Political system The Republic of India (Hindi Bharat Ganarajya, Republic of India) is a federal (sanghiya) state. The Constitution (Sanvidhan) of India came into force on January 26, 1950. It established a democratic (janvadi) regime in the country and established a parliamentary form of government

parliamentary elections in single-mandate constituencies, the creation of a real civil society and civilly responsible parties. The result is the strengthening of the political system in the country and the formation of a genuine civil society.

The very situation in which the country finds itself requires strengthening the vertical of executive power from top to bottom. This is due to various reasons, but primarily due to the fact that it is necessary to coordinate the actions of the executive branch throughout Russia. The possibility of such measures has been discussed for quite some time. However, it is worth noting that with the emerging trend towards the centralization of state power, the concentration of greater powers in the hands of the President, it is necessary to keep in mind the fact that such a system can function only if a strong, politically active person is in power. This aspect must be taken into account when carrying out reform, otherwise the entire system may become ineffective.

Toporkov S. S.

ELECTIONS AS A FORM OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Elections to bodies political power in modern society they represent a major socio-political action, the main goal of which is the reproduction of the political elite, the legitimate restoration of public representation in the system of government leadership and management. Elections to government bodies form the basis of the democratic political process, which is based on legal norms that together constitute the right to vote. In the process of its implementation, there were various systems counting of votes and distribution of seats in governing bodies, electoral systems arose: majoritarian, proportional and mixed.

Our country has accumulated considerable experience in the field of electoral legislation™." Moreover, as it now becomes clear, the process itself is far from completed. On December 3, 2004, State Duma deputies summed up the legislative framework for the “consolidation” of parties and legitimized in the third reading a new election procedure Thus, V.V. Putin proposed political reforms, the basic elements of which are the abandonment of elections in single-mandate districts to the State Duma and the use of a proportional system, as well as the refusal to elect governors directly by popular vote.

F| Federal Law “On Basic Guarantees of Electoral Rights of Citizens of the Russian Federation” (1994, amendments in 1997), Federal Law “On Elections of the President of the Russian Federation”, Federal Law “On Elections of Deputies of the State Duma Federal Assembly RF" (1995), Federal Law "On the formation of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" (1995), Law "On basic guarantees of electoral rights and the right to participate in a referendum of citizens of the Russian Federation" (1997), Law "On elections of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly RF" (1999), Law "On the elections of the President of the Russian Federation" (1999), Law "On the formation of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation" (2000).

The introduction of a proportional election system is aimed at establishing a multi-party system in Russia and should serve as an important and serious incentive for intensifying the activities of political parties. A deputy elected under a proportional system represents the interests of a larger number of voters than a single-mandate deputy. The transition to a proportional election system will significantly reduce the cost of forming representative government bodies and will help effectively prevent the penetration of crime into government structures.

A new method of electing the lower house of the Federal Assembly will help reduce corruption in elections. To reduce it, because effective, uncorrupted power in 89 regions, which together occupy vast and, I emphasize, very different territories, is more like an illusion, a theoretical model, rather than real life. Proteges of criminal structures will no longer apply for gubernatorial posts; they will not be able to overcome the Kremlin's tight control.

In addition, it is unlikely that it will be so easy for the appointed governors to forget about the people and focus solely on the Kremlin, as is said everywhere. A candidate who is disconnected from the problems of his region is unlikely to be able to count on the support of deputies of the regional assembly. In my opinion, other governors elected in the recent past by direct, secret, equal and universal suffrage do not always take care of regional interests. Others, on the contrary, seek to ignore all-Russian interests. In this regard, an urgent need arose to create a balanced mechanism for the formation of state power, which would ensure both national interests that complicate regionalism and the objective needs of the regions. In the proposed reform, in my opinion, it is quite possible to maintain such a balance of interests.

There is an opinion that the proportional election system interferes with the formation of a democratic state. I would like to note that there is no established ideal because

electoral system, which would be a perfect standard for determining the level of democratization of any state. Therefore, we believe that the state’s adoption of a proportional system of elections to its legislative body (or rather, to one of its chambers) cannot be considered a distance from democracy.

The main criterion for compliance of changes to these principles is the possibility of realizing a situation where the people are provided with effective access to the exercise of state power, and the people will be the only source of power and bearer of sovereignty. There is every reason to assert that the reforms proposed by the President comply with democratic norms.

Like any system, the proportional system is not without its drawbacks. Half of our Duma members are still elected under this system, and, according to experts, list deputies have little connection with voters in the regions81. It is also necessary to take into account the practice of incorrect compilation of lists. Often, completely unknown and sometimes dubious personalities end up there and secure their place in the Duma at the expense of popular politicians.

The proportional system will to some extent violate the right of non-party citizens to apply for election to parliament. But in order to implement any idea, a deputy elected in a single-mandate constituency must necessarily join a political or party group. He cannot solve the problem alone. In this case, there is nothing wrong with him immediately declaring his affiliation with one or another party before his election. And in principle, a person who is a member of a party is more rational. He has a program of action that coincides with the general party one. He will work more purposefully and productively. Such a person, unlike a non-party person, will not go through the “throwing” stage, weighing the pros and cons in favor of one or another parliamentary faction. All will be

41 Speech by the Chairman of the Central Election Commission A. A. Veshnyakov at an extended meeting of the Federation Council Committee on Constitutional Legislation on October 28, 2004.

be decided before the election, which is perhaps more honest politically, because clearer to voters. In contrast to the majoritarian system of relative majority, when a regional imbalance is formed along party lines, when using a proportional system, this effect is minimized. There are no distortions that come from majoritarian systems.

Let's look at the prospects and make predictions. Party lists will be formed by party organizations and will cover the entire territory of the Federation. Thus, they will become regional, and the federal part of the list will contain only three names - the most prominent party leaders.

Non-party deputies vying for a seat in parliament will need to either create their own parties or join existing ones. It is possible, while remaining non-partisan, to negotiate with parties and follow party lists.

The situation may be replete with interesting collisions. If for some reason a party member who has passed the Duma refuses his mandate, the party must lose it! mandate. However, there is an exception; it can only be made if party members are invited to work in the Russian Government.

Among the parties that have overcome the 7 percent threshold, deputy mandates should be distributed according to the share of votes cast in the relevant territory. 11 Ultimately, the number of deputy mandates a party receives will depend on the total number of voters who voted for it.

In order to strengthen the connection between deputies and voters, it is proposed locally to introduce a special norm into legislation obliging members of the State Duma to work in their regions during breaks between parliamentary sessions. Accordingly, failure by a deputy to fulfill his duties in his region may become grounds for his recall. Both his own party and the voters themselves will be able to initiate the recall of the people’s choice. The decision on the revocation will be made by the Supreme Court. In addition, the deputy will not

slowly be expelled from parliament if he decides to leave the ranks of the party that nominated him for another political organization.

The CEC also proposes to abandon the legal registration of electoral blocs. In addition, the legislative amendments that parliament will consider tighten the procedure for registering candidates for elective positions. For example, if among the signatures collected by a candidate in his support, the number of invalid ones is five percent, then he will be removed from the election race.

So, the proposed reforms have both advantages and disadvantages, but can they be avoided? An example is the majoritarian system of relative majority, where the winning party or candidate actually represents a minority of voters, because, having received a majority of seats in parliament, it almost never receives a majority of votes in the country as a whole, there is a loss of voters, and there are many such examples. Currently, the proportional system is used in Austria, Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland, and the Czech Republic, which indicates the consistency of this system. Regarding the appointment of governors, one cannot fail to note many positive aspects, in particular, “random people” will no longer appear in the post of governor, the governor will exercise control over security forces, etc.

In general, the reforms are aimed at balance in the country in order to ensure effective functioning and solution of the tasks that the citizens of the country pose to the authorities. I would like to end the article with the words of Mao Tse-tung: “A person who has felt the wind of change should not build a shield from the wind, but a windmill.”

Every person chooses something throughout his life. Elections are a constant and integral companion of political life.

1. Elections are the most common form of political behavior of citizens in modern democratic societies. Elections are the most important feature of a democratic regime, and the opportunity to choose and be elected is one of the main democratic values. Elections are the most effective mechanism through which civil society, represented by voters, regulates and influences government and other political structures. The importance of elections in different political regimes is not the same: in some countries there are no elections at all, in others they are episodic and insignificant, in others they play a central role in the mechanism of political power. Elections in the original sense of the word are the opportunity to choose between several or at least two candidates or parties. However, in political practice, elections are used not only by free democratic systems, but also by authoritarian and totalitarian regimes, where the possibility of choice is limited or absent altogether, and the electoral procedure is formal. As a rule, in authoritarian regimes, voting is “unanimous.” For example: the results of the elections in Albania in 1978 are as follows: 1,435,288 votes for the Albanian Labor Party, 0 for other parties, 3 spoiled ballots, 1 abstention. The Mongolian authoritarian regime in 1945 provided a unique example of a “national plebiscite” - according to official data, 100% of voters went to the polling stations and everyone voted. In an authoritarian regime, elections serve to mobilize people to achieve the latter’s goals, a way of uniting power with the “popular mass,” a means of praising the regime and promoting its achievements. It's a completely different matter in the conditions liberal democracy when elections are, firstly: a way to legitimize the political system and the rule of the political elite; secondly: recruiting the political elite; thirdly: representing the opinions and interests of voters, mobilizing voters to protect public values; fourth: developing the political consciousness of citizens through the formation of political problems and alternatives; fifthly: bringing political conflicts into the mainstream of the election procedure with a view to their peaceful resolution; sixth: carrying out the struggle for power on the basis of alternative programs and forming a constructive opposition capable of exercising control, and seventh: political participation of citizens.

In countries of liberal democracy, elections are held on the basis of the following principles of electoral law, enshrined legally: universal suffrage, equal suffrage, which provides for the possibility of a voter to have only one vote and, accordingly, the vote of each voter is formally equal to the vote of another voter, secret ballot, equality of candidates , competition between platforms and programs, the validity of election results within the time limits established by law.

The voter has to participate in various types of elections, depending on what level of representative bodies are formed as a result of elections; they distinguish between national, regional, local and other elections; according to the nature of the elections, they can be direct (the candidate is elected directly by voters) and multi-stage (if initially the composition of the electoral college is determined, which then, by voting, form the elective body). Direct voting is generally the most common and democratic. But it should be borne in mind that in unstable societies, when the political culture of the population is low, direct elections sometimes lead to unpredictable results. The democracy of the direct election procedure lies in the fact that there are no intermediate authorities between the voter and the candidate; the voter directly votes for the candidate for the elected position. Multistage elections are less common in political practice, most often used in the election of the upper houses of legislative bodies (France), the electoral system is used in presidential elections in a number of countries: USA, Finland, Brazil, etc.

Elections as a political institution and as a form of political participation have a long and interesting story of its development. For many centuries there was a struggle for universal suffrage, reflecting the desire of large sections of society to participate in political life. Today, in most developed countries, universal suffrage has been proclaimed and enshrined in legal acts.

Historically, the practice of limiting the electorate in elections through electoral qualifications has also developed. At first, election campaigns had rather strict qualifications, but with the development of democratic institutions in a number of countries, many electoral qualifications became history. One of the oldest and long time A fairly common qualification was a direct property qualification, which excluded from voting persons who did not own certain property in the form of real estate or money (in a number of US states there was a poll tax until 1964).

For quite a long time, suffrage was a privilege of the male population. However, thanks to the active struggle of women for their political rights, today in almost all countries women are active and full-fledged voters (in Great Britain, women received this right in 1918, in the USA in 1920, in France in 1944). Currently, women are deprived of the right to vote only in the countries of the Muslim East. One of the common legal means of excluding potential voters from political life is the residence qualification, which includes the requirement for voters to continuously reside in one locality for a period established by law (for example, in the Baltic states for at least 10 years.) A number of qualifications have become a thing of the past. , related to ethnicity, literacy level, service in the armed forces, etc. Currently, in many countries only the age limit has been preserved, and it is higher for candidates for elective office.

Suffrage includes the concepts of active and passive suffrage. Active suffrage is the right of a citizen established by law to personally participate in elections of representative bodies or officials as a voter, and to be a full participant in referendums. Passive suffrage is the subjective right of a citizen established by law to stand in elections as a candidate for representative bodies, that is, the right to be elected. Active and passive suffrage is usually conditioned by a number of legal requirements: citizenship of a given country, a certain age limit, etc.

One of the problems in liberal democracies is the passivity of the electorate. A significant portion of voters who meet all established qualifications and are officially allowed to vote, nevertheless, do not come to the polling stations. Thus, during the 1980s in Great Britain, on average, up to 75% of voters participated in voting, in the USA - 53%, in South Africa - 23%. The failure of voters to show up for elections is called absenteeism. There are many reasons for voters not turning up at elections, but the main one is their indifference and disappointment in the possible results of the elections. In the conditions of modern Russia, the reason for voter absenteeism is the violation of the legality of election procedures, numerous falsifications in the counting of votes, as well as the low level of legitimacy of the ruling elite. This is evidenced by the results of the first round of voting in the presidential elections in the summer of 1996, when many regions of Russia voted for the communist leader. In political practice, there are two types of absenteeism, political absenteeism, when a voter does not take part in elections for political reasons, and non-political, when there are no political reasons (including when a voter mistakenly votes with a spoiled ballot). The State Duma elections in 2003 clearly demonstrated the political apathy of the Russian population, who voted with their feet due to the predictability of the victory of United Russia.

In a number of countries, compulsory voting is introduced by law to combat absenteeism (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Latin American countries). Certain sanctions are proposed against persons who evade voting: a ban on entering into business contracts, employment in the government apparatus, monetary fines, etc.) Undoubtedly, these measures help increase voter activity, but do not always achieve the desired effect.

“You may not be involved in politics, but politics is still involved with you” C. Montalabert, French writer, speaker and politician

Constitution of the Russian Federation. Article 32. “Citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to participate in the management of state affairs, both directly and through their representatives.” Who are called citizens? Citizen is a person belonging to the permanent population of a certain state, enjoying its protection and endowed with a set of political and other rights and obligations.

ELECTIONS are the election of persons (representatives) to legislative bodies. Citizens directly participate in the formation of government bodies Citizens instruct their representatives in legislative bodies to resolve issues of public administration

Constitution of the Russian Federation Citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to elect and be elected to government bodies and local government bodies. . . Active suffrage The right of a citizen to personally participate in elections as a voter Passive suffrage The right of a citizen to be elected to government bodies

Constitution of the Russian Federation UNIVERSAL SELECTION RIGHT All citizens of the country, regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, who have reached the age of 18, have the right to elect bodies of state power and local self-government.

Constitution of the Russian Federation UNIVERSAL SELECTION RIGHT Cannot participate in elections Those recognized by the court as incompetent Those serving a sentence by court verdict Cannot be elected 18, 21, 35 10

to be elected as a deputy of local authorities - 18 years old to be elected as a deputy of the State Duma - 21 years old to be elected as the President of the Russian Federation - 35 years old to be elected as the President of the Russian Federation; residence in the Russian Federation for at least 10 years

DIRECT ELECTIONS: citizens elect the president, deputies of the State Duma and legislative bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation directly. The President of the Russian Federation is elected for a term of 6 years. The State Duma is elected for a term of 5 years. Elections in our country are held by SECRET VOTING: voting takes place in special booths, and other people do not know for whom this voter voted.

Forms of citizen participation in the political life of the country: 1 Elections 2 Referendums 3 Civil service 4 Appeal to authorities 5 Rallies, meetings, demonstrations 6 7 Participation in the work of public organizations Participation in the work of political parties and associations

A REFERENDUM is a popular vote on draft laws and other issues of national importance. Direct participation in making the most important government decisions December 12, 1993

Forms of citizen participation in the political life of the country: 1 Elections 2 Referendums 3 Civil service 4 Appeal to authorities 5 Rallies, meetings, demonstrations 6 7 Participation in the work of public organizations Participation in the work of political parties and associations

CIVIL SERVICE - professional activity of citizens in the executive, legislative, judicial authorities, in the army and law enforcement agencies.

Forms of citizen participation in the political life of the country: 1 Elections 2 Referendums 3 Civil service 4 Appeal to authorities 5 Rallies, meetings, demonstrations 6 7 Participation in the work of public organizations Participation in the work of political parties and associations

Appeals and letters from citizens to authorities - in the form of a complaint, that is, a citizen’s appeal with a demand for the restoration of a right violated by the action (or inaction) of individuals, organizations, state or self-government bodies - statements-proposals, which raise questions about improving activities government agency, about ways to solve a particular problem. The laws of the Russian Federation establish strict deadlines for resolving issues raised in appeals.

Forms of citizen participation in the political life of the country: 1 Elections 2 Referendums 3 Civil service 4 Appeal to authorities 5 Rallies, meetings, demonstrations 6 7 Participation in the work of public organizations Participation in the work of political parties and associations

1. There is freedom to hold only peaceful meetings, rallies and demonstrations, i.e. only those that do not pose a threat to state and public security, or the danger of violating the rights and freedoms of others. 2. Authorities warn in advance about holding meetings, rallies and demonstrations. 3. The police have the right to use force against rally participants if they violate the laws of the country (special means can be used (rubber batons, water cannons, tear gases).

Forms of citizen participation in the political life of the country: 1 Elections 2 Referendums 3 Civil service 4 Appeal to authorities 5 Rallies, meetings, demonstrations 6 7 Participation in the work of public organizations Participation in the work of political parties, associations, etc.

Direct participation in the discussion of topical issues of public policy. Use of freedom of speech, assembly, associations in order to speak about one’s position when discussing topical public problems in the press, at meetings, in socio-political organizations, and to contribute to the formation of public opinion.

Influence the position of deputies elected by citizens so that they represent the interests of their voters when adopting laws. Through meetings with deputies, letters addressed to them with demands for the implementation of election programs, taking into account the interests of voters in legislative activities

Constitution of the Russian Federation Article 29 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation states: 1. Everyone is guaranteed freedom of thought and speech. 5. ... freedom of media. Censorship is prohibited Every person has the right to: hold his own opinion, express his opinion freely, seek, receive, disseminate information orally, in writing or through print or artistic forms of expression.

The meaning of freedom of speech Are there any restrictions on FREEDOM OF SPEECH? Freedom of speech is not absolute! Restrictions: propaganda of violence, national hatred, religious hatred, calls for the overthrow of the existing system. Citizens who use freedom of speech to slander other people may be prosecuted

EXTREMISM (from the Latin word extremus - extreme) is a commitment to extreme views, methods, and actions that create a threat to society, the state, and citizens. Article 13 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation<. .="">5. It is prohibited to create and operate public associations whose goals or actions are aimed at violently changing the foundations of the constitutional system and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation, undermining the security of the state, creating armed groups, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred. https://www. youtube. com/watch? time_continue=1&v=Mr. CCRa. Aa. Hfk

Can an ordinary citizen influence politics? The requirement for a person who wants to actively participate in political life is political knowledge, the ability to independently navigate political information, collect and systematize material on a particular issue, and correctly evaluate it. Who can participate in the management of state affairs?

Homework 1. ORAL § 6 2. WRITTEN: What question or problem would you address to government authorities?

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

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Elections as a form of political participation. Factors influencing voting behavior

Plan

Introduction

1. The concept and essence of political participation

2. Forms and types of political participation

3. Elections as a form of political participation

4. Factors influencing voting behavior

Conclusion

Bibliography

political delegation electoral expression of will

Introduction

Political behavior is a set of reactions of social actors (social, communities, groups, individuals, etc.) to the activities of the political system. Political behavior can be divided into political participation and absenteeism.

Political participation is the influence of citizens on the functioning of the political system, the formation of political institutions and the process of making political decisions. American political scientists S. Verba and N. Ni emphasize that political participation is * “primarily an instrumental activity through which citizens try to influence the government so that it takes the actions they desire.”

Political participation includes actions to delegate authority (voting behavior); activist activities aimed at supporting candidates and parties in election campaigns; attending rallies and participating in demonstrations; participation in the activities of parties and interest groups.

1. The concept and essence of political participation

In every state-organized society, citizens are involved in politics to some extent. However, the very idea of ​​the need for people to participate in political life is understood by scientists differently. Thus, many followers of Rousseauist, Marxist and a number of other traditions in political thought insist on the need for almost universal participation of citizens in political life. For example, Lenin repeatedly spoke about the inevitability under socialism of “direct, law-enforced<...>participation of all citizens in government." Some theorists of the so-called. The new left (L. Goodman, T. Hayden, F. Fonon) are also convinced of the insufficient participation of citizens in “symbolic” politics (i.e. voting) and demand the mandatory involvement of the population in the decision-making process. To a large extent, similar ideas are represented in modern theories of participatory democracy V.S. Komarovsky. Democracy and elections in Russia: theory and history of the issue.// Socis. - 2006. - No. 6. - P.28. .

At the same time, theoretical (and ideological) opponents of this point of view believe that “the only means of participation available to citizens<...>are voting for leaders and discussions.” More than fifty years ago, the American scientist Lipmann expressed the idea that to expect the average American to be interested in government affairs is to assume that he has an almost pathological need for political knowledge and action.

Apparently, it should be recognized that the need and degree of citizen involvement in politics depend on the specific situation, the spiritual climate in society, as well as on the state of both the political system and the person himself. However, it is also clear that in general, in real life, most citizens have neither the means nor the opportunities for constant participation in politics. For people who do not want to make a professional career as a politician, this area of ​​life, requiring additional strength, knowledge, psychological readiness for competition and other internal qualities and efforts, most often is not internally attractive. On the contrary, it often becomes a sphere of release negative emotions person, social overexcitation, personality crisis, the manifestation of which is various forms of illegal behavior, political terrorism, corruption, etc.

Most often, the theory indicates the following reasons for an individual’s inclusion in politics: certain states of a person’s consciousness (for example, a feeling of a threat to one’s social position - Laswell; a rational and prudent awareness of one’s interests and the need to gain a new status - Lane; the desire for success in life and public recognition -- Downes; understanding of public duty and the realization of one's own rights, fear for self-preservation in the social system, etc.), achieving a certain cultural and educational level; availability of information and a number of other factors. The ability of the state (political structures and institutions) to forcefully include citizens in the sphere of politics is considered as a special reason.

Taken together, all these motives express the relationship between an individual’s ideas about his civil status and the real opportunities provided by the state to strengthen or change this social status. Thus, political participation reveals the process of including an individual (groups of citizens) in the mechanisms of articulation and aggregation of his (their) significant interests. It characterizes all the actions of individuals and groups of citizens seeking to influence the content and nature of political decisions of bodies and institutions of government on a national scale or at the local level.

2. Forms and types of political participation

The variety of forms and varieties of political participation depends on certain properties of the acting subject (gender, age, occupation, religious affiliation, education, etc.), the regime of government (and, consequently, the set of means that the state provides to citizens to protect their rights and interests), as well as on the specific political situation.

In accordance with these conditions, American political scientists S. Verba and L. Pai identify the following types of political participation: completely passive forms of political behavior of citizens; participation of people only in elections of representative bodies; involvement of individuals only in solving local problems; political behavior of active participants in election campaigns; the behavior of political activists who extend their activity to the entire sphere of politics; participation as a form professional activity policy.

Their compatriot Milbert prefers to talk about “active” forms of political participation (management of state and party institutions, activities of candidates for representative bodies, organization of election campaigns, etc.), “intermediate” (participation in political meetings, support of parties with monetary donations, contacts with officials and political leaders, etc.), “observant” (wearing banners at demonstrations, trying to involve other citizens in the voting or discussion process, etc.), as well as the “apathetic” attitude of citizens towards Nikiforov’s policies Yu.I. Political science: Course of lectures. - Ufa: Bashkir University, 2005. - P.88. .

With all the diversity of forms and varieties of political participation, it is obvious that they all differ in scale and sphere of social distribution. In other words, an individual’s appeal to political means of protecting his interests can either involve his participation in resolving issues of a national nature, or concern local problems, be limited by the framework of a local production team, territorial self-government, etc. At the same time, the forms of political participation themselves can be both direct, expressed by the immediate actions of the individual, and indirect, characterizing his inclusion in politics through various groups, organizations and structures.

An essential characteristic is the degree of intensity of political participation. If one extreme is the activity of party activists, political movements, interest groups, etc., then the other is characterized by apathy, alienation of people from politics, complete indifference to this area of ​​public life. Equally, the reasons for the apoliticality of citizens can be disappointment in the political course pursued by the authorities, rejection from the social system as a whole (for example, various lumpenized layers), focus on purely personal, everyday needs, or complete trust in the ruling elites and leaders. In turn, the reasons that force people to spend a significant part of their lives in political battles are just as diverse. However, in any case, the extremes of political participation are very dangerous. Thus, excessive involvement in political relations absolutizes the competitive style of social existence as a whole, increases the nervous load, gives a person’s moral principles an excessive target orientation, forcing one to look at life through the prism of group relationships. On the other hand, long-term alienation from power, and consequently the lack of skills in conducting discussions and finding compromises, creates a predisposition in people to radicalize their social demands and even extremism, and provokes explosive forms of relations between the population and the authorities.

The main and, as experience shows, the optimal form of political participation for the majority of the population are elections to representative bodies of power. This form of interaction between the individual and the state outlines clear areas of competence of elites and non-elites, provides opportunities for people to demonstrate very different degrees of activity and, most importantly, has a temporary extension that does not require excessive psychological stress. Characterizing the most common forms of political participation, it should be said that they can be organized and unorganized, systematic and periodic, focused on traditional and non-traditional forms of relationship between the individual and the government. From the point of view of motivation of political actions, we can talk about autonomous (expressing consciously determined forms of inclusion of an individual in politics) and mobilized forms of political participation (characterizing the forced entry of citizens into politics under pressure from the state or other political structures). In terms of attitude towards the laws in force in the state, it is necessary to distinguish between conventional (i.e. legal, consistent with legislation) and non-conventional (illegal) forms of political participation.

3. Elections as a form of political participation

One of essential elements modern political systems is the institution of general elections. Thanks to him, the political rights of citizens to form representative authorities are realized - from local bodies to the president.

Elections are a way to change the ruling elites through the expression of the will of the population, an instrument of legitimation and stabilization of power. They make it possible to identify the balance of political forces in states, states, states, etc., and determine the degree of public confidence in parties and their programs. During the electoral process, political socialization is especially active, political values ​​are learned, and political skills and experience are acquired.

Finally, elections are a form of population control over the ruling elite. If the government does not express the interests of voters, elections provide an opportunity to replace it and hand over the reins of power to the opposition, which, as a rule, goes to elections criticizing the existing government. In the run-up to elections, under pressure from voters, the government itself may adjust course in an effort to win voter support.

A society's readiness to hold elections is the most important sign of its democracy and ability to solve pressing problems through peaceful political means.

Thus, elections represent a kind of political market. Contenders offer voters their programs and promises in exchange for power. As in any market, there is deception and speculation on the trust of voters. Therefore, elections are effective if there is legislation on electoral systems and the existence of civil society as a set of non-state entities that realize the interests of citizens (parties, trade unions, voter clubs, various associations, unions, centers, foundations, etc.).

The election procedure is regulated by the electoral law of each country. The legislation reflects provisions on the procedure for nominating candidates, requirements for candidates, voting and counting procedures, opportunities to use media services and sources of funding.

Democratic elections are determined by a number of principles - a kind of generally accepted norms that have absolute value, which make elections democratic. These principles are ensured by the right to vote - the right to vote.

The constitutions of countries with parliamentary democracy enshrine, first of all, the very principle of electing representative bodies and the inalienable right of the people to form them. The text of the constitution itself, as a rule, reveals the content of the principle of universality of elections. The principle of universality means that all citizens of a given state have the right to active - as voters, and passive - as candidates for government, participation in elections. This right is limited by a number of qualifications: age limit, incapacity qualification, which excludes, for example, mentally ill citizens from participating in elections. There are also moral qualifications that limit the rights or exclude from participation in elections persons held in prison by a court verdict.

An indispensable principle of modern democratic elections is equal suffrage. Its practical implementation is that deputies are elected to parliament, each of whom represents the same number of citizens, and each voter has the same share of participation in parliamentary elections. Compliance with this principle largely depends on the correct “cutting” of electoral districts V.P. Pugachev, A.I. Soloviev. Introduction to political science: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2006. - P.108. .

Next principle- immediacy of elections. The essence of this principle is that voters directly (without intermediaries, delegates or representatives) elect members of parliament and other representatives of political authorities.

The most important principle of democratic elections is competitiveness, equal participation in elections of competing parties, movements, candidates representing various social groups of society.

Finally, the principle related to the voting procedure is secret voting. This principle is ensured by various technical methods that reduce the likelihood of external influence on voters.

Any elections are held within a period clearly defined by law. This period is called the election campaign. Each election campaign has its own calendar of pre-election events, taking into account the deadlines provided for by law. Thus, according to Russian legislation, the election date must be set no later than 72 days in advance, candidates must be registered 40 days in advance, etc.

Depending on the time sequence and characteristics of the tasks being solved, the electoral process is divided into several stages: 1) the preparatory stage, which characterizes the socio-political soil from which elections “grow”, as well as organizational measures that make it possible to hold elections; 2) nomination of candidates, ending with their registration; 3) propaganda campaign; 4) voting and summing up the election results. Strictly speaking, only the last three stages directly characterize the electoral process itself.

The election campaign begins after preparatory activities have been carried out and election dates have been officially set. This term itself applies to both the entire state and individual candidates or parties. In the first case, the election campaign is a complex of organizational, political, information, propaganda and campaigning activities to directly ensure the electoral process in the state, in the second - a system of measures aimed at the success of a specific candidate or party.

The first step of the election campaign is the nomination of candidates and (or) parties (movements). Exist various ways their nomination and registration: 1) collection of signatures in support of a candidate or party; 2) providing a registration fee or cash deposit, as well as documents indicating that the candidate has certain support, for example, a list of party activists or members of a support group; 3) automatic registration of candidates if they occupy positions contested in the upcoming elections.

To conduct the election campaign, parties and individual candidates create election headquarters. Plans for campaigning and propaganda events, meetings of the candidate with voters are developed, and candidate representatives (observers) are appointed to election commissions. In the conditions of modern Russia, such headquarters are created by candidates representing power structures; the opposition is deprived of such an opportunity due to lack of material resources.

As a rule, in most countries, election campaigning ends one day before the opening of polling stations. This is done so that voters themselves have the opportunity to independently think about and comprehensively make their choice - for whom and for what exactly to cast their vote.

The conduct of elections is ensured by government agencies: election commissions, executive authorities, courts, and the prosecutor's office. They ensure the compilation of voter lists, registration of polling stations, printing of ballots, organization of voting, compliance with the rule of law, tabulation of voting results, and notification of voters about election results.

The law provides for a certain fund of money that a candidate can use to conduct an election campaign. This fund is created from the personal funds of the candidate, contributions from the relevant party or movement, and sponsorship donations. For opposition candidates, this is the most difficult and complex issue. However, practice shows that such funds are created in larger or smaller sizes by almost all candidates. It is stipulated that the candidate does not have the right to spend more money than is provided for by law, although this requirement is constantly violated, even during presidential elections.

Nowadays, voting is carried out using either special voting machines or ballot papers. The latter method of voting is much more widespread. The main place of voting is polling stations.

Immediately after the completion of voting, the election commission or other special election body begins counting its results. There should be no break or delay between voting and vote counting, as this can be used for various types of fraud. In international practice, the most common violations of voting and counting rules are the production and recording of extra ballots, direct attribution of votes to one of the deputies, the seizure of ballots cast for an undesirable candidate, etc.

4. Factors influencing voting behavior

Among a number of factors influencing the creation of certain electoral tendencies of the Russian voter, we will highlight one of the main ones - the formation of a new mass mentality. Over the years of transformation in our country, with the cessation of a single ideology, very significant changes have occurred in the public consciousness, although it is too early to consider them as an established mentality of civil society. In order to assume what features of mentality may appear in the future, one must have a good idea of ​​what will inevitably undergo changes. This can be especially clearly seen in the process of regionalization. The process of regionalization in recent years has led not only to the political independence of individual regions, but also to the loss of a unified political mentality, its differentiation according to regional characteristics and characteristics.

The problem of Russian mentality is one of the main ones when analyzing the formation of the foundations of the electoral behavior of Russian voters. This problem is multifaceted. It involves elucidating the potential readiness of Russians for the formation of a new type of social mentality in Russia and its influence on the choice of paths for the further development of society.

The task of political socialization of the individual is the formation of a mature citizen, not subject to fluctuations in the political situation, capable of making decisions on current issues without outside help. Naturally, the process of personality formation is very important, but no less important is the adaptation (but not opportunism) of the population to the new political reality. This process of resocialization ranges from a radical revision of previous political values ​​to the desire to maintain one's views unchanged despite the pressure of the political environment.

This process turned out to be incredible in scale in Russia. Over the years, I had to learn new political vocabulary and norms. Russians changed both their political consciousness and behavior in order to express their vital interests in the sphere of politics in the context of the new political reality.

The conducted studies show that one of the features value system Russians is its relative stability. Values ​​change at a fairly slow pace. There is a shift in emphasis from socially significant, collectivist values ​​towards personal, individualistic, family values, and material well-being. From which we can conclude that there have been some changes in the mindset of Russians, quite significant ones, in a number of positions.

In general, these changes indicate emerging trends towards a more rational perception by people of the reality around them.

This trend is expressed, in particular, in the growing role of economic and social factors, as opposed to political and ideological ones, which until recently had a leading role in shaping electoral choice. In turn, this leads to people becoming more aware of what they want, what they are willing to tolerate, and what they absolutely reject. This is especially clearly manifested in the population’s assessments of the general situation in the country, as well as their own situation. Maltsev V.A. Fundamentals of Political Science: Textbook for Universities. - M.: ITRK RSPP, 2007. - P.143. .

The attitude of Russian citizens to the processes taking place in the country is far from clear. Through a system of complex mediations and interdependencies, it determines changes in their mentality and value orientations, both short-term and long-term. At the same time, the value system of Russians is quite stable. The ongoing changes in the distribution and nature of values ​​indicate that they are not changes of an alternative nature. It is obvious that the mentality and behavior of Russians is characterized by a tendency to realize their own interests and realize them through the institutions of civil society. Whether it will become dominant and sustainable will depend on the development of the political process, the position of power structures, regional and cultural characteristics, which are very large in the country. From all this we can draw a conclusion about the complex and contradictory nature of the electorate of modern Russia, which distinguishes it from the electorate of other countries.

The state of the Russian Federation at present can be defined as socially tense and unstable, with a significant increase in the number of negative phenomena. Therefore, today, identifying economic criteria in the formation of electoral preferences is one of the pressing problems. This issue is often addressed by Russian researchers who, along with numerical research methods, also use so-called qualitative methods. They find out such features of the mood of the electorate that make it possible to accurately formulate the ideology, strategy and tactics of the election campaign.

In recent years, we can talk about certain changes in electoral behavior and the mechanisms of its formation. Data from various studies show that most people live with problems that are far from the political life of the country. They acquire the quality of an “electorate” as the problem of elections becomes more urgent. At the same time, there are people whom you can wake up in the middle of the night two years before the elections and ask them the question: “Who will you vote for if the elections take place tomorrow?” and get a meaningful and unambiguous answer.

Conclusion

The most common type is electoral behavior. Its focus is influenced primarily by the identification of a particular voter with a certain social group and/or party. Psychological closeness to a group limits the range of political orientations and alternatives, simplifying political choice.

Numerous studies have shown that voter preferences are influenced by many factors (gender, age, religious affiliation, characteristics of primary socialization, etc.), but there are some general trends in the behavior of individual electoral groups. Thus, men, in general, participate in elections much more actively than women. Educated citizens demonstrate a high degree of political participation in the electoral process. People aged 35 to 55 are more active than young people or older people. Activity is influenced by marital status and membership in any organizations. The views and preferences of women are more conservative than those of men. Married non-working women often adhere to the political views of their husbands. Young people, to a certain extent, gravitate towards radicalism and willingly give their votes to those who promise quick changes. Its electoral orientations are at odds with those of the majority of society, and its level of activity is relatively low. Older people gravitate towards left-wing parties.

Of course, the above trends are not absolute. Often, under the influence of momentary moods and impressions, a voter rapidly changes his orientations and preferences. It is no coincidence that some political scientists, not without a sense of humor, compare the character of the average voter with the character of a woman.

Bibliography

Komarovsky V.S. Democracy and elections in Russia: theory and history of the issue.// Socis. - 2006. - No. 6.

Krasnov B.I. Fundamentals of political science: Course of lectures. - M.: NMC SPO, 2004.

Maltsev V.A. Fundamentals of Political Science: Textbook for Universities. - M.: ITRK RSPP, 2007.

Nikiforov Yu.I. Political science: Course of lectures. - Ufa: Bashkir University, 2005.

Olshansky D.V. Fundamentals of political psychology. -- Ekaterinburg: Business book, 2001.

Pugachev V.P., Soloviev A.I. Introduction to political science: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2006.

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