An abnormal increase in TEMPERATURE with altitude. Normally, air temperature decreases with increasing altitude above ground level. The average rate of decrease is 1 °C for every 160 m. Under certain weather conditions, the opposite situation is observed. On a clear, calm night with an anticyclone, cold air can roll down the slopes and collect in the valleys, and the air temperature will be lower near the valley bottom than 100 or 200 m above. Above the cold layer there will be warmer air, which will likely form a cloud or light fog. becomes clear in the example of smoke rising from a fire. The smoke will rise vertically and then, when it reaches the "inversion layer", will bend horizontally. If this situation is created on a large scale, the dust and dirt that rises into the atmosphere remain there and, when accumulated, lead to serious pollution.

View value Temperature Inversion in other dictionaries

Inversion- inversions, w. (Latin inversio - turning over) (linguistic, lit.). Rearrangement of words that violates their usual order in a sentence; design with in reverse order words, for example Dull........
Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Inversion J.— 1. Changing the usual word order in a sentence for a semantic or stylistic purpose. 2. An increase in air temperature in the upper layers of the atmosphere instead of what is usually observed........
Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova

Inversion- -And; and. [lat. inversio - rearrangement] Changing the normal position of elements, placing them in reverse order. I. in word arrangement (linguistic, lit.; change of order........
Kuznetsov's Explanatory Dictionary

Adaptation Temperature- A. thermoreceptors to the action of constant temperature, manifested by a decrease in their sensitivity.
Large medical dictionary

Botkin Temperature Curve- (S.P. Botkin) type of temperature curve in patients with typhoid fever, characterized by waveform, reflecting the cyclic course of the infectious process.
Large medical dictionary

Wunderlich Temperature Curve- (C. R. A. Wunderlich, 1815-1877, German doctor) temperature curve in patients with typhoid fever, characterized by a gradual rise, prolonged constant fever and lytic decline.......
Large medical dictionary

Inversion- (Latin inversio, inversion, rearrangement) in genetics, intrachromosomal rearrangement, in which the order of loci in part of the chromosome is reversed.
Large medical dictionary

Sleep Inversion— see Perversion of sleep.
Large medical dictionary

Inversion of Electrocardiogram Elements- a shift in the polarity of the electrocardiogram elements in the direction opposite to that usual for a given lead.
Large medical dictionary

Kildyushevsky Temperature Curve- (I.S. Kildyushevsky, born in 1860, Russian doctor) a variant of the temperature curve in patients with typhoid fever, characterized by a rapid high rise followed by a gradual decrease.
Large medical dictionary

Mutation Temperature— see Temperature-sensitive mutation.
Large medical dictionary

Inversion— geomagnetic field - a change in the direction (polarity) of the Earth’s magnetic field to the opposite, observed at time intervals from 500 thousand years to 50 million years. In our era........

Population Inversion- a nonequilibrium state of a substance in which the population of the upper of a pair of energy levels of one type of atoms (ions, molecules) that make up the substance exceeds......
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Temperature Inversion- an increase in air temperature with height in a certain layer of the atmosphere instead of the usual decrease. There are surface temperature inversions that begin immediately........
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Combined Inversion (cf)- the operation of transition from particles of the system to antiparticles (charge conjugation, C) with a simultaneous change in the signs of the spatial coordinates of the particles (spatial........
Large encyclopedic dictionary

International Practical Temperature Scale (MPTS-68)- established in 1968 by the International Committee of Weights and Measures on the basis of 11 primary reproducible temperature points (triple point of water, boiling point of neon, solidification......
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Sensitivity Temperature- (s. thermoaesthetica) Ch. to temperature change environment.
Large medical dictionary

Practical Temperature Scale- See International Practical Temperature Scale.
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Spatial Inversion (p)— changing the signs of the spatial coordinates of particles to the opposite: x ? x, y ? y, z ? z; it turns out to be a near-mirror reflection of the coordinates of the particles relative to three mutually perpendicular........
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Temperature Inversion— see Temperature inversion.
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale- (Kelvin scale) - an absolute temperature scale that does not depend on the properties of the thermometric substance (the reference point is the absolute zero of temperature). Construction of thermodynamic temperature........
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Inversion- (from Latin inversio - turning over), a type of chromosomal rearrangement consisting in turning over a section of genetic. material by 180. Leads to a change in the alternation of sites in........
Biological encyclopedic dictionary

Temperature Inversion- temperature inversion - an increase in air temperature with height in a certain layer of the troposphere. Inversions occur in ground layer air, as well as in a free atmosphere........
Geographical encyclopedia

Temperature History of the Earth— - now the average air temperature of the Earth is 14.2.3 billion years ago, it was 71.600 million years ago 20.
Historical Dictionary

Inversion— - a transformation that takes each point of the Flat Plane to a point A" lying on the ray OA such that OA" - OA = k, where k is some constant real number. Point Onaz.........
Mathematical Encyclopedia

Inversion- change in the usual order of things, rearrangement; sexual inversion means homosexuality.
Sexological dictionary

Inversion- change in the usual order of things, rearrangement; sexual inversion means homosexuality.(

Relate:

1. Abrupt climate change.

There are two sides to the climate change problem:

• a sharp change in weather or climate as a result of an anthropogenic factor (cutting down and burning forests, plowing up lands, creating new reservoirs, changing river channels, draining swamps - all this affects the change heat balance and gas exchange with the atmosphere);
• the process of climate change as an evolutionary one, occurring at a very slow pace.

According to the US National Aeronautics and Space Agency, the planet has become warmer over the century by 0.8 0C. The temperature of the subglacial water in the North Pole region has increased by almost 20C, as a result of which the ice from below has begun to melt and the level of the World Ocean is gradually rising. According to scientists, the average sea level may rise by 20-90 cm by 2100. All this can cause catastrophic consequences for countries with territories at sea level (Australia, the Netherlands, Japan, certain areas of the USA).

2 . Exceeding the maximum permissible concentration of harmful impurities in the atmosphere(emissions from industrial, thermal power plants, and motor vehicles lead to a continuous increase in the average content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

The climate is warming due to the so-called "greenhouse effect." The compacted layer of carbon dioxide will freely transmit solar radiation to the surface of the earth and at the same time retain radiation earthly heat into the space.

Based on calculations using computer models, it has been established that if the current rate of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere continues, then in 30 years the temperature on average around the globe will increase by about 10C. Wherein global warming will be accompanied by an increase in precipitation (by several percent by 2030) and a rise in sea levels (by 2030 - by 20 cm, by the end of the century - by 65 cm).

Dangerous consequences of global warming:

• rising sea levels will create dangerous situation for the livelihoods of about 800 million people.
• An increase in average annual temperatures will cause a shift in all climatic zones from the equator to the poles, which could deprive hundreds of millions of people of their usual farming.
• an increase in temperature will accelerate the reproduction of blood-sucking insects and forest pests, and they will get out of control natural enemies(birds, frogs, etc.), tropical and subtropical species of bloodsuckers will spread to the north, and with them diseases such as malaria, tropical viral fevers, etc. will come to temperate latitudes.

Global warming on the planet will inevitably cause large areas of permafrost to thaw. By the end of the 21st century, the southern border of permafrost in Siberia may then move north to the 55th parallel, and as a result of its melting, economic infrastructure will be disrupted. The most vulnerable will be the mining industry, energy and transport systems, utilities. The risks of man-made emergencies will increase significantly in these areas.

Possible global warming will negatively affect human health, increase environmental factors affecting it, and affect the time and seasonal course of diseases in many countries.

3. Temperature inversions over cities.

The temperature in the troposphere, starting from the ground, decreases in altitude by 5-6 degrees per kilometer. The warm underlying layers of air, being lighter, move to the top, providing air circulation above the ground, forming ascending vertical as well as horizontal air currents, which we feel as wind. However, sometimes during anticyclones and calm weather the so-called temperature inversion, in which the higher layers of the atmosphere will be more heated than the underlying ones. Then normal air circulation stops and a layer of warm air covers areas of the ground like a blanket. If this happens over a city, then harmful emissions from industrial enterprises and vehicles are retained under this “blanket of air” and create atmospheric pollution that is dangerous to the population, causing diseases.

4. Acute lack of oxygen over cities

IN major cities In the process of photosynthesis, terrestrial vegetation releases less oxygen into the atmosphere than is consumed by industry, transport, people and animals. In this regard, the total amount of oxygen in the near-Earth shell of the biosphere decreases annually.
Lack of oxygen in urban air contributes to the spread of pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases.

5. Significant excess of the maximum permissible urban noise level.

The main sources of noise in cities:
- transport. The share of traffic noise in the city is at least 60-80% (Example: Moscow - traffic noise day and night...)
- intra-block noise sources - occur in residential areas (sports games, children’s games on playgrounds; economic activities of people...)
- noise in buildings. The noise regime in residential areas consists of penetrating external noise and noise generated during the operation of engineering and sanitary equipment of buildings: elevators, water pumps, garbage chutes, etc.
High noise levels contribute to the development of neurological, cardiovascular and other diseases.

6. Formation of acid rain zones.

Acid rain is the result of industrial air pollution. A large dose of air pollution comes from nitrogen oxides, the sources of which are engine exhaust gases, as well as the combustion of all types of fuel. 40% of all nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere by thermal power plants. These oxides are converted into nitrogen and nitrates, and the latter react with water to produce nitric acid.
Acid precipitation poses a serious threat to plant and living life on earth.

7. Destruction of the ozone layer of the atmosphere.

Ozone has the ability to absorb ultraviolet radiation from the sun and, therefore, protect all living organisms on Earth from their harmful effects.

The amount of ozone in the atmosphere is not large. Most significant influence The destruction of ozone is caused by reactions with compounds of hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine. As a result of human activity, the supply of substances containing such compounds sharply increases.

Huge scales of destruction of the ozone layer are observed in certain periods. For example, in the spring months over Antarctica, a gradual destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer was observed, sometimes reaching 50% of its total number in the atmosphere of the observation region.

A hole in the ozonosphere with a diameter exceeding 1000 km, occurring over Antarctica and moving towards populated areas of Australia, was called the “ozone hole”.

A 25% reduction in the ozone layer and increased exposure to short-wave ultraviolet radiation from the Sun leads to:

A decrease in the biological productivity of many plants, the yield of agricultural crops decreases;
- human diseases: the likelihood of skin cancer increases sharply, weakens the immune system, the number of diseases of eye cataracts increases, partial or complete loss of vision is possible.

8. Significant changes in atmospheric transparency.

The transparency of the atmosphere largely depends on the percentage of aerosols in it (the concept of “aerosol” in this case includes dust, smoke, fog).

An increase in aerosol content in the atmosphere reduces the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface. As a result, the Earth's surface may cool, causing a decrease in the average planetary temperature and, ultimately, the beginning of a new ice age.

The increase in temperature in the troposphere of the atmosphere with increasing altitude is characterized as temperature inversion(Fig. 11.1, c). In this case, the atmosphere turns out to be very stable. The presence of inversion significantly slows down the vertical movement of pollutants and, as a result, increases their concentration in the ground layer.

The most commonly observed inversion occurs when a layer of air descends into an air mass with higher pressure, or during radiative heat loss from the earth's surface at night. The first type of inversion is usually called subsidence inversion. The inversion layer in this case is usually located at some distance from the earth's surface, and the inversion is formed by adiabatic compression and heating of the air layer as it descends down to the area of ​​the high pressure center.

From equation (11.5) we obtain:

Specific isobaric heat capacity value WITH p for air does not vary significantly with temperature over a fairly large temperature range. However, due to changes in barometric pressure, the density at the upper boundary of the inversion layer is less than at its base, i.e.

. (11.11)

This means that the upper boundary of the layer heats up faster than the lower boundary. If the subsidence continues for a long time, a positive temperature gradient will be created in the layer. Thus, the descending air mass is like a giant lid for the atmosphere located below the inversion layer.

Subsidence inversion layers are usually above emission sources and, thus, do not have a significant impact on short-term air pollution phenomena. However, such an inversion can last for several days, which affects the long-term accumulation of pollutants. Pollution events with hazardous health consequences observed in urban areas in the past have often been associated with subsidence inversions.

Let's consider the reasons leading to the occurrence radiation inversion. In this case, the layers of the atmosphere located above the Earth's surface receive heat during the day due to thermal conductivity, convection and radiation from the Earth's surface and eventually warm up. As a result, the temperature profile of the lower atmosphere is usually characterized by a negative temperature gradient. If a clear night follows, the earth's surface radiates heat and cools quickly. The layers of air adjacent to the earth's surface are cooled to the temperature of the layers located above. As a result, the daily temperature profile is transformed into a profile of the opposite sign, and the layers of the atmosphere adjacent to the earth's surface are covered with a stable inversion layer. This type of inversion occurs in the early hours and is typical during periods of clear skies and calm weather. The inversion layer is destroyed by rising currents of warm air that arise when the earth's surface is heated by the rays of the morning sun.

Radiative inversion plays an important role in atmospheric pollution, since in this case the inversion layer is located inside the layer that contains the pollution sources (unlike subsidence inversion). In addition, radiation inversion most often occurs under conditions of cloudless and windless nights, when there is little likelihood of air purification from precipitation or crosswinds.

The intensity and duration of the inversion depends on the season. In autumn and winter, as a rule, long inversions take place and their number is large. Inversions are also influenced by the topography of the area. For example, cold air that accumulates in an intermountain basin at night can be “locked” there by warm air that appears above it.

Other types of local inversions are also possible, such as those associated with sea breezes as a warm air front passes over a large continental landmass. The passage of a cold front preceded by an area of ​​warm air also leads to an inversion.

Inversions are common in many areas. For example, on the west coast of the United States they are observed for almost 340 days a year.

The degree of stability of the atmosphere can be determined by the magnitude of the “potential” temperature gradient:

. (11.12)

Where
– temperature gradient observed in the surrounding air.

Negative value of the “potential” temperature gradient ( G sweat< 0) свидетельствует о сверхадиабатическом характере профиля температуры и неустойчивых условиях в атмосфере. В случае, когдаG sweat > 0, the atmosphere is stable. If the “potential” temperature gradient approaches zero ( G sweat  0), the atmosphere is characterized as indifferent.

In addition to the considered cases of temperature inversion, which are local in nature, two inversion zones of a global nature are observed in the Earth’s atmosphere. The first zone of global inversion from the Earth's surface begins at the lower boundary of the tropopause (11 km for the standard atmosphere) and ends at the upper boundary of the stratopause (approximately 50 km). This inversion zone prevents the spread of impurities formed in the troposphere or released from the Earth's surface to other areas of the atmosphere. The second zone of global inversion, located in the thermosphere, to a certain extent prevents the dispersion of the atmosphere into outer space.

Let us consider, using an example, the procedure for determining the “potential” temperature gradient. The temperature at the Earth's surface at an altitude of 1.6 m is –10 °C, at an altitude of 1800 m – –50 °C, –12 °C, –22 °C.

The purpose of the calculation is to assess the state of the atmosphere based on the magnitude of the “potential” temperature gradient.

To calculate the “potential” temperature gradient, we use equation (11.12)

Here G= 0.00645 degrees/m – standard, or normal adiabatic vertical temperature gradient.

Let us analyze the calculated values ​​of the “potential” temperature gradient. The nature of temperature changes for the considered cases of atmospheric conditions is presented in Fig. 11.2.

G sweat 1< 0 свидетельствует о сверхадиабатическом характере профиля температуры и неустойчивых условиях в атмосфере.

G sweat 2 > 0 – the atmosphere is stable.

G sweat 3 ≈ 0 – the atmosphere is characterized as indifferent.

In the most general sense inversion - This is a violation of the usual course of things or order. Temperature inversion is an increase in air temperature with height in a certain layer of the atmosphere instead of the usual decrease.

It is known that a smooth decrease in temperature with height should only be considered common property troposphere. Very often there is such a stratification of air in which in the upward direction the temperature either does not decrease or even increases. The increase in temperature with height above the earth's surface is called its inversion.

Based on the thickness of the air layer in which the temperature rise is observed, we distinguish a) surface inversions , spanning several meters, and b) free atmosphere inversion , extending up to three kilometers.

The temperature increase (or inversion value) can reach 10 0 C or more. In this case, the atmosphere appears to be stratified: one mass of air is separated from another mass by an inversion layer.

Based on their origin, surface inversions are divided into radiation, advective, orographic and snow.

Radiative inversions occur in summer when the weather is calm and cloudless. After sunset, the surface, and from it the lower layers of air, cool, while those lying above still retain a day's supply of heat. The thickness of such inversions ranges from 10 to 300 m, depending on the weather. Radiative inversions occur over ice surfaces at any time of the year when they lose heat by radiation.

Orographic inversions form in rough terrain in calm weather, when cold air flows down, and warmer air is retained on the hills and mountain slopes.

Advective inversions occur when warm air moves into a cold area. Moreover, the lower layers of air cool from contact with a cold surface, while the upper layers remain warm for a while.

Snow (spring) inversions observed in early spring over snowy surfaces. They are caused by the air expending a large amount of heat to melt the snow.

In a free atmosphere the most common anticyclonic compression inversions And cyclonic frontal inversions .

Anticyclonic compression inversions are formed in anticyclones in winter and are observed at an altitude of 1-2 km. The temperature of the descending air in the middle troposphere increases, but near the earth's surface, where the horizontal spreading of air begins, it increases. This phenomenon is observed in vast areas of the Arctic, Antarctic, Eastern Siberia, etc.

Cyclonic frontal inversions are formed in cyclones due to the flow of warm air onto cold air.

The temperature gradient of the atmosphere can vary widely. On average it is 0.6°/100 m. But in tropical desert near the surface of the earth it can reach 20°/100 m. With temperature inversion, the temperature increases with height and the temperature gradient becomes negative, i.e. it can be equal, for example, to -0.6°/100 m. If the air temperature is the same at all altitudes, then the temperature gradient is zero. In this case, the atmosphere is said to be isothermal.[...]

Temperature inversions determine the reverse arrangement of vertical soil zones in many mountain systems of continental regions. Thus, in Eastern Siberia, at the foot and in the lower parts of the slopes of some mountains there are inversion tundras, then there are mountain taiga forests and higher again mountain tundras. Inversion tundras cool only in certain seasons, and during the rest of the year they are much warmer than the “upper” tundras and are used in agriculture.[...]

Temperature inversion manifests itself in an increase in air temperature with height in a certain layer of the atmosphere (usually in the range of 300-400 m from the Earth's surface) instead of the usual decrease. As a result, the circulation of atmospheric air is sharply disrupted, smoke and pollutants cannot rise upward and do not dissipate. Fogs often occur. Concentrations of sulfur oxides, suspended dust, and carbon monoxide reach levels dangerous to human health, leading to circulatory and respiratory disorders, and often to death. In 1952, in London, more than four thousand people died from smog from December 3 to December 9, and up to ten thousand people became seriously ill. At the end of 1962, in the Ruhr (Germany), smog killed 156 people in three days. Only the wind can dispel smog, and reducing the emissions of pollutants can smooth out a smog-dangerous situation.[...]

Temperature inversions 12 Iodine, determination in air 30 words[...]

Temperature inversions are associated with cases of mass poisoning of the population during periods of toxic fog (the Manet River valley in Belgium, more than once in London, Los Angeles, etc.).[...]

Sometimes temperature inversions spread over large areas of the earth's surface. The area of ​​their distribution usually coincides with the area of ​​distribution of anticyclones, which arise in zones of high barometric (Pressure.[...]

Synonym: temperature inversion. FRICTION INVERSION. See turbulent inversion.[...]

Radiative inversion and subsidence inversion can occur simultaneously in the atmosphere. This situation is shown by a typical temperature profile in Fig. 3.10, c. The simultaneous presence of two types of inversion leads to a phenomenon called confined jet, which will be discussed in subsequent sections. The intensity and duration of the inversion depends on the season. In autumn and winter, as a rule, long inversions take place, and their number is large. Topography also influences inversions. For example, cold air trapped between mountains at night can be trapped in a valley by warm air located above it. Until the Sun is directly above the valley the next day, the air in it will not be able to gain enough heat to break the inversion. Colorado) in winter, for example, about half of all inversions last all day.[...]

A - in the absence of inversion, the air temperature decreases with height; B - location of temperature inversion, when cold air is trapped under a warm layer. In the inversion layer, the normal temperature gradient is reversed; B - night minimum; G - quarrelsome location for hell; D - a warm section of the slope, formed as a result of the nature of air circulation.[...]

Under the influence of cold winters and temperature inversions, soils freeze deeply in winter and slowly warm up in spring. For this reason, microbiological processes are weak, and despite the high humus content in the soil, it is necessary to introduce increased rates of organic fertilizers (manure, peat and composts) and mineral fertilizers that are easily accessible to plants.[...]

Typical daily cycle of temperature gradient changes over open area on a cloudless day, it begins with the formation of an unstable rate of temperature drop, which intensifies during the day due to the intense thermal radiation of the sun, which leads to the occurrence of severe turbulence. Just before or shortly after sunset, the surface layer of air quickly cools and a steady rate of temperature drop occurs (temperature increases with height). During the night, the intensity and depth of this inversion increase, reaching a maximum between midnight and the time of day when the earth's surface has minimum temperature. During this period, atmospheric pollution is effectively trapped within or below the inversion layer due to weak or complete absence vertical dispersion of contaminants. It should be noted, that, in conditions During stagnation, pollutants discharged near the surface of the earth do not spread into the upper layers of the air and, conversely, emissions from tall chimneys under these conditions generally do not penetrate into the layers of air closest to the ground (Church, 1949). As the day progresses, the earth begins to warm up and the inversion gradually disappears. This can lead to “fumigation” (Hewso n a. Gill, 1944) due to the fact that contaminants that enter the upper layers of air during the night begin to quickly mix and rush down. Therefore, in the early afternoon hours, preceding the full development of turbulence, which ends the daily cycle and provides powerful mixing, high concentrations of atmospheric pollutants often occur. This cycle can be disrupted or altered by the presence of clouds or precipitation that prevent intense convection in daytime hours, but can also prevent the occurrence of a strong inversion at night.[...]

Two other types of local inversions are possible. One of them is related to the sea breeze mentioned above. Warming of the morning air over land causes cooler air to flow landward from the ocean or large enough lake. As a result, warmer air rises and cooler air takes its place, creating inversion conditions. Inversion conditions are also created when a warm front passes over a large continental land area. A warm front often tends to "crush" denser, cooler air ahead of it, thereby creating a local temperature inversion. The passage of a cold front, in front of which there is an area of ​​warm air, leads to the same situation.[...]

The fan-shaped shape of the strings occurs during a temperature inversion. Its shape resembles a meandering river, which gradually widens with distance from the pipe.[...]

In the small American city of Donora, such a temperature inversion caused illness in about 6,000 people (42.7% of the total population), with some (10%) showing symptoms indicating the need for hospitalization of these people. Sometimes the consequences of a long-term temperature inversion can be compared to an epidemic: in London, 4,000 people died during one of these long-term inversions.[...]

A fan-shaped jet (Fig. 3.2, c, d) is formed during temperature inversion or at a temperature gradient close to isothermal, which characterizes very weak vertical mixing. The formation of a fan-shaped jet is favored by weak winds, clear skies and snow cover. This jet is most often observed at night.[...]

The fan-shaped shape of the smoke cloud exists during inversions and at temperature gradients close to isothermal. This structure of the atmosphere is observed at night, when the temperature of the earth's surface is lower than the air temperature. The fan-shaped cloud does not touch the earth's surface at all. Despite this, the fan-shaped structure poses a danger from the point of view of atmospheric pollution, since dispersion occurs mainly in the horizontal direction and pollutants remain in the lower layers of the atmosphere without rising upward. With emissions from low chimneys, the maximum concentration of pollutants is observed in these cases far from the sources of pollution. [...]

During unfavorable meteorological situations, such as temperature inversion, high air humidity and precipitation, the accumulation of pollution can occur especially intensively. Typically, in the surface layer, the air temperature decreases with height, and vertical mixing of the atmosphere occurs, reducing the concentration of pollution in the surface layer. However, under certain meteorological conditions (for example, during intense cooling of the earth's surface at night), a so-called temperature inversion occurs, i.e., the temperature in the surface layer changes to the opposite direction; with increasing altitude, the temperature increases. Usually this condition persists a short time, however, in some cases, a temperature inversion can be observed for several days. During a temperature inversion, the air near the earth's surface appears to be enclosed in a limited volume, and very high concentrations of pollution can occur near the earth's surface, contributing to increased contamination of insulators.[...]

The value of 1 /l/B increases with decreasing stability. For an inversion with y -6.5 K/km 1/1 5 = 41 s, although for a normal temperature gradient with V = +6.5 K/km 1/l/ 5 = 91 s. Thus, at II = 10 m/s and normal temperature gradients, the air flow can overcome an obstacle with a height of 545 m, and for the corresponding inversion conditions - only 245 m. If the air flow does not have the necessary kinetic energy to rise above the obstacle, then it deflects and flows across the isobars towards more low pressure, thereby acquiring kinetic energy. After some time, this deflection can spread far enough upstream to provide the airflow with the energy needed to rise above the obstacle. This means that isentropic surfaces (surfaces of equal potential temperature) rise above the obstacle so that air can flow parallel to them. On the leeward side of a ridge, excess energy can manifest itself as waves in the air flow (kinetic energy) or turn into potential energy due to the deflection of air towards more high blood pressure.[ ...]

Burnazyan A.I. et al. Pollution of the surface layer of the atmosphere during temperature inversions.[...]

DUST HORIZON. The upper boundary of the dust (or smoke) layer underlying the temperature inversion. When observed from a height, the impression of a horizon is created.[...]

Under some unfavorable meteorological conditions (low wind, temperature inversion), the release of harmful substances into the atmosphere leads to mass poisoning. An example of mass poisoning of the population are the disasters in the Meuse River valley (Belgium, 1930), in the city of Donora (Pennsylvania, USA, 1948). In London, mass poisoning of the population during catastrophic air pollution was observed repeatedly - in 1948, 1952, 1956, 1957, 1962; As a result of these events, several thousand people died, many were seriously poisoned.[...]

London (winter) smog is formed in winter in large industrial centers under unfavorable weather conditions: lack of wind and temperature inversion. Temperature inversion manifests itself in an increase in air temperature with height (in a layer of 300-400 m) instead of the usual decrease. [...]

Areas with a predominance of weak winds or calm conditions are especially unfavorable for the dispersion of harmful substances in the air. Under these conditions, temperature inversions occur, during which there is an excessive accumulation of harmful substances in the atmosphere. An example of such an unfavorable location is Los Angeles, sandwiched between a mountain range that weakens the wind and prevents the flow of polluted urban air, and Pacific Ocean. In this city, temperature inversions occur on average 270 times a year, and 60 of them are accompanied by very high concentrations of harmful substances in the air.[...]

The ability of the earth's surface to absorb or emit heat affects the vertical distribution of temperature in the surface layer of the atmosphere and leads to temperature inversion (deviation from adiabaticity). An increase in air temperature with altitude means that harmful emissions cannot rise above a certain ceiling. Under inversion conditions, turbulent exchange is weakened and conditions for the dispersion of harmful emissions in the surface layer of the atmosphere worsen. For the surface inversion, the repeatability of the heights of the upper boundary is of particular importance; for the elevated inversion, the repeatability of the lower boundary is of particular importance.[...]

It is necessary to avoid the construction of enterprises with significant emissions of harmful substances on sites where long-term stagnation of impurities can occur when weak winds and temperature inversions are combined (for example, in deep basins, in areas of frequent fog formation, in particular in areas with severe winters, below hydroelectric dams , as well as in areas where smog may occur).[...]

Conditions conducive to the formation of photochemical fog during high level atmospheric air pollution with reactive organic compounds and nitrogen oxides is an abundance of solar radiation, temperature inversions and low wind speed.[...]

A typical example of the acute provoking influence of atmospheric pollution are cases of toxic fogs that occurred in different time in cities of different continents of the world. Toxic fogs appear during periods of temperature inversions with low wind activity, i.e., in conditions conducive to the accumulation of industrial emissions in the surface layer of the atmosphere. During periods of toxic fog, an increase in pollution was recorded, the more significant the longer the conditions for air stagnation persisted (3-5 days). During periods of toxic fog, the mortality rate of people suffering from chronic cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases increased, and exacerbations of these diseases and the emergence of new cases were recorded among those who sought medical help. Outbreaks of bronchial asthma have been described in a number of populated areas when specific contaminants appear. It can be assumed that acute cases of allergic diseases will occur when air is polluted with biological products such as protein dust, yeast, mold and their waste products. An example of the acute effects of air pollution are cases of photochemical fog due to a combination of factors: vehicle emissions, high humidity, calm weather, intense ultraviolet radiation. Clinical manifestations: irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, upper respiratory tract.[...]

Measurements on television and radio towers, as well as special aerological observations carried out in last years, allow us to draw a number of conclusions about the structure of the atmospheric boundary layer over the city. Analysis of experimental data shows that during periods when an inversion is observed outside the city in the presence of a heat island, temperature stratification among buildings up to a height of several tens of meters is close to equilibrium or slightly unstable. Consequently, elevated inversion layers are more likely to form over the city. The heat island, as noted by Sekiguchi in Urban climates (1970), extends at night to a level approximately equal to 3-4 building heights. [...]

When developing viscous oils and bitumen using wells using thermal methods, a local disruption of the natural thermal gradient along the section occurs, which leads to a change chemical composition groundwater of overlying horizons and deterioration of their quality. Such inversions of the temperature regime of the subsoil are also poorly studied, and the regulation of this type of anthropogenic impact remains outside the scope of regulatory documents.[...]

Thus, nowhere on the territory of the USSR are such unfavorable meteorological conditions created for the transfer and dispersion of emissions from low emission sources as on the territory of the Baikal-Amur Mainline. Calculations show that due to the high frequency of stagnant conditions in a large layer of the atmosphere and powerful temperature inversions with the same emission parameters, the level of air pollution in the cities and towns of BAM can be 2-3 times higher than in the European territory of the country. In this regard, protecting the air basin from pollution of the newly developed territory adjacent to the BAM is especially important.[...]

Probably the most notorious smog area in the world is Los Angeles. There are plenty of chimneys in this city. In addition, there is a huge number of cars. Together with these generous suppliers of smoke and soot, both elements of smog formation that played such an important role in Donora act: temperature inversions and the mountainous nature of the terrain. [...]

Industrial enterprises, urban transport and heat-generating installations are the cause (mainly in cities) of smog: unacceptable pollution of human-inhabited outdoor environments. air environment due to the release of harmful substances into it by the indicated sources under unfavorable weather conditions (lack of wind, temperature inversion, etc.).[...]

The most important element The climate of mountainous areas is undoubtedly temperature. Most mountainous areas of the world have detailed temperature observations and many statistical research temperature changes with altitude. This change poses a challenge in compiling climate atlases due to the sharp temperature gradients across short distances and their seasonal variability. Some recent studies of temperatures in mountains, such as in and , have used regression analysis. Pielke and Mehring, in an attempt to refine the spatial distribution of temperature for an area in northwestern Virginia, used linear regression analysis of average monthly temperatures as a function of elevation. They showed that the correlations are maximum (r=-0.95) in the summer, as is usually the case at mid-altitudes. In winter, low-level inversions add up to more variability, and better estimates can be obtained by fitting polynomial functions or using potential temperatures. For the purpose of producing topoclimatic maps for the Western Carpathians, a series of regression equations were similarly developed. For this, as described in paragraph 2B4, separate regression equations are used for different slope profiles. Note that there are few attempts to describe changes in mountain temperature) at. using some more general statistical model.[...]

Complex experiments carried out abroad are characterized by good instrumentation, the use of an optimal set of analyzers and sampling systems, the determination, along with the concentration of pollutant components, of meteorological parameters, and the availability of information on the level of sunshine! ? radiation, as well as indicators of atmospheric stability in the boundary layer: temperature stratification, wind speed profile, height of the inversion boundary, etc. [...]

The main reason for the formation of photochemical fog is severe pollution of urban air with gas emissions from chemical industry and transport enterprises and mainly from vehicle exhaust gases. Every kilometer of the way a car releases about 10 g of nitric oxide. In Los Angeles, where over 4 million cars have accumulated, they emit about 1 thousand tons of this gas per day into the air. In addition, temperature inversions are frequent here (up to 260 days a year), contributing to air stagnation over the city. Photochemical fog occurs in polluted air as a result of photochemical reactions occurring under the influence of short-wave (ultraviolet) solar radiation on gas emissions. Many of these reactions create substances that are significantly more toxic than the original ones. The main components of photochemical smog are photooxidants (ozone, organic peroxides, nitrates, nitrites, peroxylacetyl nitrate), nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, methanol, etc. These substances are always present in the air in smaller quantities large cities, in photochemical smog their concentration often far exceeds the maximum permissible standards.[...]

Hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrogen sulfide and other gaseous substances entering the atmosphere are removed from it relatively quickly. Hydrocarbons are removed from the atmosphere due to the dissolution of seas and oceans in water and subsequent photochemical and biological processes occurring with the participation of microorganisms in water and soil. Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, oxidizing to sulfates, are deposited on the surface of the earth. Possessing acidic properties, they are sources of corrosion of various structures made of concrete and metal; they also destroy products made of plastics, artificial fibers, fabrics, leather, etc. Significant amount Sulfur dioxide is absorbed by vegetation and dissolved in the water of seas and oceans. Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, which is intensively absorbed by vegetation in the process of photochemical synthesis. Nitrogen oxides are removed due to reduction and oxidation reactions (with strong solar radiation and temperature inversion, they form smog that is dangerous for breathing).[...]

Yoshino identified four synoptic types of pressure distribution that cause bora. In winter it is mostly associated with a cyclone over Mediterranean Sea or an anticyclone over Europe. In summer, cyclonic systems occur less frequently and the anticyclone may be located further to the west. In any system, the gradient wind should be from the east to the northeast. For the development and preservation of bora, a suitable pressure gradient, stagnation of cold air east of the mountains and its flow through the mountains, converting potential energy into kinetic energy, are simultaneously required. Bora develops best where the Dinaric Mountains are narrow and close to the coast, such as in Split. This increases the temperature gradient between the coastal and inland parts of the country and enhances the effect of downslope winds. The Dinaric Mountains have an altitude of over 1000 m, and low passes, such as that of Xin, also favor local intensification of bora. On days when there is bora, the inversion layer is usually located between 1500-2000 m on the windward side of the mountains and at the same or lower level on the leeward side.