielding firmness. In the chronicle we see that as soon as the culprit turned to the path of reconciliation and faithful service to common interests, the chronicler, who did not spare color to condemn Oleg Ryazansky, described with satisfaction in 1385 how Sergius managed to persuade him to an eternal peace with the Moscow prince, and wrote that in 1387 “Great Prince Dmitry Ivanovich gave his daughter Princess Sophia to Ryazan for Prince Theodore Olgovich,” i.e. for the son of Oleg Ryazansky. Apparently no one was bothered by his past; the most important thing was to prevent new discord with this marriage.

Let us pay attention to one more detail from the composition “Candlemas”.

Rice. 13

Before us is an old man who accepted a baby from the hands of a modest, thoughtful woman. His face reflects such a clear and joyful kindness of a wonderful old age, as if the whole outcome of a long life was reflected in it. It is full of such truthfulness and sincerity that you are amazed how this old man acquired the ability to surrender to the eternal youth of feelings. How much optimism and moral health one had to have to create such a miracle of art! Looking at the face of Elder Simeon, you understand that the elders who painted the icons of the Trinity iconostasis could fill them with light, color, harmony and wisdom drawn from an actively and fully lived life. These were not harsh ascetics, but only people who knew how to deny themselves everything without losing their cheerfulness. They reveled in the surroundings of nature and the love of life, not tearing themselves away from it, but merging with it with every breath.

After the images of the past passed before our eyes, vivid, diverse, full of awe, anxiety and joy of life, so close and accessible to us after 500 extra years, you naturally ask yourself the question: can we consider that such a work by Rublev as “Trinity” is the product of his detachment from life, his fantasy and dissatisfaction with reality? It is impossible to agree with this opinion.

True, as a man of the Middle Ages, Rublev spoke in the language of religious symbols, but we, having overcome the difficulties of his conventional language, can safely say that he did not speak for a select few, his speech was addressed to everyone who loved their homeland, life and people, his those around. The artist of the “Distribution of Bread,” depicting the Eucharist under the guise of alms, essentially spoke the same language with him. Only he conveyed impressions of actions directly observed in life, and Rublev created the heights of philosophical and artistic generalization based on the same reality.

Rice. 14

The theme of the Trinity, as we know, is Eucharistic. The cup, which is the compositional center of this work, has long been included in folk poetic imagery as the “mortal cup”. This poetic image is implied in the “Tale of Igor’s Host” when it speaks of feast and wine; in “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan” it is repeated like a refrain: “having died all the same, a single cup of death is food”; The Battle of Kulikovo is spoken of, though in the Synopsis, as “about a bitter and terrible hour, in which many of God’s creatures drink the cup of death in battle,” etc. In the Trinity it means the highest degree of human love, i.e. that love that motivates a person to sacrifice his life.

In “Trinity,” Rublev reflected the popular idea of ​​his time, the idea of ​​unity and love for the Motherland. This image stands before us as femininely tender and courageously selfless love, as human love. Rublev could embody it in his work with such clarity and sincerity only because he lived a full life with the people of his era, because he loved them and loved his Motherland. The idea of ​​the unity of Rus' and the personal feeling that connected him with it were reflected in the general agreement of the three angels of the “Trinity” and in the general harmony of the whole. Rublev was a true poet in painting. His works were full of rhythm, air, light and pure sonorous colors. With all this, like the author of “Zadonshchina,” he wanted to “amuse” the Russian people, who had suffered and endured so much - after all, nothing pleases and consoles a person more than trust in his good and valiant qualities. And Rublev consoled the Russian man, made him happy; in the language of the time, he “touched” him.

Rublev knew how to dream about a wonderful person and knew how to translate his dream into the living reality of an artistic image. It is impossible to create such images without personal heroism and self-sacrifice, this is evidenced by the entire work of his life. Rublev’s ability to dream and act also reflected a characteristic feature of the Russian national genius.

ANCIENT RUSSIAN ART

Old Russian art is usually called the period in the history of Russian art, which began with the emergence of the Kievan state and continued until Peter’s reforms (from the 9th to the 17th centuries). In the thousand-year history of Russian art, this period accounts for more than seven centuries.

Old Russian art characterizes the first stage in the artistic development of the Russian people. But it cannot be considered just a threshold, a prehistory of Russian art. In it, for the first time, features were identified that later became essential features of the Russian artistic creativity. These features appear clearly enough to allow us to talk about his originality even at this early stage.

Old Russian art developed during the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Russia. The feudal state invariably relied on the authority of the church; it saw religion as one of the means of strengthening the existing social order. Accordingly, art, like the entire spiritual culture of that time, was called upon to serve the church. The range of themes and subjects of fine art was predominantly religious, the main purpose of painting was cultic, ecclesiastical, and the very nature of artistic expression was marked by features of medieval religiosity.

However, in Ancient Rus', folk art alien to churchism also developed. In feudal society, its manifestation was limited to decorative and everyday use. But the motives of life-affirming festivity, healthy joy, like echoes of folk songs and folk poetry, penetrated into church art, displacing or weakening the harsh, ascetic mood characteristic of it. Art went beyond narrow church tasks and reflected the diverse aspects of the life of the Russian people. The fabulous, semi-fantastic images of ancient Russian art contain a deep vital, philosophical, and poetic meaning.

The initial period in the development of ancient Russian art is determined by the art of the Eastern Slavs. They were engaged in agriculture, worshiped deities who personified the forces of nature, and created images of these gods - the so-called idols. Many of the mythological motifs, such as the images of the foremother-patron of the clan, sacred horses, and the firebird, have firmly entered the popular consciousness and have been carefully preserved in peasant embroidery and carving down to the present day. But they lost their original meaning and turned into an entertaining fairy tale, an intricate pattern motif.

Slavic embroidery originally served as a talisman.
Each element of the ornament has its own magical meaning

Slavic embroidery originally served as a talisman.
Each element of the ornament has its own magical meaning

The most ancient artistic creativity of the Slavs was most fully expressed in the production of jewelry and household items, especially metal products: rings, necklaces, wrists, earrings, often covered with a fine pattern of niello and enamel. This artistic craft was original and bore the stamp of high skill.

With the strengthening of the Kyiv state and the adoption of Christianity, art acquired a monumental, majestic character, enriched with the traditions of Byzantine culture, but largely lost its poetic freshness and fabulous naivety. New monumental art reached its peak already in the 11th century. A characteristic monument of this time is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Its mosaics and frescoes, apparently made by Byzantine masters, amaze with the grandeur of the overall design. In the history of art, there are few examples of the unity of architectural design and wall painting equal in impact to the St. Sophia Cathedral. Just as on the outside twelve small domes were crowned by the main dome, so inside, above the many images of individual characters located on pillars, on walls and on vaults, the stern image of the Almighty reigned. Entering under the arches of the cathedral, seeing the figures in the golden radiance of the mosaic, the ancient Kievans became familiar with the Christian understanding of the heavenly hierarchy, which, with its inviolability, was supposed to strengthen the authority of the earthly hierarchy.

Church of St. Sofia in Kyiv (St. Sophia Cathedral). 1037

Church of St. Sofia in Kyiv (St. Sophia Cathedral). 1037

In the 11th century Greek masters - builders and painters - worked in Kyiv. According to their plans, temples were built and decorated with marble slabs, mosaics, frescoes and icons. In the 12th century. The famous icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, one of the best monuments of Byzantine icon painting, was brought to Kiev from Constantinople.

Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God
Church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi

Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God
Church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi

However, this does not mean that the oldest monuments of Kyiv should be considered as borrowed. The visiting craftsmen found in Kyiv a different social environment than that which surrounded the court of the Byzantine emperor. The rich life experience of the Slavs, their healthy, cheerful attitude were also embodied in artistic images. Art has lost the imprint of the gloomy asceticism characteristic of Byzantine art of the 11th-12th centuries.

Among the cities of the vast Kyiv state, Kyiv was the main artistic center. Only here did the subtle art of mosaic develop. Magnificent examples of book art (the famous “Ostromir Gospel”, decorated with luxurious miniatures, 1056-1057) and decorative and applied art are also created here. The influence of the Kyiv art school is felt in all Russian cities.

Already at the end of the 11th century. The Kiev state begins to disintegrate into small princely appanages. In the second half of the 12th century. Kyiv loses its leading political and cultural significance; it passes to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

The art of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' developed over almost a century (mid-XII - early XIII centuries). During this time, it made a significant contribution to the history of not only Russian, but also world culture. The most vividly characteristic features of Vladimir-Suzdal art were expressed in architecture. The people of Vladimir were excellent builders. In addition to wooden buildings, there were many stone structures. Vladimir carvers were fluent in stone processing techniques and skillfully used flat wood carving techniques.

The heyday of architecture in Vladimir fell during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky. At this time, the Assumption Cathedral and the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, famous for its perfection, were built (1165). According to an ancient source, the prince built a temple “in the meadow” to commemorate his sadness over the death of his beloved son. This building is striking in its harmony and grace, the exceptional richness of new, previously unprecedented relationships between its parts. With the whiteness of the stone, the regularity and slenderness of the silhouette, the Nerlinsky Temple stands out from the surrounding landscape. This is a person's proud affirmation of the beauty of his creativity. This temple is not capable of turning a person away from the real world. With his whole appearance he calls on a person to look back at the world, rejoice that there is no discord between the work of his hands and nature.

Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. XII century

Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. XII century

A specific feature of Vladimir-Suzdal churches is their sculptural decoration. In the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir (1194-1197), the entire upper part of the outer walls is completely covered with carved decorations. Here you can see King David, and Alexander the Great, carried to heaven by griffins, and hunters, and fantastic animals, birds - all this is scattered among strange grasses and lush flowers. Each image is located on a separate stone, but together they form a harmonious whole and form a semblance of patterned fabric, as if thrown over the stone mass of the temple. The reliefs on the walls of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1230-1234) are especially magnificent.

Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir. 1194-1197.

Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir. 1194-1197.

Half-pagan, half-fairytale decorative motifs were used to decorate only the outer walls of temples; all the space inside was given to frescoes and icons, which differed from the reliefs in their subjects and character.

White stone carving on the facade of Dmitrievsky Cathedral

White stone carving on the facade of Dmitrievsky Cathedral

Along with the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the largest center of artistic life in the 12th century. was Novgorod. If Vladimir-Suzdal art reflected the growing power of the grand ducal power, then in Novgorod art bore a more noticeable imprint of popular influence. It developed its own special style, manifested in the harsh simplicity and restrained grandeur of Novgorod frescoes and icons.

Novgorodians were on the outskirts of Russian lands, they constantly encountered other peoples. Their love for their hometown and their land grew early. Art played a big role in strengthening this feeling in the popular consciousness. Novgorod churches were a clear embodiment of their proud self-awareness; in their painting, Novgorod masters expressed the ideals of courage and strength of character, which in those harsh years were the main measure of human evaluation. These features of Novgorod art were most clearly expressed in the architectural images of the St. Sophia Cathedral and St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery in Novgorod, and in the paintings of the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa.

St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery in Veliky Novgorod.
1119-1130

St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery in Veliky Novgorod.
1119-1130

The works of Russian art of this period clearly demonstrate the features of a common culture. Russian buildings of the 12th century. differ from Byzantine and Romanesque temples simplicity, clarity and integrity of compositions, soft rounded forms. The aesthetic value of works of art is becoming increasingly important. Chroniclers of that time certainly noted the beauty of churches, temples, icons, paintings, sensitively guessing the perfection of genuine art. Ancient Rus' moved tirelessly forward, Russian masters showed ingenuity and courage in their quests. Here was that understanding of the greatness of the tasks facing art, which could be born among a people with a great future.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the brilliant flowering of Russian artistic culture. Cities were subjected to merciless devastation, communications with the Balkans, Byzantium and Western Europe were severed. Artistic creativity in Rus' did not stop during these years, but major undertakings were not possible.

Unlike Kyiv, Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod escaped enslavement. This helped it become the center where, above all, the creative forces of the Russian people gathered.

At the end of the 14th century. In Novgorod, a master appears who left a noticeable mark on Russian art - Feofan the Greek. Having left Byzantium, where culture was entering a period of decline, Theophanes found in Rus' favorable soil for creativity and wide recognition. The most reliable creation of Theophanes are the paintings of the Transfiguration Church in Novgorod. The most powerful impression is left by the images of the elders. In them, the artist expressed the tragic complexity of emotional experiences, the intensity of struggle, and internal discord.

Theophanes the Greek. Our Lady. Icon from the Deesis rank

Beginning of the 15th century

Theophanes the Greek. Our Lady. Icon from the Deesis rank
Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
Beginning of the 15th century

Feofan introduced into the painting of the 14th century. passion, movement, free pictorial modeling. The masters of Novgorod and Moscow experienced the influence of his talent, which did not stop them from looking for their own paths and solutions in art. During this period, a group of Russian masters worked, creating the best examples of Novgorod mural painting. The most significant artistically are the paintings of the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field and the Church of Fyodor. Stratilata (second half of the 14th century).

In the formation of Russian national art after the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Moscow played a decisive role. From here began the persistent and successful struggle for the national unification of the Russian people. Old Russian painting reached its brilliant peak in the 15th century. (see Iconography, Old Russian iconography). Moscow painting of the 15th century. developed under the influence of the brilliant personality of Andrei Rublev. Throughout the century, she remains faithful to the best traditions of this illustrious master.

Andrey Rublev (?). Angel. Miniature from the “Gospel of Khitrovo”.
90s XIV century Russian State Library. Moscow.

Andrey Rublev (?). Angel. Miniature from the “Gospel of Khitrovo”.
90s XIV century Russian State Library. Moscow.

During the period of consolidation of the Moscow state and the formation of the feudal monarchy (late 15th century), art began to serve primarily the authority of the royal power. During these critical years, the wonderful master Dionysius (c. 1440 - c. 1506) was working in Moscow, who creatively continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. However, unlike him, Dionysius was not a monk, but a layman, and this left its mark on his work. In the art of Dionysius, the mood of solemn festivity and victorious rejoicing prevails.

In his old age, Dionysius, together with his disciples, painted the temple in the Ferapontov Monastery (1500-1502). This is the only monument of his monumental painting known to us that belongs to the masterpieces of ancient Russian art. Dionysius and his school also own a whole group of excellent icons, now stored in the State Tretyakov Gallery, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Dionysius was the last among the great painters of Ancient Rus'. His work closes the golden age of ancient Russian painting.

Dionysius. Dimitry Prilutsky with his life.

and art museum-reserve

Dionysius. Dimitry Prilutsky with his life.
Icon from the Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery. OK. 1503
Vologda State Historical and Architectural Institute
and art museum-reserve

Second half of the XV-XVI centuries. marked in Rus' by major successes in state building. In Moscow, wonderful stone tented churches were created, and extensive construction of cities and monasteries began. With the growth of the power of the Moscow sovereign, one of the first tasks of architecture became the strengthening and decoration of the capital and its center - the Moscow Kremlin.

The construction of the Kremlin cathedrals began with the main one, the Assumption Cathedral. Its construction attracted the attention of contemporaries so much that the chronicle devoted several eloquent pages to it. A wonderful master from Italy, Aristotle Fioravanti, was invited to build the main cathedral of Moscow. The Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral and the small Church of the Deposition of the Robe were erected by Russian craftsmen, and the Faceted Chamber and the Ivan the Great bell tower were erected by Italian craftsmen. All these structures are combined into a surprisingly solid composition. The buildings of the Moscow Kremlin served as an example for the whole country.

Panorama of the Moscow Kremlin

Panorama of the Moscow Kremlin

Great achievements were noted in the 16th century. the art of book miniatures. In many richly illustrated manuscripts, both increased graphic skill and artistic observation in relation to the surrounding reality were reflected.

Bon Fryazin. Bell tower "Ivan the Great".
XVI century Moscow Kremlin.

Bon Fryazin. Bell tower "Ivan the Great".
XVI century Moscow Kremlin.

In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. Art production in Moscow is gaining wide scope. Its center is the Armory Chamber in the Kremlin. The best craftsmen gather here, and orders are distributed among painters here. The mass of royal icon painters is considered as an army of executive craftsmen. They are used for a variety of needs: they paint towers, paint icons, as well as patterns and coats of arms.

The best works that came out of the Armory Chamber are jewelry, frames, frames, enamels, embroidered shrouds, etc. Nowadays, they are carefully preserved and exhibited in museums (see Moscow Kremlin museums, Jewelry art).

Ladle for Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.
Gold, silver, precious stones, pearls.
Workshops of the Moscow Kremlin, around 1618

Ladle for Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.
Gold, silver, precious stones, pearls.
Embossing, carving, forging, niello
Workshops of the Moscow Kremlin, around 1618

Among the royal painters, the most prominent place is occupied by Simon Ushakov (1626-1686). His art was versatile: he painted icons, tried his hand at portraiture, and made several engravings. The work of this artist marks the turn of Russian painting towards new paths.

Simon Fedorovich Ushakov. Our Lady of Tenderness.
1668

Simon Fedorovich Ushakov. Our Lady of Tenderness.
1668

In repeatedly repeated images of the “Savior Not Made by Hands,” Ushakov tried to use soft modeling to convey human beauty, earthly physicality and even materiality to the type of “gracious Christ” established in Rus', which caused resistance from the defenders of antiquity.

Simon Fedorovich Ushakov. Savior Not Made by Hands
Written for the Trinity-Sergius Lavra in 1658

Simon Fedorovich Ushakov. Savior Not Made by Hands
Written for the Trinity-Sergius Lavra in 1658

In the second half of the 17th century. In the Armory Chamber, along with icon painters, painters work. They paint portraits, or, as they were called then, parsuns. Visiting masters - Poles, Germans, Dutch - introduced a new technique of writing on canvas and distributed engravings in Moscow. However, the Parsuns of the 17th century. even in cases where they convey a portrait likeness, they are generally very static.

Portrait (parsun) of Prince M. V. Skopin-Shuisky.
1st half of the 17th century State Historical Museum. Moscow.

Portrait (parsun) of Prince M. V. Skopin-Shuisky.
1st half of the 17th century State Historical Museum. Moscow.

In Russian culture of the 17th century. The secular principle is strengthening, the needs of scientific knowledge of the world are increasing. S. Ushakov and the masters of his circle came close to the task of displaying visual impressions in all their vitality and completeness. At this time, attempts were made to depict the inside of buildings in perspective on the icon, to introduce chiaroscuro and portraiture of faces. All this reflected signs of the artistic revolution that took place in art at the beginning of the 18th century. Only with a change in social life, statehood and culture will Russian art, in its quest for realism, enter a new fruitful path of historical development.

For us, ancient Russian fine art will forever remain valuable because the image of a person, an ideal personality, marked with the stamp of moral nobility, occupied a central place in it.

The content of the article

RUSSIAN ART. The history of Russian art reflects the country's turbulent history and its geographical location between East and West. Discussions constantly arise about its essence: whether it is a unique embodiment of Western European traditions or represents a completely original phenomenon. Despite frequent political changes and periodic doubts about national identity, Russian artistic creativity has a number of distinctive features, such as bright colors, asymmetry of forms and a tendency either towards realism or abstraction.

During the Middle Ages, when the center of political life of Ancient Rus' was Kyiv, Byzantium was a role model in art and the source of many artistic influences. Tatar-Mongol invasion in the mid-13th century. and the subsequent period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke cut off Rus' from the West for almost 200 years. Winning independence in the 15th century. under the leadership of the Moscow princes did not put an end to the cultural isolation of Rus'; she was not influenced by Renaissance culture and secular humanism. Only during the reign of Peter I (1682–1725) and thanks to his policy of rapprochement with the West, Russia returned to the fold European culture- first as a student, then an equal participant in the general cultural process, and on the eve of the First World War - an active innovator in art. In the early 1930s, Russia was again cut off from the West when Stalin imposed a regime of isolation in order to build "socialism in one single country." The collapse of the USSR and the collapse of communism as a system in 1991 gave Russian artists an incentive to reassess values ​​and find their place in the new political, economic and cultural situation.

Old Russian art.

In 988 Kievan Rus adopted Christianity in its Eastern Byzantine version. Along with religion, Rus' also inherited artistic traditions from Byzantium, one of which was the decoration of churches with paintings and icons. The word "icon" comes from the Greek eikon (image). The icon is an intermediary between the real world and the divine prototype. The style of painting has changed over the centuries, but the artistic traditions of icon painting have survived to the present day. The use of stylization techniques and bright, elegant colors, characteristic of medieval religious painting, influenced the work of many artists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
see also ICON.

In churches, icons were placed on walls, pillars and the altar barrier. In the 14th–15th centuries. the low altar barrier turned into a high iconostasis, separating the parishioners from the altar. The iconostasis became a strictly organized hierarchical system of sacred images, in which icons depicting Christ, the Mother of God, the apostles, saints and holidays were arranged in rows in a certain order. Icons were often decorated with frames made of silver, gold and precious stones, which could cover the icon almost entirely, leaving only the faces visible. At first, icon painters were invited from abroad (most often from Greece), and sometimes the icons themselves were brought. Icon Our Lady of Vladimir, brought from Byzantium in the first half of the 12th century, became the model for a huge number of Russian lists. Very few pre-Mongol Russian icons have survived; all of them follow, to a greater or lesser extent, the iconography and style of Byzantine examples. The mosaics in the Kiev Cathedral of Hagia Sophia (founded in 1037) were also made by Byzantine masters. No mosaics were made in large churches in other cities located north of Kyiv. Thus, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1045–1050) was decorated with much less expensive frescoes.

In 1240, the Mongol invasion devastated Kyiv and other Russian cities and made contact with Byzantium almost impossible. The almost complete absence of external cultural influences contributed to the development of regional schools of painting, among which the Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov schools stand out.

From the end of the 14th century. The Moscow principality gained political dominance over other Russian lands, united them under its leadership, and Moscow became the cultural center of a single Russian state. Three great masters of ancient Russian painting worked here: Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405), Andrei Rublev (1360/1370 - d. 1427/1430) and Dionysius (c. 1440 - after 1502/1503), whose icons and frescoes became the embodiment on Russian soil of the ideas of spiritual ascent and unity with God through the renunciation of everything external and vain and the acquisition of inner harmony.

The largest Russian artists of the 18th century. – Fyodor Rokotov (1735?–1808), Dmitry Levitsky (1735–1822) and Vladimir Borovikovsky (1757–1825). The portraits of Levitsky and Borovikovsky can be considered in line with European portraiture of the 18th century; they are close to the works of T. Gainsborough and J. Reynolds.

These artists were associated with the Imperial Academy of Arts, which was conceived by Peter I, but founded only in 1757. Organized according to European models, the Academy of Arts exercised stricter control and had a greater influence on the development of art (until the end of the 19th century) than establishments of this kind in other countries.

In the portrait genre, the Wanderers created a gallery of images of outstanding cultural figures of their time: portrait Fyodor Dostoevsky(1872) by Vasily Perov (1833–1882), portrait Nikolai Nekrasov(1877–1878) Ivan Kramskoy (1837–1887), portrait Modest Mussorgsky(1881), by Ilya Repin (1844–1930), portrait Lev Tolstoy(1884) by Nikolai Ge (1831–1894) and a number of others. Being in opposition to the Academy and its artistic policy, the Wanderers turned to the so-called. “low” topics; images of peasants and workers appear in their works.

Vasily Surikov (1848–1916), Mikhail Nesterov (1862–1942), Vasily Vereshchagin (1842–1904), and Ilya Repin worked in the genre of historical painting.

Art and revolution.

By the 1890s, there was a crisis in the realistic movement in art. Turn of the 19th–20th centuries. was marked in Russia by the dominance of the Art Nouveau style. This artistic movement, which existed under different names in almost all European countries, was most clearly manifested in works of architecture and decorative arts.

Mikhail Vrubel (1856–1910) is one of the representatives of the Art Nouveau style in Russian painting. Thanks to the activities of Sergei Diaghilev (1872–1929) and Alexandre Benois (1870–1960) in organizing art exhibitions and publishing the magazine “World of Art” (published since 1898), the Russian public had the opportunity to get acquainted with new trends in foreign art. In 1906, the first exhibition of Russian art took place in Paris, and since 1909, Russian ballet seasons have been held there annually. The authors of the sets and costumes for these performances were Lev Bakst (1866–1924) and Nicholas Roerich (1874–1947).

On the eve of the First World War, a number of artistic groups appeared in Russian art, speaking with different theoretical programs. Natalya Goncharova (1881–1962) and Mikhail Larionov (1881–1964) became the creators of Russian primitivism, and in 1912 - “rayonism”. In 1910, Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) wrote his first non-objective composition; Vladimir Tatlin (1885–1953) began creating three-dimensional abstract structures and spatial reliefs around 1913; Kazimir Malevich (1878–1935) formulated the concept of Suprematism in 1915.

Creative quests received a second wind and new energy after the revolution of 1917. Some artists emigrated, including Goncharova and Larionov, but most avant-garde figures accepted the revolution and played a prominent role in the “cultural revolution.” Art was regarded as a powerful means of propaganda and an essential factor in the formation of a new society. The Imperial Academy of Arts was replaced by a decentralized system of autonomous workshops and theoretical institutes. Kandinsky headed the Institute of Artistic Culture (INHUK); Marc Chagall (1887–1985) and Malevich created the Experimental School of Art in Vitebsk, which was based on Malevich's theory of Suprematism.

Women played a major role in the creation of the Russian avant-garde: Varvara Stepanova (1899–1958), Lyubov Popova (1889–1924) and Olga Rozanova (1886–1918). Art took to the streets; artists painted posters and designed areas for mass political events and holidays, developed new design fabrics, ceramics, interiors; The 1920s saw the heyday of graphics and book illustration. Alexander Rodchenko (1891–1956) worked in the most different areas, he was a painter, cinematographer, and furniture designer.

To imagine how different styles coexisted in the painting of the 1920s, it is enough to recall such names as Pavel Filonov (1883–1941), Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin (1878–1939), Alexander Deineka (1899–1969). However, some artists, such as Isaac Brodsky (1884–1939), returned to traditional realism.

Socialist realism and its consequences.

The resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1932 put an end to the pluralism of artistic movements. All artistic associations were dissolved, and instead union and republican trade unions of writers, artists and composers were introduced. In 1934, socialist realism, the essence of which was defined as “a truthful and historically correct depiction of reality in its revolutionary development,” was proclaimed the official style of Soviet art. Works of the Itinerants of the 19th century. was strongly “recommended” to take as a role model. Many artists became victims of political repression because their creative concepts did not fit into the narrow framework of state ideology. In museums, exhibitions dedicated to Western art of the 20th century have been significantly reduced. To exercise control over training, the Academy of Arts was restored. Censorship provided the necessary direction for the development of art history and criticism. An example of officially engaged art is the painting of Alexander Gerasimov (1881–1963) Stalin and Voroshilov in the Kremlin.

During Khrushchev’s “thaw,” along with those who continued to glorify the successes of Soviet industry, unprecedented harvests and leaders in production, a whole galaxy of masters appeared who began to turn to personal, universal themes. Some avant-garde works of the 1920s, which were banned, began to appear in museum halls. Censorship was relaxed, individual artists and art movements of the past were rehabilitated. The USSR became a more open society to the rest of the world. In 1957, during the International Festival of Youth and Students, and in 1959, at the first American exhibition in Moscow, new, previously unknown art was shown. As a result of greater creative freedom, unofficial art flourished, existing in parallel with state orders.

The years in power of L.I. Brezhnev (1964–1982) were associated with economic stagnation and the continuation of the policy of state control over art. An open-air exhibition organized by nonconformist artists in Moscow in the fall of 1974 was bulldozed; after that, some of the greatest masters of modern art, incl. sculptor Ernst Neizvestny (b. 1926), decided to emigrate.

True pluralism in art came only with the coming to power of M.S. Gorbachev (1985–1991). His attempt to revitalize socialism through glasnost and perestroika brought artistic freedom and pierced the Iron Curtain. Along with the implementation of reforms aimed at creating a free market, the era of state control in the field of art ended. Starting with the personal exhibitions of Malevich and Filonov, held in 1988, museums began to gradually remove from their storerooms works that had been banned since the early 1930s. No longer controlled by censorship, articles and artistic publications began to appear devoted to the cultural life of Russia in the 20th century. and the first years of the revolution. An international auction of works of Russian art of the 20th century was held in July 1988 in Moscow. under the auspices of the USSR Ministry of Culture, put an end to the era of state monopoly in the field of culture.

After the collapse of the USSR in 1991 and the collapse of communism, new opportunities opened up for Russian artists. State control over the teaching of art in schools, over professional education and ideological content gave way to complete freedom of association and creative expression. Art groups and private galleries have emerged, many of which are sponsored by banks and commercial enterprises. As for style, in modern art you can find everything: from neo-primitivism and stylizations of folk crafts to surrealism and abstractionism. A radical change in the value system led to a deep crisis in people's minds. Many are now wondering whether the new spirit of commerce will not distort the high calling to which art has always laid claim in the cultural and political life of Russia.