TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.
TRAILS (Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Trails - important element artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.
STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.
HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is found already in the ancient epic different nations, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially
V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.
LITOTA ( Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger”, “a hut on chicken legs”, “a little man as big as a finger”.
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.
N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol
METAPHOR (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to
comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.
Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
By you into the darkness of the night, starless
Careless abandoned man!
A. Blok
Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“nerves of steel”), abstraction (“field of activity”), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:
In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...
A. Fet
The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:
With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...
S. Yesenin
In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widespread in artistic creativity:
Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.
S. Yesenin
Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.
METONYMY (Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; use of expressions in figuratively(“a foaming glass” - meaning wine in a glass; “the forest is noisy” - meaning trees; etc.).
The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;
The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...
A.S. Pushkin
In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:
You led swords to a bountiful feast;
Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...
A. Pushkin
Here the metonymy is "swords" - warriors. The most common metonymy is in which the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity:
When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...
A. Pushkin
Here the metonymy is “the pen falls asleep.”
PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)
PERSONALIZATION (prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).
My bells
Steppe flowers!
Why are you looking at me?
Dark blue?
And what are you calling about?
On a merry day in May,
Among the uncut grass
Shaking your head?
A.K. Tolstoy
SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:
And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...
V. Mayakovsky
2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:
Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!
3) The singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:
There a man groans from slavery and chains...
M. Lermontov
And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...
A. Pushkin
4) Replacing a number with a set:
Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.
A. Blok
5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:
We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!
V. Mayakovsky
6) Replacing the specific concept with a generic one:
"Well, sit down, luminary!"
V. Mayakovsky
COMPARISON – a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,
Whirling snow whirlwinds;
The way the beast will howl,
Then he will cry like a child...
A.S. Pushkin
“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:
The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.
M. Lermontov
Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:
And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.
A. Pushkin
She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.
A. Pushkin
A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:
The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.
M. Lermontov
In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:
It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.
A. Pushkin
I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.
A. Pushkin
Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”
M. Sholokhov.
IMAGE - a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.
It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Moroz - commander of the patrol
Walks around his possessions.
ON THE. Nekrasov
ALLEGORY (Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.
Unlike metaphor, in allegory figurative meaning expressed in a phrase, a whole thought or even a small work (fable, parable).
GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.
Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,
Spewing wild curses on the way.
And I see: half the people are sitting.
Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?
V. Mayakovsky
IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.
Servant of powerful masters,
With what noble courage
Thunder with your free speech
All those who have their mouths covered.
F.I. Tyutchev
SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.
ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.
Oh spring without end and without edge -
An endless and endless dream!
A. Blok
ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
A storm is coming. It hits the shore
A black boat alien to enchantment...
K. Balmont
ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - stylistic figure, a hint by means of a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work(“the glory of Herostratus”).
ANAPHORA (Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition initial words, lines, stanzas or phrases.
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You're downtrodden
You are omnipotent
Mother Rus'!…
ON THE. Nekrasov
ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blushing like poppies,
I am like death, skinny and pale.
A.S. Pushkin
You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...
N. Nekrasov
So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...
S. Yesenin.
Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis
APOCOPE (Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.
...When suddenly he came out of the forest
The bear opened its mouth at them...
A.N. Krylov
Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,
Human rumor and horse top!
A.S. Pushkin
ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.
Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Pointless and dim light.
Live for at least another quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.
A. Blok
MULTI-UNION (polysyndeton ) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure is asyndeton.
Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words and enhances its expressiveness:
And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...
M. Lermontov
And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...
M.Yu. Lermontov
GRADATION - from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
S. Yesenin
INVERSION (Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.
Legends of deep antiquity
A.S. Pushkin
He passes the doorman with an arrow
Flew up the marble steps
A. Pushkin
OXYMORON (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).
PARALLELISM (from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.
The waves splash in the blue sea.
The stars shine in the blue sky.
A. S. Pushkin
Your mind is as deep as the sea.
Your spirit is as high as the mountains.
V. Bryusov
Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and those close to them in their artistic features literary works (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).
Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly Clouds - Eternal Wanderers.”
Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.
PARCELLATION - an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”
N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)
TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.
Peter comes out. His eyes
They shine. His face is terrible.
The movements are fast. He is beautiful,
He's like God's thunderstorm.
A. S. Pushkin
RHYME (Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.
ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech and conveys a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. IN artistic speech conveys the excitement of the speaker or the tension of the action:
We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.
V. Zhuko
Day in the dark night in love,
Spring is in love with winter,
Life into death...
And you?... You're into me!
G. Heine
In the lyrics there are poems written in unspeakable constructions, that is, with extensive use of ellipsis, for example, A. Fet’s poem “Whisper, timid breathing...”
EPITHET (Greek epitheton - appendix) - a figurative definition that gives additional artistic characteristics to someone or something (“lonely sail”, “golden grove”),
a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities or characteristics.
The attribute expressed by the epithet seems to be attached to the object, enriching it semantically and emotionally. This property of the epithet is used when creating an artistic image:
But I love, golden spring,
Your continuous, wonderfully mixed noise;
You rejoice, without stopping for a moment,
Like a child without care or thoughts...
N. Nekrasov
The properties of an epithet appear in a word only when it is combined with another word denoting an object or phenomenon. So, in the example given, the words “golden” and “wonderfully mixed” acquire the properties of a synthetic in combination with the words “spring” and “noise”. Epithets are possible that not only define an object or emphasize certain aspects, but also transfer to it from another object or phenomenon (not directly expressed) a new, additional quality:
And we, poet, haven’t figured it out,
Didn't understand infantile sadness
In your seemingly forged poems.
V. Bryusov.
Such epithets are called metaphorical. An epithet emphasizes in an object not only its inherent, but also possible, conceivable, transferred features and characteristics. Various (meaningful) parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb) can be used as an epithet.
A special group of epithet includes constant epithets, which are used only in combination with one specific word: “living water” or “dead water”, “good fellow”, “greyhound horse”, etc. Constant epithets are characteristic of works of oral folk art .
EPIPHORA (Greek epiphora - repetition) - stylistic figure, opposite anaphora : repetition last words or phrases. Rhyme - type of epiphora (repetition of the last sounds).
The guests came ashore
Tsar Saltan invites them to visit...
A. S. Pushkin
A RHETORICAL QUESTION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, such a structure of speech, mainly poetic, in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not presuppose an answer; it only enhances the emotionality of the statement and its expressiveness.
RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, a structure of speech in which this or that concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation. The rhetorical exclamation sounds emotional, with poetic inspiration and elation:
Yes, to love as our blood loves
None of you have been in love for a long time!
A. Blok
RHETORICAL APPEAL(from Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures. In form, being an appeal, a rhetorical appeal is conditional in nature. It imparts the necessary author’s intonation to poetic speech: solemnity, pathos, cordiality, irony, etc.:
And you, arrogant descendants
The famous meanness of the famous fathers...
M. Lermontov
DEFAULT - unspokenness, reticence. A deliberate break in a statement that conveys the emotion of the speech and assumes that the reader will guess what was said.
I do not love, O Rus', your timid
Thousands of years of slave poverty.
But this cross, but this ladle is white...
Humble, dear features!
Although he was afraid to say
It wouldn't be hard to guess
Whenever... but the heart, the younger,
The more fearful, the stricter...
Every house is foreign to me, every temple is empty to me,
And everything is equal, and everything is one.
But if on the road– bush
Stands up, especially - rowan…
M.I. Tsvetaeva
VERSE SIZES
JAMB - two-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable
HOREUS – disyllabic foot with stress on the first syllable
DACTYL – three-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable
AMPHIBRACHIUS – three-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable
ANAPAEST – three-syllable foot with stress on the third syllable
PYRRHIC – additional disyllabic foot, consisting of two unstressed syllables
SPONDEE – an additional foot consisting of two stressed syllables
RHYME
abab – cross, aabb - steam room, abba - ring (encircling), aabssb - mixed
MEN'S – stress falls on the last syllable of rhyming words
WOMEN'S – stress falls on the penultimate syllable of rhyming words
You've probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Means of expression make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without using special lexical figures, because the speech will sound poor and ugly.
Let's figure out what types of expressive means the Russian language is and where to find them.
Perhaps at school you wrote essays poorly: the text “didn’t flow”, the words were chosen with difficulty, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a clear thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are put into the head by reading books. However, they alone are not enough to write interestingly, colorfully and easily. You need to develop your skill through practice.
Just compare the next two columns. On the left is text without or with expressive means. minimum quantity. On the right is text rich in expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.
It would seem like three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! Expressive language helps the viewer see the picture you are trying to describe. There is an art to using them, but it is not difficult to master. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.
For example, in the paragraph of text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the subject is instantly presented as bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat commander cat? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. And there won’t be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly be white, but the reader has long imagined it as gray!
So, syntactic means are special techniques of artistic expression that prove, justify, depict information and engage the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for written, but also for oral speech. Especially if the speech or text is written in . However, in both cases, the means of expression in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of making his way through such a “jungle”.
Existing means of expression
There are a lot of such special techniques, and it is unlikely that you know everything about them. Let's start with the fact that you don't need to use all means of expressiveness at once - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but not skimp. Then you will achieve the desired effect.
Traditionally they are divided into several groups:
- phonetic - most often found in poems;
- lexical (tropes);
- stylistic figures.
Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient tablets - you can print them out and hang them on the wall so that you can re-read them from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.
Phonetic techniques
Among phonetic techniques, the two most common are alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case the consonants are repeated, in the second - the vowels.
This technique is very convenient to use in poems when there are few words, but you need to convey the atmosphere. Yes, and poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to “see” the picture.
Suppose we need to describe a swamp. In the swamp there are reeds that rustle. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but this is not enough to complete the picture.
Do you hear the reeds seem to rustle and hiss silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonant letters are repeated.
Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This one is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. With this, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. A table will help explain what assonance is.
Lexical devices (tropes)
Lexical devices are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that people often use them unconsciously. For example, we can say that our heart is lonely. But the heart cannot actually be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help emphasize the deeper meaning of what is being said.
The main lexical devices include the following tropes:
- epithet;
- comparison as a means of expressive speech;
- metaphor;
- metonymy;
- irony;
- hyperbole and litotes.
Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison slips into everyone’s speech - this means of expressiveness has become firmly established in daily life, so you need to use it wisely.
Metaphor is a more interesting form of comparison because we are not comparing slow death to cigarettes by using the word “as if.” We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression “dry clouds”. Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. Epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text it is important not to confuse them.
Hyperbole and litotes are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred fires” is a clear hyperbole. And “quietly, quieter than a stream” is litotes. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.
Metonymy and periphrasis are interesting phenomena. Metonymy is a shortening of what is said. For example, there is no need to talk about Chekhov's books as “books that Chekhov wrote.” You can use the expression “Chekhov’s books”, and this will be a metonymy.
And periphrasis is the deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.
Although, with the right skill, tautology can also be a means of expression!
Lexical means of expressiveness in speech also include:
- archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
- historicisms (vocabulary related to a specific historical period);
- neologisms (new vocabulary);
- phraseological units;
- dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.
| Means of expression | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Epithet | A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively. | Bloody sky. (Talks about sunrise.) |
| Comparison as a means of expressive speech | Comparing objects with each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa. | Means of expression, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech. |
| Metaphor | “Hidden comparison” or figurative. More complex than a simple comparison, comparative conjunctions are not used. | Seething anger. (The man gets angry). Sleepy city. (The morning city that has not yet woken up). |
| Metonymy | Replacing words in order to shorten an understandable sentence or avoid tautology. | I read Chekhov’s books (and not “I read books by Chekhov”). |
| Irony | An expression with the opposite meaning. Hidden mockery. | You're a genius, of course! (The irony is that here “genius” is used to mean “stupid”). |
| Hyperbola | Deliberate exaggeration of what was said. | Brighter than a thousand fiery lightning bolts. (Dazzling, bright show). |
| Litotes | Deliberate reduction of what was said. | Weak as a mosquito. |
| Periphrase | Replacement of words in order to avoid tautology. Replacement can only be a related word. | The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of animals, etc. |
| Allegory | An abstract concept that helps to reveal an image. Most often it is an established designation. | Fox meaning cunning, wolf meaning strength and rudeness, turtle meaning slowness or wisdom. |
| Personification | Transferring the properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one. | The lantern seemed to be swaying on a long thin leg– he reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack. |
Stylistic figures
Stylistic figures often contain special grammatical structures. The most commonly used include:
- anaphora and epiphora;
- compositional joint;
- antithesis;
- oxymoron or paradox;
- inversion;
- parcellation;
- ellipsis;
- rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals;
- asyndeton.
Anaphora and epiphora are often classified as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora is the same beginning of several lines, epiphora is the same ending. Most often they are used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.
A compositional junction is a deliberate “escalation” of a conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The Word helped me become who I am. This technique is called a compositional junction.
Antithesis is the opposition of two antipodal concepts: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Interesting techniques include parcellation, which is used to increase conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - the omission of a sentence member. Often used in exclamations and calls.
| Means of expression | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Anaphora | The same beginning of several lines. | Let's join hands, brothers. Let's hold hands and connect our hearts. Let us take up swords to end the war. |
| Epiphora | Same ending for multiple lines. | I wash it wrong! I'm ironing wrong! All wrong! |
| Compositional joint | One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it. | I didn't know what to do. What to do to survive this storm. |
| Antithesis | Opposition | I came to life every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to demonstrate drama). |
| Oxymoron | Using concepts that contradict each other. | Hot ice, peaceful war. |
| Paradox | An expression that has no direct meaning, but carrying an aesthetic meaning. | The hot hands of the dead man were more alive than all the others. Hurry up as slowly as possible. |
| Inversion | Deliberate rearrangement of words in a sentence. | I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in this world. |
| Parcellation | Breaking words down into separate sentences. | He waited. Again. Slouching over, he cried. |
| Ellipsis | Deliberate omission of a word. | Let's get to work! (the word “let’s take” is missing). |
| Gradation | Increasing expression, using synonyms according to the degree of increase. | His eyes, cold, emotionless, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to demonstrate drama). |
Features of the use of means of expression
We should not forget that gestures are also used in spoken Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than ordinary means of expression, but in the skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and bright.
Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into your speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many decorations on yourself, which is why you have become uninteresting. Means of expression are like a skillfully selected accessory. Sometimes you don’t even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.
Epithet(Greek - attached, added) is a figurative definition that has special artistic expressiveness, conveying the author’s feeling for the depicted object, creating a vivid idea of the object.
As a rule, an epithet is expressed by an adjective used in a figurative meaning. From this point of view, for example, the adjectives blue, gray, blue in combination with the word sky cannot be called epithets, such as the adjectives lead, steel, amber.
Not every definition can be called an epithet (cf. iron bed and iron character, silver spoon and silver key (meaning “spring”)). Only in the phrases iron character and silver key do we have epithets that carry a semantic and expressive-emotional load in the statement.
Rare (individually authored) epithets are found in literary texts. They are based on unexpected, often unique semantic associations: Marmeladova's mood (L. Chekhov), cardboard love (N. Gogol), colorful joy (V. Shukshin).
Comparison - a pictorial technique based on a comparison of a phenomenon or
concepts with another phenomenon. Most often, comparison is formalized in speech and in the form of comparative phrases. Using this syntactic construction, objects, actions, and characteristics are compared. A comparative phrase consists of a word or phrase with one of the comparative conjunctions (as, exactly, as if, as if, as if, that): Brevity, like pearls, sparkles content (L. Tolstoy). Wide shadows walk across the plain, like clouds across the sky (A. Chekhov). Our river, like in a fairy tale, was paved with frost overnight (S. Marshak)
Expressiveness of speech is also given by complex sentences with a comparative clause, which is attached to the main part using the same comparative conjunctions as, exactly, as if, as if, as if, as if : I suddenly felt good in my soul, as if my childhood had returned (M. Gorky).
Comparison is also conveyed by other linguistic means, for example, by combining a verb with a noun in the instrumental case: Joy crawls like a snail (= crawls like a snail), Joy sang in her chest like a bird (= sang like a bird) (M Gorky), The chains of mountains stand like giants (I. Nikitin), Sometimes time flies like a bird, sometimes it crawls like a worm. (I. Turgenev)
In addition, comparison is conveyed by combining the comparative form of an adjective and a noun: Under it is a stream of lighter azure (M. Lermontov), Truth is more valuable than gold. (Proverb)
Metaphor –(Greek - transference) is a transference of the meaning of a word, based on the likening of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast: Nails would be made from these people: There would be no stronger nails in the world. (N. Tikhonov)
This means of expression is very close to comparison. Sometimes a metaphor is called a hidden comparison, since it is based on a comparison, but it is not formalized using comparative conjunctions : sleepy lake of the city (A. Blok), a soaring tambourine of a blizzard (A. Blok), dry leaves of my words (V. Mayakovsky), a fire of red rowan (S. Yesenin).
Personification- an artistic device that consists in the fact that when describing animals or inanimate objects, they are endowed with human feelings, thoughts, speech : The moon laughed like a clown (S. Yesenin), Everything around was tired: the color of the sky, the wind, the river, and the month that was born were tired (A. Fet), Midnight enters my city window with night gifts (A Tvardovsky ).
Hyperbola(Greek - exaggeration) - a pictorial technique built on a quantitative exaggeration of the characteristics of an object, phenomenon, action, in other words, this is an artistic exaggeration: It will pass - as if it will illuminate the sun! If he looks, he’ll give you a ruble! I saw how she mows: with a wave, the mop is ready. (N. Nekrasov)
Litotes(Greek – simplicity) – in contrast to hyperbole, artistic understatement: Tom Thumb; waist is no thinner than a bottle neck (N. Gogol)
Antithesis(Greek - opposition) - ego technique of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. As a rule, the antithesis is based on the use of antonyms: They came together: wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire. (A. Pushkin)) You are poor, you are abundant, you are powerful, you are powerless, Mother Rus'!(N Nekrasov)
Alliteration – one of the types of sound writing, based on the repetition of identical consonant sounds in poetic speech (less often in prose): The echo roars across the mountains, Like thunder thundering over thunder. (Derzhavin “Waterfall”)
Assonance(Latin – to sound in tune) – repetition of identical vowel sounds in poetic speech: I will put it in a tight bowstring, I will bend the obedient bow into an arc, and then I will send it at random, and woe to our enemy. (A. Pushkin)
Allegory – depiction of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image (heart is an allegory of love). In fables, certain individuals or social phenomena are allegorically depicted under the guise of animals.
Metonymy(Greek - rename) - a phenomenon or object is designated using other words or concepts, while the signs or connections that bring these phenomena or concepts together are preserved: Mayakovsky about the revolver - “a steel orator dozing in a holster”
Gradation(lat - gradual elevation) - arrangement of words and expressions in increasing or decreasing importance: Huge blue eyes glowed, burned, shone.(V. Soloukhin) I called you, but you didn’t look back, I shed tears, but you didn’t condescend.(A. Blok)
Inversion(Latin - permutation) - a violation of the sequence of speech, giving the phrase a new expressive shade: He passed the doorman like an arrow and flew up the marble steps. (A. Pushkin)
Chiasmus(Greek - cruciform) - a peculiar construction of a sentence, when in the first half the words are arranged in one sequence, and in the second - in the reverse order (inversion): Despite reason, despite the elements (A. Griboyedov)
Pun(French - play on words) - humorous use of the polysemy of a word ( Nozdryov was in some way a historical person. Not a single meeting where he was present was complete without a story... (N. Gogol), homonyms or sound similarity of words ( The defender of liberty and rights is wrong in this case. (A. Pushkin) But who will explain to me why all these cattle, all these hari-stocrats were brought on earth..? (R. Roland)
Oxymoron, or oxymoron (Greek - witty-stupid), - a combination of words with opposite meanings: optimistic tragedy (V. Vishnevsky). Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness.(M. Lermontov) But I soon comprehended the mystery of their ugly beauty(M. Lermontov) Live, keeping the joy of grief, remembering the joy of past springs.. (V. Bryusov) // the impossible is possible, the long road is easy. (A. Block) From hateful love, from crimes, from frenzy, righteous Rus' will arise.(M. Voloshin)
Syntactic parallelism(Greek - running alongside, parallel) - a technique consisting in a similar construction of adjacent sentences of prose text of poetic lines or stanzas: A diamond is polished with a diamond. String dictated by string
Lexical repetition- deliberate repetition of the same word in the text. As a rule, with the help of this technique, the text is highlighted keyword, the meaning of which you need to draw the reader’s attention to: The winds did not blow in vain, the storm did not come in vain. (WITH. Yesenin)
Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal(Greek - oratory) - special techniques that are used to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
A rhetorical question can express interrogative content, but is asked not with the goal of giving or receiving an answer, but for the emotional impact on the reader.
Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of feelings in the text.
Rhetorical appeal directed not to the real interlocutor, but to the subject of artistic depiction. Dreams Dreams! Where is your sweetness! (A. Pushkin) Familiar clouds! How do you live? Who are you going to threaten now?(M. Svetlov)
The following can also act as figurative and expressive means: syntactic structures like homogeneous members offers(sentences with several rows of homogeneous
Sonorant sounds – m, l, n, r, th
In the work of any author, means of expression play a huge role. And to create a good, solid detective story, with its tense atmosphere, mysterious murders and even more mysterious and colorful characters, they are simply necessary. Expressive means serve to enhance the expressiveness of statements, give “volume” to characters and poignancy to dialogues. Using expressive means, the writer has the opportunity to more fully and beautifully express his thoughts and fully bring the reader up to date.
Expressive means are divided into:
Lexical (archaisms, barbarisms, terms)
Stylistic (metaphor, personification, metonymy, hyperbole, paraphrase)
Phonetic (use of sound texture of speech)
Graphic (graphon)
Stylistic means of expression are a way of imparting emotion and expressiveness to speech.
Syntactic means of expression are the use syntactic constructions for stylistic purposes, to semantically highlight (emphasize) any words or sentences, giving them the desired coloring and meaning.
Lexical expressive means are the special use of words (often in their figurative meaning) in figures of speech.
Phonetic expressive means is the use of the sound texture of speech in order to increase expressiveness.
Graphic - show deviations from speech norms.
Lexical expressive means.
Archaisms.
Archaisms are words and expressions that have fallen out of everyday use and are felt as outdated, reminiscent of a bygone era. From Bolshaya Soviet Encyclopedia: “Archaism is a word or expression that is outdated and has ceased to be used in ordinary speech. Most often used in literature as a stylistic device to add solemnity to speech and to create a realistic color when depicting antiquity.” Whilome - formerly, to trow - to think - this outdated words, having analogues in modern English language. There are also words that have no analogue, for example: gorget, mace. You can also give an example from the book of John Galsworthy:
“How thou art sentimental, maman!”
Foreign words.
Foreign words in stylistics are words and phrases borrowed from foreign language and not subject to grammatical and phonetic transformations in the borrowing language.
Terms (Terms) - words and phrases denoting scientific concepts that reflect the properties and characteristics of an object. Let us give an example from Theodore Dreiser’s work “The Financier”:
“There was a long conversation - a long wait. His father came back to say I was doubtful whether they could make the loan. Eight per cent, then being secured for money, was a small rate of interest; considering its need. For ten per cent Mr. Kugel might make a call-loan.”
Stylistic means of expression.
Periphrasis is the use of a proper name as a common noun, or, conversely, the use of a descriptive phrase instead of a proper name. For example, instead of the word “readers” A.S. Pushkin in his poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” says “Friends of Lyudmila and Ruslan!” “He is Napoleon of crime” (Conan Dole).
Epithet is a figurative definition of an object, usually characterized by an adjective. Examples include the words good, bed, cold, hot, green, yellow, big, small, etc.
Hyperbole is the use of a word or expression that exaggerates the actual degree of quality, the intensity of a characteristic, or the scale of the subject of speech. Hyperbole deliberately distorts reality, increasing the emotionality of speech. Hyperbole is one of the oldest means of expression, and it is widely used in folklore and epic poetry of all times and peoples. Hyperbole has become so firmly established in our lives that we often do not perceive it as hyperbole. For example, hyperbole includes such everyday expressions as: a thousand apologies, a million kisses, I haven't seen you for ages, I beg a thousand pardons. “He heard nothing. He was more remote them the stars” (S. Chaplin) .
Metaphor (Metaphor) is a type of trope (trope is a poetic turn, the use of a word in a figurative meaning, a departure from literal speech), the figurative meaning of a word, based on the likening of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast. Like hyperbole, metaphor is one of the oldest means of expression, and an example of this is ancient Greek mythology, where the sphinx is a cross between a man and a lion, and a centaur is a cross between a man and a horse.
“Love is a star to every wandering bark” (from Shakespeare's sonnet). We see that the reader is given the opportunity to compare concepts such as “star” and “love”.
In the Russian language we can find such examples of metaphor as “iron will”, “bitterness of separation”, “warmth of the soul” and so on. Unlike simple comparison, the metaphor lacks the words “as”, “as if”, “as if”.
Metonymy - establishing a connection between phenomena or objects by contiguity, transferring the properties of an object to the object itself, with the help of which these properties are revealed. In metonymy, the effect can be replaced by the cause, the content - by the container, the material from which the thing is made can replace the designation of the thing itself. The difference between metonymy and metaphor is that metonymy deals only with those connections and combinations that exist in nature. Thus, in Pushkin, the “hissing of foamy glasses” replaces the foaming wine itself, poured into the glasses. Famusov recalls from A.S. Griboedov: “It’s not like he ate silver, he ate gold.” In English there are such examples of metonymy as:
"She has a quick pen." Or:
"The stars and stripes invaded Iraq". In the first case, in the example of metonymy, the characteristic is transferred from the girl herself to her writing pen, and in the second, the color and design of the flag replaces the name of the country.
Gradation (Climax) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped according to the increase or decrease of their emotional and semantic significance. This is a gradual strengthening or weakening of images used to intensify the effect. Example:
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees. (S.A. Yesenin).
In English you can find the following examples of gradation:
“Little by little, bit by bit, day by day, he stayed of her.” Or a sequential listing of attributes in increasing order: clever, talented, genius.
Oxymoron is a special type of antithesis (opposition), based on the combination of contrasting values. An oxymoron is a direct correlation and combination of contrasting, seemingly incompatible features and phenomena. An oxymoron is often used to achieve the desired effect when describing a person’s character, to indicate a certain inconsistency in human nature. Thus, with the help of the oxymoron “the splendor of shamelessness”, a capacious characterization of a woman of easy virtue in W. Faulkner’s novel “The City” is achieved. Oxymoron is also widely used in the titles of works (“Young Peasant Lady,” “Living Corpse,” etc.). Among English authors, the oxymoron is widely used by William Shakespeare in his tragedy “Romeo and Juliet”:
O brawling love! O loving hate!
O any thing! of nothing first create.
O heavy lightness! serious vanity!
(act 1, scene 1).
Comparisons (Similes) are a rhetorical figure close to metaphor, identifying common feature when comparing two objects or phenomena. A comparison differs from a metaphor in that it contains the words “as”, “as if”, “as if”. Comparison is widely used both in literature and in everyday speech. For example, everyone knows such expressions as: “plow like an ox,” “hungry like a wolf,” “stupid as a plug,” etc. We can observe examples of comparisons in A.S. Pushkin in the poem “Anchar”:
Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
It stands alone in the entire universe.
In English there are comparisons such as: fresh as rose, fat as a pig, to fit like a glove. An example of a comparison can be given from Ray Bradbury’s story “A sound of thunder”:
"Like a stone idol, like a mountain avalanche, Tyrannosaurus fell"
Personification is the endowment of objects and phenomena inanimate nature traits of living beings. Personification helps the writer more accurately convey his feelings and impressions of the surrounding nature.
How soon hat Time, the subtle thief of youth,
Stoln of wing my three and twin teeth year! (classical poetry of the 17th-18th centuries)
Antithesis - artistic opposition. This is a technique for enhancing expressiveness, a way of conveying life’s contradictions. According to writers, antithesis is especially expressive when it is made up of metaphors. For example, in G.R. Derzhavin’s poem “God”: “I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am god!” Or A.S. Pushkin:
They got along. Water and stone
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different from each other... ("Eugene Onegin")
Also, many artistic oppositions are contained in proverbs and sayings. Here is an example of a common English saying:
“To err is human and to forget is divine.” Or here’s a striking example of an antithesis:
“The music professor's lessons were light, but his fees were high.”
Stylistic means of expression also include the use of slang and neologisms (words formed by the author himself). Slang can be used both to create an appropriate flavor and to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Authors usually resort to neologisms when they cannot make do with a traditional set of words. For example, with the help of the neologism “loud-boiling cup,” F.I. Tyutchev creates a vivid poetic image in the poem “Spring Thunderstorm.” Examples from the English language include the words headful - a head full of ideas; handful - handful.
Anaphora - unity of command. This is a technique that consists of different lines, stanzas, and sentences starting with the same word.
“Not a little thing like that! Not a butterfly!” cried Eckels."
Epiphora is the opposite concept of anaphora. Epiphora is the repetition at the end of a segment of text of the same word or phrase, a single ending of phrases or sentences.
I woke up alone, I walked alone and returned home alone.
Syntactic expressive means.
Syntactic means of expression include, first of all, the author’s arrangement of signs, designed to highlight any words and phrases, as well as give them the desired coloring. Syntactic means include inversion - incorrect word order (You know him?), unfinished sentences (I don't know...), italics of individual words or phrases.
Phonetic means of expression.
Phonetic means of expression include onomitopia (Onomethopea) - the author’s use of words whose sound texture resembles some sounds. In the Russian language you can find many examples of onomitopia, for example, the use of the words rustles, whispers, crunches, meows, crows, and so on. In English, onomitopy includes words such as: moan, scrabble, bubbles, crack, scream. Onomitopia is used to convey sounds, speech patterns, and partly the character’s voice.
Graphic means of expression.
Grafon (Graphon) is a non-standard spelling of words that emphasizes the characteristics of the character’s speech. An example of a graphon is an excerpt from Ray Bradbury’s story “The sound of thunder”:
“His mouth trembled, asking: “Who-who won the presidential election yesterday?”
The author’s use of expressive means makes his speech more rich, expressive, emotional, bright, individualizes his style and helps the reader feel the author’s position in relation to heroes, moral standards, historical figures and the era.
It is known that no European lexicon can compare with richness: this opinion is expressed by many literary scholars who have studied its expressiveness. It has Spanish expansion, Italian emotionality, French tenderness. Language means, used by Russian writers, resemble the brushstrokes of an artist.
When experts talk about the expressiveness of language, they mean not only the figurative means that they study at school, but also an inexhaustible arsenal of literary techniques. Unified classification There are no figurative and expressive means, but conditionally language means divided into groups.
In contact with
Lexical means
Expressive means, working at the lexical language level, are an integral part of a literary work: poetic or written in prose. These are words or figures of speech, used by the author in a figurative or allegorical meaning. The most extensive group of lexical means of creating imagery in the Russian language is literary tropes.
Varieties of Tropes
There are more than two dozen tropes used in the works. Table with examples combined the most used ones:
| № | Trails | Explanation of the term | Examples |
| 1 | Allegory | Replacing an abstract concept with a concrete image. | “In the hands of Themis”, which means: at justice |
| 2 | These are tropes that are based on a figurative comparison, but without the use of conjunctions (as, as if). Metaphor involves transferring the qualities of one object or phenomenon to another. | Murmuring voice (the voice seems to murmur). | |
| 3 | Metonymy | Substitution of one word for another, based on the contiguity of concepts. | The class was noisy |
| 4 | Comparison | What is comparison in literature? Comparison of objects based on similar characteristics. Comparisons are artistic media, highly imaginative. | Simile: hot as fire (other examples: turned white like chalk). |
| 5 | Personification | Transferring human properties to inanimate objects or phenomena. | The leaves of the trees whispered |
| 6 | Hyperbola | These are tropes that are based on literary exaggeration, helping to enhance a certain characteristic or quality on which the author focuses the reader’s attention. | Lots of work. |
| 7 | Litotes | Artistic understatement of the described object or phenomenon. | A man with a fingernail. |
| 8 | Synecdoche | Replacing some words with others regarding quantitative relations. | Invite for pike perch. |
| 9 | Occasionalisms | Artistic means created by the author. | The fruits of education. |
| 10 | Irony | Subtle mockery based on appearance positive assessment or serious form of expression. | What do you say, smart guy? |
| 11 | Sarcasm | A caustic, subtle mockery, the highest form of irony. | The works of Saltykov-Shchedrin are full of sarcasm. |
| 12 | Periphrase | Substituting a word with an expression similar in lexical meaning. | King of beasts |
| 13 | Lexical repetition | In order to enhance the meaning specific word the author repeats it several times. | Lakes all around, deep lakes. |
The article provides main trails, known in the literature, which are illustrated in a table with examples.
Sometimes archaisms, dialectisms, and professionalisms are considered tropes, but this is not true. These are means of expression, the scope of which is limited to the depicted era or area of application. They are used to create the flavor of an era, a described place or a working atmosphere.
Specialized means of expression
- words that once called objects familiar to us (eyes - eyes). Historicisms denote objects or phenomena (actions) that have come out of everyday life (caftan, ball).
Both archaisms and historicisms - means of expression, which are readily used by writers and screenwriters who create works on historical topics (examples are “Peter the Great” and “Prince Silver” by A. Tolstoy). Poets often use archaisms to create a sublime style (womb, right hand, finger).
Neologisms are figurative means of language that entered our lives relatively recently (gadget). They are often used in literary texts to create the atmosphere of a youth environment and the image of advanced users.
Dialectisms - words or grammatical forms, used in colloquial speech residents of the same area (kochet - rooster).
Professionalisms are words and expressions that are characteristic of representatives of a certain profession. For example, a pen for a printer is, first of all, spare material that is not included in the issue, and only then a place for animals to stay. Naturally, a writer telling about the life of a hero-printer will not ignore the term.
Jargon is the vocabulary of informal communication used in the colloquial speech of people belonging to a certain social circle. For example, language features text about the lives of students will allow us to use the word “tails” in the sense of “exam debt”, and not parts of the body of animals. This word often appears in works about students.
Phraseological phrases
Phraseological expressions are lexical linguistic means, whose expressiveness is determined by:
- Figurative meaning, sometimes with a mythological background (Achilles' heel).
- Each one belongs to the category of high stable expressions (sink into oblivion) or colloquial expressions (hang your ears). These can be linguistic means that have a positive emotional connotation (golden hands - a load of approving meaning), or with a negative expressive assessment (small fry - a shade of disdain for a person).
Phraseologisms are used, to:
- emphasize the clarity and imagery of the text;
- build the necessary stylistic tone (colloquial or sublime), having previously assessed the linguistic features of the text;
- express the author's attitude to the information being communicated.
Figurative expressiveness phraseological units is intensified due to their transformation from generally known to individually authored: to shine throughout Ivanovskaya.
A special group is aphorisms ( idioms ). For example, happy hours are not observed.
Aphorisms can also include works of folk art: proverbs, sayings.
These artistic means are used quite often in literature.
Attention! Phraseologisms as figurative and expressive literary means cannot be used in an official business style.
Syntactic tricks
Syntactic figures of speech are phrases used by the author to better convey the necessary information or the general meaning of the text, sometimes to give the passage an emotional overtones. These are what they are syntactic means expressiveness:
- Antithesis is a syntactic means of expressiveness based on opposition. "Crime and Punishment". Allows you to emphasize the meaning of one word with the help of another, opposite in meaning.
- Gradations are means of expressiveness that use synonymous words, arranged according to the principle of increase and decrease of a sign or quality in the Russian language. For example, the stars shone, burned, shone. This lexical chain highlights the main conceptual meaning of each word – “to shine.”
- Oxymoron - straight opposite words, located nearby. For example, the expression “fiery ice” figuratively and vividly creates the contradictory character of the hero.
- Inversions are syntactic means of expression based on unusual sentence construction. For example, instead of “he sang,” it is written “he sang.” The word that the author wants to highlight is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
- Parcellation is the deliberate division of one sentence into several parts. For example, Ivan is nearby. Stands, looks. The second sentence usually contains an action, quality or attribute that takes on the author's emphasis.
Important! These figurative means Representatives of a number of scientific schools classify them as stylistic. The reason for replacing the term lies in the influence exerted by the expressive means of this group specifically on the style of the text, albeit through syntactic constructions.
Phonetic means
Sound devices in the Russian language are the smallest group of literary figures of speech. This is the special use of words with the repetition of certain sounds or phonetic groups for the purpose of depicting artistic images.
Usually like this figurative language used by poets in poetic works, or writers in lyrical digressions, when describing landscapes. The authors use repeated sounds to convey thunder or the rustling of leaves.
Alliteration is the repetition of a series of consonants that create sound effects that enhance the imagery of the phenomenon being described. For example: “In the silky rustle of snow noise.” The intensification of the sounds S, Ш and Ш creates the effect of imitating the whistle of the wind.
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in order to create an expressive artistic image: “March, march - we wave the flag // We march to the parade.” The vowel “a” is repeated to create an emotional fullness of feelings, a unique feeling of universal joy and openness.
Onomatopoeia is a selection of words that combine a certain set of sounds that creates a phonetic effect: the howl of the wind, the rustling of grass and other characteristic natural sounds.
Means of expression in the Russian language, tropes
Using expressive words
Conclusion
It is the abundance of figurative means expressiveness in Russian makes it truly beautiful, juicy and unique. Therefore, foreign literary scholars prefer to study the works of Russian poets and writers in the original.