Grammatical form is defined as regular modifications of a word that have different grammatical meanings. For example, shape 1 person unit. Part of the present tense I write, I read, I see or past tense plural form. h. wrote, read, saw.
In morphology, the term grammatical form can be used in two ways. Firstly, the grammatical form can be understood as an abstract pattern in abstraction from concrete words: the adjective form singular. h., feminine, I. p. This form can be represented in different words: red, wooden, boring.
Another use of the term is in the meaning of the form of a specific word: form I.p. units noun back. For terminological differentiation, the concept is introduced word forms. Word form – a specific word in any grammatical form: in the garden is a word form of the word garden.
Several points are distinguished in the content of the word form. Firstly, the lexical meaning is distinguished, and secondly, the word-formative (or derivational) meaning, which, on the one hand, participates in the formation of the lexical meaning, and on the other, carries information about the part-verbal affiliation of the word. For example, in the word teacher the word-formation meaning of a person is expressed by a suffix –tel, which also signals that the word is a noun. Thirdly, grammatical relational meanings are distinguished in a word, which are expressed either by inflection (ending) or in other ways (see below). For example, in the word teacher grammatical meanings of gender, number, and case are expressed with a zero ending.
Compare: lexical meaning relational meaning
Teacher + tel + Sh
derivational
Meaning
grammatical meaning
Grammatical meanings are contrasted with lexical ones in the way they express meanings: grammatical meanings have a regular expression in the form of affixes, sometimes the roots themselves (the phenomenon of suppletivism), repetitions (reduplication), non-segmental units, function words or combinations of independent words. Lexical meanings lack such regular expression.
Grammatical meanings are abstract in nature and inherent in a number of words, not just one word. The abstract nature of grammatical meanings is manifested, in particular, in such examples where the meaning of objectivity - the part-verbal characteristic of nouns - is found in words whose roots express action - move, run. The grammatical meaning is repeated in a number of words, the lexical meaning is individual.
Let's take a closer look at ways of expressing grammatical meanings. There are different synthetic and analytical methods. In the synthetic (simple) method, grammatical meanings are expressed through morphemes - relational, formative and even root. In the analytical (complex) method, grammatical meaning is expressed by a combination of words - significant and auxiliary or significant and significant, as well as reduplication, word order and intonation.
Examples of relational affixes are: DOLL A-DOLL
RED – RED – RED, HODILS - WALKED A - WALKED,
where inflections express the meaning of gender and number. Formative affixes are used, for example, to express meanings of the past tense - I WENT, I SAW.
Grammatical meanings can be expressed by different roots, this method is called suppletivism: good is better, bad is worse, I am to me. In addition to the mentioned synthetic methods, internal inflection and stress are also used. Internal inflection is a grammatical device represented by the alternation of phonemes (historical or grammatical), which serves to express grammatical meanings: in English tooth (teeth) - teeth (tooth), man (man) - men (men). Stress serves as the only means of distinguishing singular forms. h. R. p. and many others. ch. i. p. for words pbrusa - sail, lega - lugb.
Analytical methods, which are a combination of two words, significant and auxiliary, are observed in the examples: I will write, I would write. In the example I walked, you walked, he walked The category of a person is expressed by separate independent words - pronouns. Another means of expressing grammatical meanings is reduplication. This phenomenon consists of the repetition of either a syllable, or a root, or an entire word. For example, barely, just a little. In some languages, reduplication is quite common. For example, in some African languages, reduplication is a means of expressing the plural; in the Indo-European proto-language, reduplication was used to express the meaning of duration in verbal stems. Different intonation distinguishes sentences with the meaning of question and motivation: Right? - To the right! In examples two hours And two hours word order affects the expression of the meaning of specific and approximate time.
Word forms of one word constitute a paradigm. Paradigms can be complete and partial, complete and incomplete. The paradigms of many words turn out to be very complex. For example, the case paradigm of a noun consists of singular and plural case word forms. Case forms, united by the grammatical meaning of the singular or the meaning of the plural, are partial paradigms within the complete paradigm. A complete paradigm can consist of two, three, four or more partial paradigms. For example, a complete adjective paradigm consists of at least five quotients. The paradigm of a word may lack any particular paradigm. For example, collective nouns do not have plural forms. Such paradigms are called incomplete.
Grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammatical categories of words
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, a morpheme can be considered a separate unit grammatical structure language. Grammar is the science that studies regular and common features devices of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of changing words and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing a statement. According to the duality of the object, traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form refers to morphology. All phenomena related to the syntagmatics of a word, as well as the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and intertwining, so that the attribution of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the categories of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of a language, therefore grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of a language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: just fragments
in reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying glass
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
“deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
magnifying glass vision; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2.Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is on grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a series of words or syntactic constructions, which finds its regular and typed 3) expression in the language. For example, in the sentence Petrov - student The following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present tense (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a series of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of a fact, the masculine gender).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic connections of the word
information about the paradigmatic connections of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glokka kuzdra shteko budlanula bokr and curls the bokrenka. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the entire complex of grammatical meanings. For example, it is clear to the listener which parts of speech all the words of this phrase belong to, what between budlanula And bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, and the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if nouns, for example, have the meaning of number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence over a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in the Russian language express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.
Closedness of the list: if the lexical system of each language is open in nature and is constantly replenished with new units and new meanings, then grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, for Russian nouns these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Typical expression: grammatical meanings are conveyed in languages in strictly defined ways - using specially assigned means: affixes, function words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical meanings. So, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English languages, but ungrammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages a name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of definiteness/indeterminacy is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and ungrammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of particular varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: going - going);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - white in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);
suppletivism (combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (Idu - Shel)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically unchangeable lexical units and service elements (function words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let him go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a auxiliary element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings predominate in a language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: a synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and an analytical type (in which the tendency towards analytism predominates). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance of a tendency towards analyticism or synthetism in a language. In synthetic languages, a word retains its grammatical characteristics outside of a sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires grammatical characteristics only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of contrasting one linguistic unit with another. Thus, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical oppositions or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, function words, intonation, etc.) In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for meanings to be contrasted on some basis, they must also have some common feature. Thus, the present tense can be contrasted with the past and future, since they all relate to the sequence of events being described. In this regard, we can give another definition of a grammatical category: it is a unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in a language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), particular grammatical meanings (for example, present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammemes, and means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-term categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-term (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammemes there are in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationships between them, the more features there are in the content of each grammeme.
Formative and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong to different forms of the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot be changed according to the classifying criterion. For example, the category of gender for nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine gender; but bed, beds, bed is feminine. However, the gender of a noun is important from a grammatical point of view, since the forms of agreeing adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: the big table, this table, the table stood; but: there was a bed, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the angle from which reality is viewed, for example, the voice of a verb: workers are building a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate the connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)
5. Grammatical categories of words
It is necessary to distinguish grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. In the lexico-grammatical category such a system of forms is not traced. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
A semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and influence the grammatical features of words in this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within parts of speech, smaller groups are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way the grammatical forms of the words included in them are formed. These are groupings of words by type of conjugation (conjugative classes), by type of declension (declination classes). In principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition between formal categories: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
Words are the building materials for any language. Sentences and phrases are built from them, with their help we convey thoughts and communicate. The ability of this unit to name or designate objects, actions, etc. called a function. The suitability of a word for communication and transmission of thoughts is called its
Thus, the word is the basic, main structural unit of language.
Every word in Russian has a lexical and grammatical meaning.
Lexical is the relationship between the sound (phonetic) design of a word, its sound, and phenomena of reality, images, objects, actions, etc. It can be said more simply: this is the meaning. From a lexical point of view, the words “barrel”, “bump”, “point” are different units because they denote different objects.
The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning of its forms: gender or number, case or conjugation. If the words “barrel” and “dot” are considered grammatically, then they will be absolutely the same: creatures. feminine, standing in the nominative case and singular. number.
If you compare the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word, you can see that they are not the same, but are interconnected. The lexical meaning of each of them is universal, but the main one is fixed at the root. (For example: “son”, “sonny”, “sonny”, “sonny”).
The grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed using word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes. So, “forest”, “forester”, “forester” will be quite close: their meaning is determined by the root “forest”. From a grammatical point of view, they are completely different: two nouns and an adjective.
On the contrary, the words “came”, “arrived”, “ran up”, “ran up”, “flew off”, “shot down” will be similar in grammatical orientation. These are verbs in the past tense form, which are formed using the suffix “l”.
The following conclusion follows from the examples: the grammatical meaning of a word is its belonging to a part of speech, general meaning a whole series of similar units, not tied to their specific material (semantic) content. “Mom”, “Dad”, “Motherland” - creatures. 1 declension, in the form I.p., singular. numbers. "Owl", "mice", "youth" are feminine nouns. gender, 3 declensions, standing in R.p. The grammatical meaning of the words “red”, “huge”, “wooden” indicates that these are adjectives in the form husband. kind, singular numbers, I.p. It is clear that the lexical meaning of these words is different.
The grammatical meaning of a word is expressed in a certain form, corresponding to the position of words in a sentence (or phrase), and is expressed using grammatical means. Most often these are affixes, but often the grammatical form is formed using function words, stress, word order or intonation.
Its appearance (name) directly depends on how the form is formed.
Simple (they are also called synthetic) grammatical forms are formed within a unit (with the help of endings or formative suffixes). The case forms (not) of mother, daughter, son, Motherland are formed using endings. the verbs “wrote”, “jumped” - using the suffix and the verb “jumped” - using the suffix “l” and the ending “a”.
Some forms are formed outside the lexeme, and not inside it. In this case, there is a need for function words. For example, the verbs “I will sing” and “let us sing” are formed using function words (verbs). The words “will” and “let’s” in this case have no lexical meaning. They are needed to create, in the first case, the future tense, and in the second, the incentive mood. Such forms are called complex or analytical.
Grammatical meanings are defined into systems or clusters of gender, number, etc.
Grammatical meaning
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).
So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucratism (M.) with a wolf expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case (the meaning of the comparison: “like a wolf, like a wolf”). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.
The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical meaning, but the lexical meaning does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.
For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).
With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).
With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is expressed by a pronoun and ending (I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].
A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.
1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in a grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. Thus, nouns have 6, 9, 10 and more cases. However, this only reflects different methods of highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated by existing types of declension.
2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, feather indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate the plural, large is masculine, large is feminine, and large is neuter, the form large does not indicate gender.
3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This required condition to highlight a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].
Significant and functional parts of speech
Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:
1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);
2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full-nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.
Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor service units speech, they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].
Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.
Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.
Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.
Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words, on the morphological basis of changeability-immutability, names and verbs stand out, on the one hand, and adverbs and the category of state, on the other.
The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as adverbs, the category of state - as a predicate impersonal offer: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), as well as the fact that, unlike adverbs, words of the category of state are able to control (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun it is, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, to slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!" - P.).
Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.
These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles are involved in the formation of certain verb forms and in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].
MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR. SUBJECT OF MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is one of the sections of grammar. The term “grammar” is used in linguistics in a double meaning: in the meaning of the grammatical structure of a language and in the meaning of the doctrine of grammatical structure language, i.e. as a designation of the corresponding scientific discipline. IN in the last sense grammar is a collection of rules about changing words and combining words in a sentence. In accordance with this, grammar is divided into two sections: morphology – a collection of rules about changing words, i.e. the doctrine of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms (Greek morphe – form, logos – word, doctrine), and syntax – a collection of rules about combining words, i.e. the doctrine of sentence construction (Greek syntaxis – combination, construction).
Grammar(morphology and syntax) gives rules for changing words and combining words in a sentence, meaning not specific words and sentences, but words and sentences in general. Grammar abstracts from the particular and concrete in words and sentences and takes what is common in them.
The object of study in morphology is individual words. However, in morphology words are studied differently than in lexicology. Lexicology studies the lexical meaning of a word, its origin, functional and stylistic properties, and usage. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of a word. For example, in the word aerobatics Lexicology is interested in the fact that it is of French origin (pilotage), is an aviation term and denotes the art of controlling an aircraft. What is important for morphology is that this word is a noun, inanimate, common noun, masculine, in plural not used, can be defined by an adjective ( aerobatics ) and change by case ( aerobatics, aerobatics, aerobatics, aerobatics, aerobatics, about aerobatics).
The tasks of morphology are not limited to the study of only word forms and the general grammatical meanings they express. Morphology includes the study of parts of speech as lexical and grammatical categories of words.
In addition, it is traditional in Russian linguistic science to refer to morphology issues of word formation of individual parts of speech ( general issues word formation, types of word formation, changes in the morphological composition of a word, and others are included in a separate section).
Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Under grammatical category the systemic opposition of all homogeneous grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical formal means is understood. There are grammatical categories morphological and syntactic.
Morphological category is a two-dimensional phenomenon, this is the unity of grammatical semantics and its formal indicators; within the framework of morphological categories, the grammatical meanings of a word are not studied in isolation, but in opposition to all other homogeneous grammatical meanings and all formal means of expressing these meanings. For example, the category of the verbal aspect is made up of homogeneous meanings of the perfect and imperfect forms, the category of the person is made up of homogeneous meanings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.
When analyzing morphological categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if any plan is missing, then this phenomenon cannot be considered as a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is also not a category, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of conjugations I and II do not serve to express semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.
Inflectional categories find their expression in the opposition of different word forms of the same word. For example, the category of person of a verb is inflectional, since to detect it it is enough to compare different shapes one verb (I’m going, you’re going, going).
Non-inflectional(classification, or lexico-grammatical) categories find their expression in the contrast of words according to their grammatical properties. Taking into account the meanings expressed by non-inflectional categories, the vocabulary of a language can be divided into grammatical classes (that is why morphological categories of this type are called classification categories). For example, the categories of gender and animate/inanimate nouns are non-inflectional.
The main morphological category (and a category of classification type) is the category of parts of speech (category partiality ). All other categories are distinguished within the framework of parts of speech and are private morphological categories in relation to parts of speech.
Grammatical category- these are meanings of a generalized nature inherent to words, meanings abstracted from the specific lexical meanings of these words. Categorical values can be indicators, for example ratios of this word to other words in the phrase and sentence (category of case), relationship to the person speaking (category of person), relationship of the message to reality (category of mood), relationship of the message to time (category of time), etc.
Grammatical categories have varying degrees abstraction. For example, the grammatical category of case, in comparison with the grammatical category of gender, is a more abstract category. Thus, any noun is included in the system of case relations, but not each of them is included in the system of oppositions by gender: teacher - teacher, actor - actress, but teacher, linguist, director.
One or another grammatical category (category of gender, category of number, category of case, etc.) in each specific word has a certain content. So, for example, the category of gender, characteristic of nouns, in the word book is revealed by the fact that this noun is a feminine noun; or aspect category, for example, in a verb paint has a certain content – This is an imperfective verb. Similar meanings of words are called grammatical meanings. The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of a word with reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), necessary mainly to connect the given word with other words in the text.
The lexical meaning of a word is specific and individual, and the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized nature. Yes, words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.
Grammatical meanings are divided into general and specific. General grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - in a noun, attribute of a subject - in an adjective, action as a process - in a verb, etc.). Particular grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, tense, etc.).
The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of either one word form (adverb in the heat of the moment), and from several word forms (noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).
The ability of a word to form a paradigm consisting of two or more word forms is called inflection. The following inflection systems operate in modern Russian:
By cases (declension);
By persons (conjugation);
By numbers;
By birth;
By inclination;
From time to time.
The ability of a word to form special forms is called shaping. This is how the short form and degrees of comparison of adjectives, infinitives, participles and gerunds of verbs, etc. are formed.
So, word form - This is a specific use of the word.
Token- this is a word as a representative of a group of specific word forms that have the same lexical meaning.
Paradigm- this is the entire set of word forms included in a given lexeme.
Word form is a word form with certain morphological characteristics in abstraction from its lexical features.
Grammatical meanings are expressed by certain language means. For example: the meaning of the 1st person singular in a verb writing expressed using the ending -y, and the general meaning of the instrumental case in the word forest expressed using the ending - ohm. This expression of grammatical meanings by external linguistic means is called grammatical form. Consequently, forms of a word are varieties of the same word that differ from each other in grammatical meanings. There is no grammatical meaning outside of grammatical form. Grammatical meanings can be expressed not only with the help of morphological modifications of a word, but also with the help of other words with which it is associated in a sentence. For example, in sentences He bought a coat And He was wearing a coat word form coat is the same, but in the first case it has the grammatical meaning of the accusative case, and in the second - the prepositional case. These meanings are created by the different connections that the word has with other words in the sentence.
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical, mixed and others.
At synthetic way grammatical meanings are usually expressed affixation , i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, table; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often – alternating sounds and stress (mind e howl–mind And army; m A sla– special oil A ), and suppletive , i.e. formations from different roots ( person - people, child - children:unit values and many more numbers; take - take: meanings of imperfect and perfect form; good - better: positive and comparative degree). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress ( water - water), as well as with alternating sounds ( dream - sleep).
At analytical way grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words. For example, the meaning of the future tense of a verb can be expressed not only synthetically – using a personal ending ( played Yu, played eat, played no ), but also analytically – using a verb link be(will play, you will play, will play).
At mixed, or hybrid, way, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending ( in the house), grammatical meaning of the first person - pronoun and ending ( I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb eid ut ending -ut expresses both person, number, and mood.
Thus, the one-word paradigm can combine synthetic, analytical and suppletive word forms.
The grammatical meaning of a word can be expressed syntactic way, i.e. using another word form combined with a given word form ( strong th coffee– the meaning of the masculine gender of an indeclinable noun, as indicated by the word form of the masculine adjective; To coat– the meaning of the dative case of an indeclinable noun, as indicated by the preposition k).
Sometimes a way of expressing grammatical meaning is logical-semantic relations in the text. For example, in the sentence Summer gives way to autumn noun autumn is the subject and is in the nominative case form, and summer– an object and is in the accusative case.