Posted On 04/07/2018

– physical

– mental (operational, cameraman, creative)

By means of labor:

– manual

– mechanized

– automated

– automatic

According to working conditions:

– comfortable

– extreme

– harmful, dangerous

On labor organization:

– static

– dynamic

– monotonous

- individual

– collective

According to the requirements for the subject of labor:

– ability level

– vocational education

– professional experience

- health status

- physical development

Human operator– a person engaged in labor activity, the basis of which is interaction with the object of labor, the machine and the external environment through information systems (models) and controls.

It should be noted that identifying the significance of a particular characteristic for each of the components of activity in relation to a specific profession or specialty requires conducting a psychological analysis of this activity, constructing a professiogram and psychogram of the labor process (Zinchenko V.P., Munipov V.M., 1979; Klimov E.A., 1996; “Fundamentals of engineering psychology”, 1986). The presented list of classification characteristics labor activity is, to a certain extent, conditional - some types of activities for certain components may be characterized not by one, but by several characteristics: for example, the activities of the shift manager of nuclear power plant operators in content belong to the category of operational and operator labor, and pilots of international lines - to the category of operator labor with elements of physical activity of a static (posture) and dynamic (working with the steering wheel, levers, pedals) nature.

In labor psychology and engineering psychology, considerable attention is paid to the study of the psychological characteristics of operator activity, issues of ensuring its improvement and design. This situation is due to:

1) the ever-increasing pace of technical development, the development and implementation of various control systems for moving objects, technological and communication processes and, as a consequence, the emergence of new operator professions;

2) the high complexity and responsibility of operator activities, accompanied in some cases by increased danger, as evidenced, for example, by accident statistics in aviation and nuclear power plants;

3) the presence of phenomena of systemic organization of the components of operator activity, their close relationship and interdependence, which determines the need to consider this activity as carried out in the “man-machine-environment” system (Lomov B.F., 1966; Kotik M.A., 1978; Bodrov V.A., Orlov V.Ya., 1998).

23.2. System "man-machine-environment"

The “man-machine-environment” system consists of a human operator (a group of operators), a machine (technical devices, tools) through which the operator carries out labor activities, and the environment ( external conditions labor) in which this activity is carried out. In The Handbook of Engineering Psychology (1982) human operator is defined as a person carrying out labor activity, the basis of which is interaction with the subject of work, the machine and the external environment through information systems (models) and controls.

All numerous “man-machine-environment” systems have a number of common features They are usually:

1) complex dynamic systems consisting of interacting elements of various natures and characterized by changes in the structure and (or) interconnections of components over time;

2) goal-oriented systems, that is, pursuing a given goal by changing their behavior when external conditions change, which is due to the inclusion of a person in the system;

3) adaptive systems that can adapt to changing working conditions due to the flexibility and plasticity of human behavior and the adaptability of the technical parts of the system;

4) self-organizing systems capable of reducing entropy (uncertainty) after the system is removed from a stable, equilibrium state under the influence of various types of disturbances, which is determined by purposeful human activity.

Thus, all the considered features of SCMS are determined by the presence of a person in their composition, his ability to correctly solve emerging problems depending on the specific conditions and situation.

The basis for the classification of SCHMS (Fig. 23-2) is made up of four groups of characteristics:

purpose of the system,

characteristics of the human element,

type and structure of the machine link and

type of interaction between system components.

According to their intended purpose, the following classes of systems can be distinguished:

– managers (a person’s task is to control a machine - a car, an airplane, a rolling mill, etc.);

– servicing, which includes control, measuring and repair systems (the human task is to monitor the condition of equipment, troubleshoot and eliminate them);

Rice. 23-2. Classification of SCHMS

– educational, for example, simulators and simulators (ensure the development of certain skills in a person);

– information – location and information retrieval systems (provide search, accumulation and receipt necessary for a person information);

– research – information and expert systems, modeling stands, measuring instruments (used in the analysis of certain phenomena, when searching for new information).

According to the characteristics of the human link, CMMS are divided into monosystems (they consist of one person and one or more technical devices) and polysystems (consisting of a team of operators interacting with a complex of technical devices).

According to the characteristics of the machine link, we can distinguish:

1) instrumental systems (their composition includes tools and instruments as technical devices);

2) simple systems (include stationary and non-stationary technical devices and the person using these devices);

3) complex systems, for example, a power plant, a computer complex (in addition to a person, they include a set of technologically related, but different in their functional purpose, devices and machines to obtain a single product);

4) system-technical complexes (the most complex SCMS with a team of operators involved in the use of these systems, and not fully defined connections).

Based on the type of functional connections between man and machine, CMMS are divided into continuous interaction systems, in which a person constantly monitors and controls a moving object or technological processes, and episodic interaction systems, in which control and management are carried out regularly (“operator–computer”) or probabilistically ( “operator – targeted control system”, “setter – machine”).

Any CPMS must have specified properties, which are incorporated into it during design and implemented during operation. The properties of the SSMS are understood as its objective features that manifest themselves during operation. Quantitative characteristics of a particular property are called indicators of the quality of the SSMS. There are a number of quality indicators that influence human activity in the SSMS and at the same time depend on his activity:

1. Performance (regulation time) - determined by the time it takes for information to pass through the closed circuit of the SMMS:

where Tc is the delay (processing) time of information in i-th link of the SCMS, k – the number of sequentially connected units of the control system, which can be both technical units and operators.

2. Reliability – characterizes the accuracy (correctness) of solving the problems facing the SCHMS. It is estimated by the probability of correctly solving the problem, which, according to statistical data, is determined by the ratio:

where is Mosh and N– respectively, the number of incorrectly solved and the total number of solved problems.

3. The accuracy of the operator’s work is determined by the degree of deviation of some parameter, adjusted or measured by the operator, from the specified or nominal value. Quantitatively, the accuracy of the work is assessed by the amount of error with which the operator measures, sets or adjusts this parameter:

where Mon is the nominal or set value of the parameter, Pop is the value of this parameter actually measured or adjusted by the operator.

4. Timeliness of solving the problem of CPMS - is assessed by the probability that the problem will be solved in a time not exceeding the permissible:

where Рсв is the probability of a timely decision, M ns is the number of untimely decisions, N– total number of solutions to problems.

5. Human labor safety in emergency medical services - assessed by the probability of safe work:

where Pvoz is the probability of a hazardous or harmful production situation occurring for humans i-type, Roche – probability of incorrect operator actions in i-situations, n– number of possible traumatic situations.

6. The degree of automation of the SSMS – characterizes relative amount information processed by automatic devices and is determined by the formula:

where Ka is the automation coefficient, Nop is the amount of information processed by the operator, Nschms is the amount of information circulating in the SCHMS.

Ergonomic indicators - the ergonomics of the system, its controllability, maintainability, adaptability and habitability - are of great importance in the analysis and assessment of SSMS. They take into account the totality of specific properties of the SMMS, ensuring the possibility of effective operator activities in it.

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SEE MORE:

Labor activity. The process of labor activity. Types of work activity

The concept of professionography. Professionogram. Psychogram. Professional card.

Emotions. Definition. Components of emotions. Classification of emotions. Functions of emotions. The influence of emotions on human activity.

4. Memory: concept, characteristics, types. Stages of memory fixation. Memory and learning. Methods and techniques for improving memory.

QUESTIONS FOR THE STATE EXAMINATION IN THE DISCIPLINE “Occupational Safety”

Labor protection service in the organization. Committees (commissions) on labor protection. The main tasks of the labor protection service at the enterprise. Responsibilities of the employer and employee to ensure safe conditions and labor protection. Occupational safety training and occupational safety training. Financing activities to improve working conditions and safety.

Accident at work. Priority measures taken in connection with an industrial accident. Procedure for investigating industrial accidents. The procedure for preparing materials for investigating an industrial accident.

Features of women's labor protection. Benefits for pregnant women and women with young children. Features of labor protection for persons under 18 years of age. Benefits and compensation for difficult, harmful and dangerous working conditions.

Terminal state. Causes. Clinical death. Factors influencing the duration of clinical death. Signs of clinical death (absolute and relative).

Type of work activity

Complex of primary resuscitation measures.

QUESTIONS FOR THE STATE EXAMINATION IN THE DISCIPLINE “Psychophysiology of Professional Activity”

1. Activity: concept, basic forms. Structure of work activity. Parameters and specifics of work activity. General requirements to work. Profession and specialty. Classification of professions.

Activity- this is a specific human form of active relationship to the surrounding world, the content of which is its purposeful change and transformation.

Main forms of activity:

• work activity;
• educational activities
• leisure.
• a game;

The highest form of human activity is work

Work represents a purposeful human activity, during which he, with the help of tools of labor, influences nature and uses it to create use values ​​necessary to satisfy needs.

Labor activity- conscious, energy-consuming, generally recognized as expedient human activity, requiring effort and work.

Educational activities- activity specifically aimed at mastering methods of objective and cognitive actions, generalized theoretical knowledge.

Leisure- this is the part of non-working time that remains with a person after fulfilling immutable non-production duties (moving to and from work, sleeping, eating, and other types of household self-service).

A game- this is a special type of human activity, (possibly as a form of entertainment), created on the basis of rules that determine the goals of the game and the permitted means to achieve them.

The structure of work activity includes the following: elements

1) consciously set goals- why is the activity carried out?

2) objects of labor- what is transformed in the process of activity (materials, people)

3) means of labor- with the help of which the transformation occurs (devices, instruments, mechanisms)

4) technologies used- techniques and methods used in the process of activity;

5) labor operations-work activities

Parameters and specifics of work activity.

Labor activity has the following parameters:

• labor productivity- the amount of products produced per unit of time;
• labor efficiency- the ratio of material and labor costs, on the one hand, and the results obtained, on the other;
• level of division of labor- distribution of specific production functions between participants in the labor process (on a societal scale and in specific labor processes).

Specifics A person’s work activity is determined by the functions he performs, the degree of their diversity and complexity, and the level of independence and creativity of the employee.

The nature of the requirements for a participant in labor activity is determined by the specifics of labor activity and, above all, the specific content of labor and its place in the system of division of labor.

General requirements for work activity:

1) the employee must master all the techniques and methods of production that make up the technological process (professionalism requirement);

2) the employee’s qualifications cannot be lower than the level determined by the nature of the work.

3) the employee is required to unconditionally comply with labor laws and internal labor regulations, comply with the specified parameters of the production process, fulfill obligations arising from the content of the employment contract (requirements of labor, technological, performance, contractual discipline).

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Work- This is the activity that distinguishes man from animals. It was labor, according to F. Engels, that contributed to the formation of man as a social being.

Labor activity manifests itself in various areas of human life. He works at work, at home, at his dacha, etc. Depending on the result, labor is divided into productive and unproductive. Productive work associated with the creation of a variety of material objects. For example, a person works in a factory, producing parts from which they then assemble a product (TV, vacuum cleaner, car, etc.). At the end of the working day, he comes home, prepares food and devotes free time favorite activity (hobby), for example, assembling a radio, carving figurines from wood, etc. On weekends in the summer at his dacha, he cultivates a vegetable garden and harvests in the fall. These are all examples of productive work.

Unproductive labor is aimed not at the creation, but at the maintenance of material objects. In the economic sphere, non-productive labor is associated with the provision of services: transportation of goods, their loading, warranty service, etc. In the domestic sphere, unproductive labor includes cleaning the apartment, washing dishes, home repairs, etc.

Both productive and unproductive labor are equally important. If there was only the production of industrial products, but no repair services, then landfills would be filled with broken household appliances, cars, furniture, etc. Why buy a new thing if it makes more sense to repair the old one?

But humanity creates not only material objects. It has accumulated enormous cultural experience, contained in literature, science, and art. How to classify this type of work? In this case they talk about intellectual work or spiritual production. To identify this type of labor, a special classification was required, namely, the division of labor into mental And physical.

For many centuries of its history, humanity knew mainly only physical labor. Many works were carried out with the help of human muscular power. Sometimes humans were replaced by animals. Mental work was the prerogative of monarchs, priests and philosophers.

With the development of science and technology, the advent of machines in industrial production, physical labor was increasingly replaced by mental labor. The share of workers engaged in mental work was constantly increasing. These are scientists, engineers, managers, etc. In the 20th century. It is not without reason that they started talking about the objective merging of mental and physical labor. After all, even the simplest work now requires a certain amount of knowledge.

Nature gives us very little in finished form. Without labor, you cannot even pick mushrooms and berries in the forest. In most cases natural materials are subject to complex processing. Thus, labor activity is necessary in order to adapt the products of nature to human needs.

Needs are met target labor activity. It is necessary to realize not only the need itself, but also to comprehend the ways of satisfying it and the efforts that need to be made for this.

To achieve the goals of work, a variety of facilities. These are various tools of labor, adapted to perform a particular job. When starting any work, you need to know exactly what tools are needed. this moment. You can dig up a garden at your dacha with a shovel, but the field cannot be plowed without the use of special equipment. You can dig a hole for a long time with the same shovel, or you can do it in a few minutes with an excavator. Thus, you need to know the most effective ways to influence the object of labor , those. to what undergoes transformation in the process of labor activity. Such methods of influencing the object of labor are called technologies, and the set of operations to transform the initial product into the final one - technological process.

The more advanced tools and the more correct technology are used, the higher will be labor productivity. It is expressed in the amount of products produced per unit of time.

Each type of labor activity consists of separate operations, actions, and movements. Their nature depends on the technical equipment of the labor process, the qualifications of the worker, and in a broad sense - on the level of development of science and technology. In our time of scientific and technological progress, the level of technical equipment of labor is constantly increasing, but this does not exclude the use of human physical labor in some cases. The fact is that not all labor operations can be mechanized. The technology is not always applicable when loading and unloading goods, during construction, assembling the final product, etc.

Labor activity, depending on its nature, goals, expenditure of effort and energy, can be individual And collective. The individual work of a craftsman, a housewife, a writer and an artist. They independently carry out all labor operations until the final result is obtained. In most cases, labor operations are, one way or another, divided between individual subjects of the labor process: workers at a factory, builders at a house, scientists at a research institute, etc. Even initially seemingly individual, labor activity can represent part of the totality of labor operations of many people. So, to improve the land, a farmer buys fertilizers produced by other people, and then sells the crop through wholesale centers. This situation is called specialization, or division of labor . For a more effective organization of the labor process, communication between its participants is necessary. Through communication, information is transmitted and joint activities are coordinated.

The concept of “labor” is synonymous with the concept of “work”. In a broad sense, they really coincide. However, if with difficulty we can

To call any activity to transform the surrounding reality and satisfy needs, then work is most often called activity that is carried out for a reward. Thus, work is a type of labor activity.

The increasing complexity of work activity and the development of new types of work have led to the emergence of many professions. Their number is increasing more and more with the development of science and technology.

Profession is a type of work activity with a specific nature and purpose of work functions, for example, doctor, teacher, lawyer. The presence of special, more in-depth skills and knowledge in a given profession is called specialty. Even at the stage of training in the specialty, it can be carried out specialization, for example, a surgeon or general practitioner, a physics teacher or a mathematics teacher, etc.

But it is not enough to have a specific specialty. Gotta get the skills practical work on her. The level of training, experience, knowledge of the given specialty is called qualifications . It is determined by rank or rank. Discharges exist among workers at industrial enterprises and among school teachers. Titles are awarded to figures in science and higher education.

The higher the qualifications of the employee, the higher his work is paid. If he changes jobs, it is easier for him to find more a good place. If they say about a person: “This is a highly qualified worker, a professional in his field,” then they mean the high quality of the work he performs.

Professionalism requires the employee to do more than just mechanically follow the instructions of the manager. Having received an order, a person must think about how best to carry it out. It is impossible to provide for the weight of situations that arise in the labor process in rules, orders, and instructions. The employee must find the optimal solution that allows him to fulfill the assignment given to him efficiently and on time. This creative approach to completing tasks is called initiative.

Any work activity, be it chopping wood in the country or performing complex production processes at a factory, requires the implementation of special rules. Some of them are related to the technological process, i.e. consistency and correctness of all labor operations performed by the employee. Others are based on compliance with safety regulations. Everyone knows that you cannot disassemble electrical appliances unless they are disconnected from the power supply, make fires near wooden buildings, drive a car with a faulty engine cooling system, etc. Failure to comply with such rules can lead to both the breakdown of an item that has been improperly used and harm to human life and health. But a person’s work activity often takes place in a team, and failure to comply with equipment operating standards and safety regulations can harm the health of other people.

Play a major role in the work process working conditions . These include workplace equipment, noise level, temperature, vibration, room ventilation, etc.

Particularly harmful extreme conditions labor cause severe occupational diseases, major accidents, serious injuries and even death.

During the period of formation and development of industrial production, the worker began to be considered, along with machines, as part of the production process. This approach excluded initiative in the performance of work duties. Workers felt that they were being dominated as individuals by machines. They developed a negative attitude towards work as something forced, performed only when necessary. This phenomenon of industrial production is called dehumanization of work.

There is currently a problem humanization of labor, those. his humanization. It is necessary to eliminate factors that threaten human health. First of all, it is necessary to replace heavy, monotonous physical labor with the work of machines. It is necessary to prepare educated, comprehensively developed workers who are capable of a creative approach to the labor functions they perform; increase the level of work culture, i.e. improve all components of the labor process (working conditions, relationships between people in the team, etc.). An employee should not be confined to the narrow scope of the labor functions he performs. He should know the content of the labor process of the entire team, understand the features of production at the theoretical and technological level. Only in this case will work become the basis for a person’s self-realization.

The opposite of work activity is leisure activities. Lawyers call all time free from work rest time. This does not mean that during such periods a person does nothing. He can work, doing housework, he can go for a walk or go on a trip. All these ways of spending free time involve taking active actions. One of these actions is a game.

Game activity, unlike work activity, is focused not so much on the result as on the process itself. Games arose in ancient times and were associated with religion, art, sports, and military exercises. Scientists will probably never figure out how games originated. Perhaps they emerged from the ritual dances of ancient people, or perhaps they were a way of teaching the younger generation

Proponents of the theory of the biological origin of play believe that games are characteristic of many animals and are based on instincts. For example, during games, young animals learn behavioral patterns of representatives of their species, and mating games help attract a partner. The opposite point of view is that play is a specific human activity.

If we consider play as a type of human activity, then we can say that it is more characteristic of children. With the help of games, children learn, communicate, learn something new, and develop their mental and physical abilities. There are many types of games: with objects, plot, role-playing, movement, educational, sports, etc. As a person gets older, the number of games in his life decreases. Some disappear completely, remaining as childhood memories, others are replaced by sports and art. New types of “adult” games are appearing, primarily gambling: cards, slot machines, casinos, etc. Excessive passion for them often leads to serious consequences: a player can lose all his property, leave his relatives without a livelihood, and even end your life.

Originality play activity, especially in childhood, is most manifested in its duality. The player performs real actions, although they are conditional, allowing him to act in an imaginary environment. It is no coincidence that during the game, children utter the words “as if,” emphasizing that the situation is fictitious.

The distribution of roles plays an important role in the game. Each of the players strives to take the main, best role. There may not be enough such roles for all participants. Therefore, the game teaches loyalty and compromise even at the stage of its preparation.

The implementation of role functions is associated with the transformation of the player into an imaginary hero. Moreover, the entire course of the game is based on the execution certain rules, identical for all participants. The game can use various objects, symbols, gestures, and conventional signs. Specific situations are often modeled, which helps to include the child in the world of human relationships and teaches adult life.

Type of work activity

Some types of games develop mental activity, instill perseverance, patience, i.e. those qualities that will be useful during study, and then in the process of work.

No doubt interrelationship of labor And games. Some, especially educational, games are associated with the need to make a certain amount of effort, and in work activities one can find elements of the game. “Does it effortlessly,” they say about masters of their craft, i.e. makes it easy, relaxed, highly professional

Questions and tasks

1. How did labor influence the processes of anthropo- and sopiognesis?

2. In what areas of a person’s life and how does work activity manifest itself?

3. What are the differences between productive and unproductive
labor?

4. What is intellectual work? What is the relationship between mental and physical labor?

5. What are the objectives of pond activities? How are subject, object and tools interconnected?

6. What role does specialization play in work activity?

7. Explain the concepts of profession, specialty, qualification.

8. Who are called professionals? What is meant by professionalism? Give examples of professionalism.

9. What rules must be followed during work? Why is their implementation necessary?

10. What is the problem of humanization of labor?

11. What are the differences between work and play? What role does play play in a person’s life?

12. What issues of labor are raised in the following statements: A.P. Chekhov: “You must put your life in such conditions that labor is necessary. Without work there cannot be a pure and joyful life.”

F.W. Taylor: “Everyone must learn to abandon his individual methods of work, adapt them to a number of newly introduced forms, and get used to accepting and executing directives concerning all small and large methods of work, which were previously left to his personal discretion *.

J.V. Goethe: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft, which can only be mastered with a certain specialization. Acquiring complete knowledge, complete skill in the field of one subject provides greater education than mastering half a hundred different subjects.”

L.N. Tolstoy: “Corporal labor not only does not exclude the possibility of mental activity, not only does not humiliate its dignity, but also encourages it.”

I. P. Pavlov: “All my life I have loved and love mental and physical work, and, perhaps, even more than the second. I especially felt satisfied when I added some good guess to the last one, i.e. connected “head with hands.”

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One of the circumstances of the formation of the level of employment is the content of labor, which predetermines the satisfaction of workers at work. If quite recently, in the late 1990s, wages, confidence in the future and social protection occupied the highest positions in the hierarchy of labor motivation of the Russian population, now the content of work and the possibility of professional and career growth. Even if they do not have a job, the majority of citizens, having a certain level of wealth in the family, are not looking for work in general, but for a place to use their strengths according to the acquired specialty, profession, qualifications, as well as spiritual needs. This form of employment is the most rational, since knowledge is in demand, on which the material and spiritual forces of society were spent, and its intellectual potential is precisely used.

The content of labor personifies a set of characteristics of a certain useful labor, which are associated with its technological basis with a conditional saturation with tools, the degree of mechanization and automation of labor functions and the organization of production. Modification of the content of labor is directly related to the development of the productive forces of society and depends on three groups of factors:

1) production technology;

2) mechanization and automation of production;

3) organization of production.

The definition of “labor content” is supplemented by another that is essential for the characteristics of specific labor functions – content of work. They are connected to each other as the general and the particular. The content of labor conveys a generalized idea of ​​labor as the labor process as a whole and a specific sphere of human activity. The content of labor is a characteristic of the work of certain categories of workers: operator, foreman, foreman, and perhaps the production team. Assessing the content of work is a detailed examination of the functions performed by employees and the data they use. To study specific technical innovations, taking into account their impact on changes in the functions of labor, priority should be given to the study of the content of labor.

This includes:

1) labor functions;

2) methods of their execution (manual or mechanized);

3) complexity of work;

4) its severity;

5) monotony;

7) intensity;

8) organization.

These components are interconnected with each other. The essence of the content of labor is revealed directly through the functions of labor (management, control, auxiliary work, etc.). At the same time, scientific and technological progress transforms not only the functions of labor, but also its parameters such as severity, complexity, and intensity. The forms of labor organization also have a significant influence on the combination of labor functions of workers.

The changes that occur with the functions of labor mean a shift in the professional and qualification structure of the employed to their division into types of labor with diverse content: manual - mechanized, physical - mental, heavy - light, monotonous - varied. The study of rational structural relationships in the composition of the employed by type of labor acts as a task of social statistics in the study of the content of labor.

The study of transformations in the professional, functional, qualification composition of workers, as well as in their division by type of labor, acts as the essence statistical research transformations in the content of labor. The object of accounting in this case is not the labor process, but the generality of workers and the workplaces in which they work.

The set of needs that people strive to satisfy at work can change not only depending on the professional group and external conditions, but also on the age of the employee, his marital status, and the stage of his career. If at the first stage of work in an organization for an employee motives that are associated with orientation in work and establishing personal contacts with colleagues may come to the fore, then later, when the newcomer has fully acclimatized, the importance of motives associated with the need for job and professional growth. In the same way, an increase in wages and improvement in social conditions can significantly affect the hierarchy of workers’ work motives.

A comparison of the needs of workers at the beginning and in the middle of their careers is shown in Table 11.

Leading compensation consulting firm Watson-Wyatt conducted a survey different groups employees regarding the benefits they prefer.

Types of work activity

The results are presented in Table 12. For example, it turned out that for those over 50, total income (salary plus bonus) above the average comes first. Those under 30 value the potential for professional growth, skill development and flexible work hours the most. So, it is clear that these preferences change over time and depending on the economic and personal circumstances of workers.

The content of labor is not the only factor in creating the level of employment in a territory. The state of the labor market is characterized by dependence on the well-being of citizens, on the level of income they receive for their respective work. Accordingly, a low level of remuneration for labor determines secondary employment and leads to low labor intensity.

4. Activities

Human activity refers to the activity of the individual, designed to satisfy needs and interests by achieving a consciously set goal. In the structure of activity, goals and motives are distinguished. What a person strives for is the goal of the activity, and why he does it is the motive of the activity. Activities are divided into individual elements, which are called actions.

Types of actions

1. External (can be observed from the outside) – internal (hidden from view, performed internally). As one or another activity is mastered, external actions can turn into internal ones.

1.9. Types and conditions of human labor activity

This process is called internalization: for example, first a child learns to read aloud and then silently. The reverse process, when any difficulties arise in performing an activity and internal actions move to the external plane is called exteriorization.

2. Voluntary (volitional) – involuntary (impulsive). Involuntary actions are carried out under the influence of strong, often unexpected stimuli and strong feelings. Voluntary actions are thought out in advance and carried out using volitional efforts.

Stages of activity

1. Goal setting.

This stage can be complicated if, in the process of setting a goal, a person must choose between several motives. In this case, there is a struggle of motives: for example, to go for a walk or to study for an exam.

2. Work planning.

At this stage, optimal operations and means are selected to achieve the goal.

An operation is a way of performing an activity, which is determined by the presence of certain skills and abilities in a person, as well as the conditions in which this activity is performed.

Tools for performing an activity are those objects that are designed to help in performing an activity: for example, lecture notes.

3. Performing activities.

Here, previously found optimal means and operations are used.

4. Control part - the results are checked, errors are corrected, results are summed up, conclusions are drawn. Modern man performs a large number of the most various types activities depending on your needs. Activities include communication, play, learning, and work.

Communication- a type of activity that first arises during the ontogenetic development of a person.

Its main purpose is the exchange of information between people.

A game– an activity in the process of which a material or ideal product appears (with the exception of business and design games).

Work- an activity during which objects of spiritual and material culture are produced, tools of labor are improved, living conditions are improved, science, technology, production, and creativity are developed.

Skills– individual elements of activity that allow the activity to be performed with a high level of quality.

Skill- this is an action, individual operations of which, as a result of training, have become automatic and are carried out without the participation of consciousness.

Habit- an irresistible desire of a person to perform certain actions.

Topic 1. Human labor activity

Lecture 8. 150

Lecture 7. 134

Topic 1.8. Duties and responsibilities of employees to comply with labor protection requirements and labor regulations.. 134

Question 1.8.1. Main types of workers. 134

Question 1.8.2. Labor responsibilities of the employee. 142

Question 1.8.3. Rights and job responsibilities labor protection worker. 144

Topic 1.9. Duties and Responsibilities
officials for compliance with labor and labor protection legislation.. 150

Question 1.9.1. Officials and their responsibilities. 150

Question 1.9.2. Responsibility of officials. 155

The concepts of “labor activity” and “person” are inextricably linked throughout the entire historical development of man as a biological species and humanity as a social community. It was through labor activity that Homo erectus (upright man) became Homo sapiens (reasonable man) in the course of long evolution.

Let us remind you that activity– a form of activity specific to a person, aimed at the expedient transformation of the surrounding world to satisfy certain needs of the individual or society.

The most important form of activity is labor activity.

Labor activity- this is a conscious, purposeful human activity that requires effort and is aimed at transforming the surrounding world to satisfy certain needs of an individual or society, including the production of certain goods or the provision of services.

The basis of work activity is simple labor process carried out by a working person ( subject of labor) by transformation subject of labor by using means of labor And tools V product of labor.

The simple process of labor so completely, vividly and clearly personifies the process of transforming the external world by man that it is often called simply labor.

Physical work– one of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by a significant predominance of a person’s physical stress over mental stress. When working physically, a person uses muscular energy and strength to “activate” means and tools of labor and partially “controls” this “action.”

Physical labor may require significant physical effort(lifting and moving heavy objects) or high tension when some movement must be performed at a high rhythm, or endurance, if a certain action must be performed for a long time.

Brainwork- the second of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of a person’s mental (mental) load over the physical (muscular) load. In the process of mental work, a person mainly uses his intellectual capabilities. Mental work can also be reproductive, formulaic, routine, monotonous and uninteresting.

Technical progress reduces the role of physical labor in the production process and increases the role of mental labor. In this case, some problems disappear, but others inevitably arise.

The operator’s responsibility for timely recognition of signal information and making the right decision (driver, electric locomotive driver, aircraft pilot, dispatcher, etc.), the speed of changing situations (airport dispatcher), the incessant monotony of reproductive labor that requires attention and concentration (supermarket cashier), and much more put new problems of facilitating mental work on the agenda of the 21st century.

The nature of the organization of work changes significantly when, instead of one person, several people work together. Everyone knows well that organizing the work of one, two, three or more people are completely different tasks that introduce their own problems into the planned implementation of a simple labor process.

However, labor large quantity people, labor in society differs significantly from the labor of one person not only in its organization, but also in the presence of social-labor relations associated with the simple process of labor.

These relations reflect the forms and methods of attraction to labor, distribution of labor functions between people, distribution of the product of labor and participation of workers in the management of organizations; methods of maintaining labor discipline; ways to create healthy and safe conditions during work, etc.

Man is a social being, and labor is the source of all wealth, and therefore has a dual character. It not only acts as a simple process of labor to transform the material world, but also as social attitude(often said social-labor relationship) of people participating (directly or indirectly) in it.

Social (or socio-economic) nature labor is determined by the form of ownership of the means of production. On this basis they distinguish private labor(owner or tenant) and hired labor.

Private labor- this is the work of the owner of the means of production or their tenant for himself (and at his own peril and risk). At the same time, the social nature of labor remains unchanged regardless of whether the product of labor is intended for sale (commodity production) or for personal consumption (subsistence farming). The person engaged in this work is at the same time the owner of the means of production, its organizer and performer (worker).

Wage labor- this is work employee(owning only its own labor force) in the interests of the employer ( employer), who owns or leases the means of production and acts as the organizer of production. Such work is carried out for some kind of remuneration (most often wages). In this case, the relationship between the employee and the employer can be considered as a transaction for the purchase and sale of labor (hiring) for labor market. For the employee, hired labor is a source of livelihood, and for the employer it is a source of profit and a source of wealth.

The global and general division of labor, the unbridled growth of the scale of modern commodity production have led to the dominance of wage labor, often called professional work, that is, by labor in one profession or another.

Like any other activity, labor activity is fraught with dangers, including to the life and health of a person engaged in the simple process of labor. To resist them, you need to know the structure and functioning of the human body. This is the subject of the next question in our course.

1. General concepts about human labor activity

2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment

3.Working conditions

4. Adverse effects of labor on humans

Introduction

The goals of teaching the discipline are to develop in students an understanding of the organization and coordination of work on labor protection at an enterprise, subject to compliance with legislative and other regulatory legal acts on labor protection by employees of the enterprise, as well as to obtain knowledge on carrying out preventive work to prevent industrial injuries and advising the employer and employees on labor safety issues.

Objectives of studying the discipline:

The study of the relationship between society and man in their relationship with production activities and the environment;

Mastering the organization of labor protection activities at the enterprise;

Understanding the problems of industrial and environmental safety;

Understanding the mechanism of impact of production on humans and components of the biosphere;

Mastery of methods for determining standard levels of permissible negative impacts on humans and the natural environment;

Familiarization of legislative and regulatory technical acts regulating life safety;

Acquisition by students of the principles of life safety management at the level of the state, region and enterprise.

Interdisciplinary connections

The discipline “Fundamentals of Labor Safety” is inextricably linked with such disciplines as “Fundamentals of Personnel Management”, “Management”, “Labor Economics”, “Physiology and Psychology of Labor”, “Sociology of Labor and social psychology», « Organizational behavior", "Organizational culture", etc.

The discipline “Fundamentals of Occupational Safety” belongs to the cycle of special disciplines (SD.03).

Thematic plan

The forms of final control are tests and exams, which are carried out both orally and in the form of testing.

1. General concepts about human labor activity

Labor, like any human activity, is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon of the material world, including its social structure, and at the same time a phenomenon of the personal (and therefore mental) life of almost everyone.

The basis of everything is " simple labor process"(it is also called “living labor,” but even more often it is called simply “labor,” which leads to further confusion), carried out by a working person ( subject of labor) by transformation subject of labor by using means of labor V product of labor. The simple process of labor clearly personifies the process of transformation of the external world by man.

The variety of types of different labor is inexhaustible, but we will turn to the most common (including still) types of labor - physical and mental labor.

Physical work – one of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of physical stress over mental stress. In physical labor, a person mainly uses his muscular energy and strength to “activate” the means and tools of labor to transform the object of labor into a product of labor and partially “controls” this “action.”

Physical labor may require significant physical effort (for example, when lifting or moving heavy objects) or high tension, when some movement must be performed at a high rhythm, or endurance, when some action must be performed for a long time.

All human progress is associated with “liberation” from physical labor.

In the beginning, all physical labor was manual labor(in modern phraseology - non-mechanized and non-automated).

At mechanized labor(when performing the same overall work), in general the severity of labor decreases, but for a number of operations the intensity of work increases, requiring greater care and coordination of human movements.

Automated labor displaces a person from the simple labor process, leaving behind him the functions of participation in other simple labor processes associated with development, adjustment, and control.

Brainwork - the second of the main forms of the simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of mental (mental) stress over purely physical (muscular). In the process of mental work, a person mainly uses his intellectual capabilities.

Technical progress in automation and informatization of all types of activities inevitably reduces the role of physical labor and increases the role of mental labor. Some problems disappear, others arise. The operator’s responsibility for timely recognition of signal information and making the right decision (for example, a driver, an electric locomotive driver, an aircraft pilot, a nuclear power plant dispatcher, etc.), the speed of changing situations (for example, an airfield dispatcher), the incessant monotony of reproductive labor that requires attention and concentration (supermarket cashier) and much more put previously non-existent problems of facilitating mental work on the agenda of the 21st century.

The nature of work changes significantly when several people begin to work instead of one. Practitioners know well that organizing the work of one person, or two people, or three or more people are completely different tasks, introducing their own problems into the planned implementation of a simple labor process.

Man is a social being, and labor is the source of all wealth, and therefore labor has a dual character. It is not only a simple process of labor to transform the material world, but also social attitude people participating (directly or indirectly) in it.

Social character labor is determined by the form of ownership of the means of production and is associated with the right to appropriate the product of labor. On this basis they distinguish private labor(owner or tenant) and hired labor. The social nature of labor (as a source of livelihood and wealth) is also manifested in the formation of methods of labor motivation (desire, perceived need, coercion).

Note that heavy forms of physical labor (hard labor in quarries, road construction, tunnels, galleys, etc.) were and are used for punishment convicts.

The global and general division of labor and the unbridled growth of the scale of modern commodity production have led to the dominance of wage labor, often called professional labor.

Wage labor is the result of the hired worker’s conscious need to work in order not to die of hunger, and at the same time the employer who hires him, conscious of the need to attract workers to carry out the production process he is implementing in order to ultimately make a profit.

Different kinds specific labor are divided depending on their intended purpose, scope of application and functional role in production activities. For general characteristics specific labor, all possible features in their combination.

Like any other activity, labor activity contains various dangers, including dangers to the life and health of a person engaged in the simple process of labor. To protect against them you need to know and be able to do a lot.

2. General information about the human body and its interaction with the environment

Without knowing “yourself,” you cannot understand how to protect “yourself” from threats from the outside world, and therefore we will allow ourselves to recall some basic data on human anatomy and physiology.

Modern man has gone through a long evolutionary path of adaptation to the environment, and the human body is a single whole, all systems and organs of which develop and function in mutual dependence and conditionality. Although the body functions as a whole, dividing it into certain systems is necessary to understand the functioning of the body in the external environment, especially if these systems are either anatomically quite distinct, such as the circulatory and digestive systems, or are physiologically functional, such as , thermoregulation and immune systems.

The human body is so complex that a number of scientific disciplines study it. We will consider it very simply and only from the standpoint of ensuring human safety in the labor process.

From these positions in the human body, with some degree of convention, we can distinguish what we have conventionally named:

(1) shaping systems,

(2) life support systems and

(3) control systems.

Formation systems (1) include the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as the skin and a number of mucous membranes.

Life support systems (2) include all systems of exchange with the external environment (respiratory, digestive and excretory systems) and distribution of substances in the body between various organs (cardiovascular system).

Control systems (3) include the autonomic and central nervous systems.

All body systems consist of various organs that are functionally interconnected with each other. Organs are built from various tissues. Tissues consist of cells and intercellular substance in which various biochemical processes occur. Each organ has blood vessels, and most have lymphatic vessels. Nerves approach and branch into all organs.

Musculoskeletal system forms the human musculoskeletal system and ensures the autonomy of the body, the ability for it to perform various actions and movement in space. In addition, bones, muscles and skin provide protection to other so-called internal organs from direct exposure to the external environment. In addition to its protective functions, the skin is involved in metabolism and heat regulation.

Heart and blood vessels form a closed system through which blood moves due to contractions of the heart muscle and the walls of blood vessels. Blood vessels are divided into three main types: arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They branch into vessels of ever smaller diameter, through which blood flows to all parts of the body. In the parts of the body furthest from the heart, the blood vessels are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. It is these microscopic vessels, capillaries, that supply cells with oxygen and nutrients. After their delivery, blood loaded with metabolic end products is sent to the heart through a network of vessels called veins, and from the heart to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs, as a result of which the blood is saturated with oxygen.

Respiratory, digestive and excretory system serve to consume substances necessary for life from the environment and remove metabolic products (biochemical processes of life).

Sweating through the skin plays an important role in maintaining the water-salt and acid-base balance of the body. On average, a person sweats out 600 ml of water per day. A huge (about 270) amount of chemicals is excreted with sweat.

Anatomically nervous system consists of central and peripheral systems. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, and peripheral - cranial and spinal nerves, as well as nerve ganglia and plexuses lying outside the spinal cord and brain.

Incoming sensory information is processed through specific pathways: for example, pain, visual or auditory nerve fibers. Sensitive pathways go in an ascending direction to the centers of the brain. The result of the activity of the central nervous system is activity that is based on the contraction or relaxation of muscles or the secretion or cessation of secretion of glands.

The autonomic, or autonomic, nervous system regulates the activity of involuntary muscles, the heart muscle, and various glands. Its structures are located both in the central nervous system and in the peripheral nervous system.

The activity of the autonomic nervous system is aimed at maintaining a relatively stable state of the body's internal environment: a constant body temperature or blood pressure that meets the body's needs. The autonomic nervous system is divided into

Sympathetic and

Parasympathetic.

The sympathetic system stimulates those processes that are aimed at mobilizing the body's forces in extreme situations or under stress. The parasympathetic system contributes to the accumulation or restoration of the body's energy resources.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems act in a coordinated manner and cannot be viewed as antagonistic. They jointly support the functioning of internal organs and tissues at a level corresponding to the intensity of stress and emotional state person. Both systems function continuously, but their activity levels fluctuate depending on the situation.

Endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts. They produce chemicals called hormones, which enter directly into the blood and have a regulatory effect on organs distant from the corresponding glands.

central nervous system regulates the activity of all organs, systems and the entire organism as a whole and is a collection of nerve cells and processes extending from them. In this set of cellular bodies located in the cranium (brain) and spinal canal (spinal cord), information is processed that comes to them via sensory nerves and proceeds from them to the executive organs along motor (to muscles) and autonomic (to internal organs) nerves. All nerves and their branches form the peripheral nervous system.

The central nervous system organizes vital processes in accordance with environmental conditions, changing the functioning of individual organs and systems. At the same time, the functioning of all systems is closely intertwined. For example, in the process of transporting substances by blood circulation, in addition to the cardiovascular system, the urinary system also participates, since the blood flow passes through the kidneys, and the respiratory system, since the blood flow passes through the lungs, and the digestive and hematopoietic systems. The basis of the influence of the digestive system on the cardiovascular system is their close connection through water-electrolyte metabolism. The musculoskeletal system has a very large influence on the mechanical movement of blood.

To put all systems into operation, the central nervous system (and the person along with it) must have information about the state of the external environment, which is achieved with the help of various analyzers and receptors of the so-called sense organs.

Any analyzer consists of a receptor, nerve pathways and a brain end. Some receptors are adapted to perceive changes in the environment (exteroceptors), and some are adapted to perceive changes in the internal environment (interoreceptors). The receptor converts the energy of the stimulus into a nervous process. The pathways transmit nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex. There is a two-way connection between the receptors and the brain end, which ensures self-regulation of the analyzer.

An exceptional role in a person’s life and his relationships with outside world plays visual analyzer. With its help, we get the lion's share (about 90%) of the information. Through vision, we almost instantly and at considerable distances perceive the shape, size, color of an object, direction and distance at which it is located from us. The visual analyzer includes the eye, the optic nerve and the visual center located in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.

Second in importance after the visual analyzer is auditory. Only it allows us to receive information out of sight, for example, from behind, or in the dark from various distances almost instantly. The differences between the speeds of light and sound are noticeable to us when observing distant thunderstorms, explosions, etc.

Another analyzer - sense of smell also allows you to receive information from long distances, but it is much better used by representatives of the animal world than by humans. The olfactory receptors are located in the nose and perceive minute amounts of substances in the air that are perceived as odor.

Another analyzer - taste allows you to obtain information about the quality of food. We sense taste through receptors located on the tongue and oral mucosa.

If a person were a contemplator of nature, then seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting would probably be enough for him. But a person wants to eat and reproduce, and for this he must act (you must pick up a stick, you must step on a stone, you must cuddle with someone like yourself).

And all this would have been impossible if not for touch. By touch we mean the sensations that arise from the direct impact of an irritant on the surface of the skin. The skin is literally stuffed with receptors of various analyzers.

Tactile analyzer perceives touch and pressure on skin receptors.

Temperature sensitivity of the skin is provided by two types of receptors - cold and heat.

The spatial distribution of pain receptors is interesting. There are many of them where there are few tactile receptors, and vice versa. Pain receptors cause a reflex of withdrawal from the stimulus, because a painful stimulus is a danger. Under the influence of pain, the body quickly mobilizes to fight danger, the work of all body systems is rebuilt.

The analyzers discussed above are so important and have long been known to man that he called them sense organs:

sense of smell,

touch and

But besides them, humans have other analyzers and receptors.

The human brain receives information not only from the environment, but also from the body. Sensitive nervous apparatus is present in all internal organs. In the internal organs, under the influence of external conditions, certain sensations arise that generate signals. These signals are a necessary condition for regulating the activity of internal organs.

Important analyzers are proprioceptors, which allow you to feel muscle tension and the spatial arrangement of the body and limbs.

Despite the differences in the variety of receptors and analyzers, their functioning has much in common, since they all developed in the process of evolution to protect against dangers.

In real conditions of earthly habitation, a person is exposed to a lot of different, often weak, stimuli. In the course of evolution, man has developed the ability to perceive only those stimuli whose intensity reaches a certain certain value. Such a minimum adequately felt value is usually called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity or the threshold of perception. In this case, perception always lags behind the onset of exposure to the stimulus for some time, called hidden (latent) period.

Above the threshold of perception, the intensity of sensations slowly increases with increasing intensity of the stimulus, and their relationship can be approximately expressed by the logarithmic Weber-Fechner law. This connection between stimulus and sensation is not accidental, since it makes it possible to reduce a very wide range of stimuli to a much narrower range of sensations, with the largest values ​​of the stimulus undergoing the greatest transformation.

High values ​​of the stimulus are rare in nature and, as a rule, are associated with danger, the occurrence of which the body must be “warned”. Therefore, as the intensity of the stimulus increases, there always comes a moment when the sensation is replaced by a special danger signal - pain, from which the body wants only one thing - to get rid of it, and by getting rid of it, it also rids itself of danger. This maximum adequately felt magnitude of the stimulus is usually called upper absolute threshold of sensitivity or pain threshold.

The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value (from the perception threshold to the pain threshold) determines analyzer sensitivity range.

Within its sensitivity range, the analyzer may cease to distinguish between two different, but similar in intensity, stimuli. To evaluate this ability of the analyzer, we talk about differential threshold(or discrimination threshold), which is the minimum difference between the intensities of two stimuli that causes a barely noticeable difference in sensations.

Like everything in the living world, threshold values ​​are not strictly stable. They depend on many factors, often difficult to take into account. Therefore, all thresholds should be considered as statistical averages.

In real operating conditions, each human analyzer is simultaneously exposed to several stimuli. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account not only the capabilities of the analyzer, but also the conditions in which the person will work. Therefore, when determining optimal operating conditions, it is necessary to take into account the entire system of stimuli acting on all human analyzers.

We emphasize that the division of the entire set of analyzers into separate systems is rather arbitrary. These systems clearly differ only in their receptors. In the vast majority of cases, a change in the nature of the body’s vital activity in response to changes in environmental conditions occurs with the participation of several analyzers, and then it is almost impossible to draw a clear line between them. For example, the vestibular apparatus, gravireceptors and proprioceptors of muscles, tactile receptors of the skin, and receptors of the organ of vision take part in the regulation of posture. In addition, in this case, all analyzer systems have the same actuator - the musculoskeletal system. It is even more difficult to identify individual analyzers in the case when the choice of reaction to external disturbance is carried out consciously.

In the course of evolution, a number of specialized systems have developed in the human body, enshrined in anatomical structure and physiological functioning of a person, designed to compensate for unfavorable changes in external conditions. Any change in environmental conditions automatically creates a corresponding change in life processes in the body, aimed at ensuring that this external change does not lead to damage and death of the body.

Changes in the internal environment of the body that occur under the influence of changes in the external environment are simultaneously aimed, on the one hand, at adaptation ( adaptation) to new environmental conditions, and, on the other hand, to maintain a relatively unchanged state ( homeostasis or homeostasis) the internal environment of the body and its functioning.

Adaptation and homeostasis– interconnected and complementary processes, which are one of the the most important features all living systems. Without exaggeration, we can say that these are the main mechanisms for the safe functioning of the human body, determining its health and even life.

Under normal conditions of a normally changing external environment, an organism that successfully copes with the need to adapt and maintain homeostasis is healthy body.

When the body turns on the mechanisms of compensatory reactions to maintain homeostasis, we have to talk about the so-called premorbid state - the state pre-diseases. In this state there are still no clinical symptoms of the disease, as it is understood modern medicine, but unfortunately, it is impossible to say that a person is healthy.

When an organism cannot adapt to environmental conditions, it becomes ill and/or dies.

That., ensuring human security consists in such regulation of the external environment (working conditions) and the functioning of the internal environment of the worker’s body, which, under the influence of this external environment, allows the body to remain within its adaptive capabilities and maintain its health and ability to work.

3.Working conditions

Under working conditions understand the totality of factors in the labor process and the production environment in which human activity is carried out. (Note that in the “Guide to the hygienic assessment of working environment factors and the labor process. Criteria and classification of working conditions” R 2.2.2006-05, the term “working environment” is replaced by the term “working environment”, while the content of the concept – its meaning – remains unchanged.

Under labor process factors(regardless of the environment) understand its main characteristics: hard work And labor intensity.

Difficulty of work– a characteristic of the labor process, reflecting the load primarily on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, etc.) that ensure its activity.

The severity of labor is determined by the physical dynamic load, the mass of the load being lifted and moved, total number stereotypical working movements, the magnitude of the static load, the nature of the working posture, the depth and frequency of body tilt, and movements in space.

Labor intensity– characteristic of the labor process, reflecting the load primarily on the central nervous system, sensory organs, emotional sphere employee.

TO factors characterizing labor intensity, relate:

Intelligent,

Sensory,

Emotional stress

The degree of monotony of loads,

Operating mode.

Under production/work environment factors in which human activity is carried out, understand a variety of factors in this environment, from

Physical up to

Social and psychological.

All these factors influence the human body in one way or another.

Among their diversity, there are production factors that pose a particular danger (threat) to humans, because they cause significant harm to their health, seriously limiting (even depriving them) of their ability to work.

Factors in the working environment, which under certain conditions can cause an industrial injury to a worker, have come to be called hazardous production factor, and the factors of the working environment, which under certain conditions can cause an occupational disease in a worker, began to be called harmful production factor. The conventions of these names are obvious. It should be noted that a harmful factor easily becomes dangerous under certain conditions.

Since, as practice has shown, the main causes of occupational diseases are high levels of harmful production factors and the duration of their impact on the worker’s body, as well as individual characteristics and deviations in the health status of an individual employee, including those not detected during medical examinations, and low values ​​do not lead to such diseases, then the assessment of working conditions based on the nature of the impact of harmful production factors uses the concept of the so-called threshold impact of working environment factors.

Within the framework of this concept, it is believed that below a certain threshold - the maximum permissible value of a harmful production factor for maintaining health - its harmful effects are practically absent and can be completely (for practical needs) neglected.

A classic example of the implementation of the concept of threshold effects of chemicals on a living organism is the concept MPC– maximum permissible concentration, first proposed in the early 20s of the twentieth century.

The official definition of the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances in the air of a working area is as follows: “Hygienic standards for working conditions (MPC, MCL) are the levels of harmful factors in the working environment, which during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours and no more than 40 hours per week, during the entire working period, they should not cause diseases or deviations in the state of health that can be detected by modern research methods during the work process or in the long-term life of the present and subsequent generations. Compliance with hygiene standards does not exclude health problems in people with hypersensitivity.”

The introduction of MPC, and then MPL (maximum permissible level) makes it possible in practice to distinguish between safe working conditions, where concentrations are below MPC (levels below MPC), and therefore occupational diseases are practically impossible, from unfavorable working conditions, where concentrations (levels) are above MPC (PD) and the occurrence of occupational diseases is much more likely.

Almost all hygienic regulation of harmful production factors and working conditions is based on this principle, and the values ​​of hygienic standards (HS) were obtained and justified for an 8-hour work shift.

It is also important in practice that cases studied in laboratories of the action of one production factor, for example, one or another xenobiotics(a harmful substance incompatible with life) are relatively rare. Much more often, a worker is affected by a whole complex of various harmful production factors, the whole set of all factors of the production environment. At the same time, the result of its impact on the human body also changes.

In real conditions of modern production, the human body is increasingly exposed to the simultaneous effects of various xenobiotics.

Comprehensive it is customary to call this impact, when xenobiotics enter the body simultaneously, but in different ways (through the respiratory tract with inhaled air, the stomach with food and water, the skin).

Combined it is customary to call this impact xenobiotics, when xenobiotics simultaneously or sequentially enter the body through the same route. There are several types of combined action (impact):

1. Independent action. The resulting effect is not associated with a combined effect and does not differ from the isolated effect of each component of the mixture, and therefore is due to the predominance of the action of the most toxic component and is equal to it.

2. Additive action. The resulting effect of the mixture is equal to the sum of the effects of each component of the combined effect.

3. Potentiated action (synergy). The resulting effect of the mixture under combined influence is greater than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.

4. Antagonistic action. The resulting effect of the mixture under combined influence is less than the sum of the effects of the separate action of all components of the mixture.

Combinations of substances with independent action occur quite often, but, like combinations with antagonistic action, they are not essential for practice, since additive and potentiated actions are more dangerous.

An example of an additive effect is the narcotic effect of a mixture of hydrocarbons. A potentiated effect was noted with the combined action of sulfur dioxide and chlorine, alcohol and a number of industrial poisons.

Often there is a combined effect of xenobiotics with other unfavorable factors, such as high and low temperature, increased and sometimes decreased humidity, vibration and noise, various types of radiation, etc. When xenobiotics are combined with other factors, the effect may be more significant than with the isolated influence of one or another factor.

In practice, a situation often occurs when the effect of a xenobiotic is “intermittent” or “intermittent” in nature. This effect of xenobiotics has a special effect. It is known from physiology that the maximum effect of any influence is observed at the beginning and at the end of the stimulus. The transition from one state to another requires adaptation, and therefore frequent and sharp fluctuations in the level of stimulus lead to more strong impact it on the body.

With simultaneous exposure to xenobiotics and high temperature, the toxic effect may increase.

Increased humidity can also increase the risk of poisoning, especially from irritating gases.

An increase in the toxic effect was recorded at both increased and decreased barometric pressure.

Industrial noise can also increase the toxic effect. This has been proven for carbon monoxide, styrene, alkyl nitrile, cracked gas, petroleum gases, boric acid aerosol.

Industrial vibration, similar to noise, can also enhance the toxic effects of xenobiotics. For example, cobalt dust, silicon dust, dichloroethane, carbon monoxide, and epoxy resins have a more pronounced effect when combined with vibration compared to the effect of pure xenobiotics.

A worker comes into contact with xenobiotics, usually while simultaneously performing physical work. Exercise stress, which has a powerful and diverse effect on all organs and systems of the body, cannot but affect the conditions of absorption, distribution, transformation and excretion of xenobiotics, and ultimately - on the course of intoxication.

Currently working conditions are classified according to the hygienic criteria established in Guideline R 2.2.2006-05 “Guide to the hygienic assessment of factors in the working environment and the labor process. Criteria and classification of working conditions."

Working conditions are divided into 4 classes:

Optimal,

Acceptable

Harmful and

Dangerous.

Optimal working conditions (1st class)– conditions under which the health of workers is maintained and the prerequisites are created for maintaining a high level of performance. Optimal standards work environment factors set for microclimatic parameters and workload factors. For other factors, working conditions in which there are no harmful factors or do not exceed levels accepted as safe for the population are conditionally accepted as optimal.

Acceptable working conditions (2nd grade) are characterized by such levels of environmental factors and the labor process that do not exceed established hygienic standards for work places, and possible changes in the functional state of the body are restored during regulated rest or at the beginning of the next shift and should not have an adverse effect in the immediate and long-term period on the health of workers and their offspring. Acceptable working conditions are conditionally classified as safe.

Harmful working conditions (3rd grade) are characterized by the presence of harmful factors that exceed hygienic standards and have an adverse effect on the body of workers and (or) their offspring. Harmful working conditions, according to the degree of exceeding hygienic standards and the severity of changes in the body of workers, are divided into 4 degrees of harmfulness:

1st degree 3rd class (3.1) – working conditions are characterized by such deviations in the levels of harmful factors from hygienic standards that cause functional changes that are restored, as a rule, with a longer interruption of contact with harmful factors (than at the beginning of the next shift) and increase risk health damage;

2nd degree 3rd class (3.2) – working conditions in which the levels of harmful factors cause persistent functional changes lead in most cases to an increase in occupational morbidity (which is manifested by an increase in the level of morbidity with temporary loss of ability to work and, first of all, those diseases that reflect the state of the most vulnerable organs and systems for these factors), to the appearance of initial signs or mild (without loss of professional ability) forms occupational diseases occurring after prolonged exposure (often after 15 years or more);

3rd degree 3rd class (3.3) – working conditions characterized by such levels of working environment factors, the impact of which leads to the development, as a rule, of occupational diseases of mild and moderate severity (with loss of professional ability to work) during the period labor activity, growth of chronic (work-related) pathology, 4th degree, 3rd class (3.4) – working conditions under which severe forms of occupational diseases can occur (with loss of general ability to work), there is a significant increase in the number of chronic diseases and high levels of morbidity with temporary loss of ability to work;

Dangerous (extreme) working conditions (4th grade) characterized by the levels of working environment factors, the impact of which during work shift(or its parts) creates a threat to life, a high risk of developing acute occupational injuries, including severe forms.

Work in hazardous working conditions (4th class) is not allowed, with the exception of liquidation accidents and carrying out emergency work to prevent emergency situations. In this case, the work must be carried out using appropriate PPE and in strict compliance with the time schedules regulated for such work.

Safe working conditions are defined by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 209) as “working conditions under which exposure to harmful and (or) hazardous production factors on workers is excluded or their exposure levels do not exceed established standards.”

4. Adverse effects of labor on humans

As is known, under certain circumstances, the impact of working conditions on a working person can lead to adverse consequences (events).

Let us recall that for a person such unfavorable events are:

Fatigue,

Disease (disease),

Fatigue– a physiological state of the body that occurs as a result of excessively intense or prolonged activity and is manifested by a temporary decrease in the functional capabilities of the human body. There are physical, mental and emotional fatigue.

Physical fatigue manifested by impaired muscle function: decreased strength, accuracy, consistency and rhythm of movements. Occurs during intense and/or prolonged physical activity.

Mental fatigue manifested by a decrease in the productivity of intellectual work, weakening of attention (difficulty concentrating), slowed thinking, decreased levels of mental activity, and decreased interest in work. Occurs during intense intellectual activity.

Emotional exhaustion manifested by a noticeable decrease in emotional reactions under the influence of super-strong or monotonous stimuli (stress).

Insufficient rest or excessive workload for a long time often leads to chronic fatigue, or overwork. A distinction is made between mental and mental (spiritual) fatigue.

Fatigue and the associated decline in performance (productivity) is the most common unfavorable consequence of the simple process of work. However, if fatigue has not gone beyond the adaptive capabilities of a person (it is not overwork), the latter’s body will easily recover after appropriate rest. Various breaks at work, lunch breaks, rest days and, finally, vacations are all traditional, widely used and often mandatory activities to prevent a decrease in human performance. Unfortunately, the modern rhythm of life and work increasingly leads more and more workers to chronic fatigue syndrome. According to many Western European experts, this particular problem may become the most pressing in ensuring safety and hygiene requirements in the workplace.

Another widespread adverse consequence of work is human illness: malaise; bad feeling; rapidly occurring, but passing relatively quickly (“acute” in medical terminology) and lasting for years, sluggish with periodic exacerbations (“chronic” in medical terminology).

The causal relationship of the disease with working conditions is very complex and ambiguous.

The complex of factors in the production environment that shapes working conditions, the severity and intensity of the process, has both a specific (i.e., directly and clearly directed) and non-specific (general unfavorable) impact on workers.

The more common nonspecific effects reduce the overall protective functions of the body, which leads to the development of common diseases. Since these diseases are caused by working conditions, they are often called occupational diseases ( in Western European terminology – work-related diseases). In practice, it is quite difficult (and sometimes impossible) to separate them from ordinary morbidity. The share of the impact of unfavorable working conditions on overall morbidity rates ranges from 20 to 40%, but may be higher.

Less common specific exposures are associated with specific production factors and lead to the development of certain diseases caused by these factors. Since these diseases are caused by unfavorable working conditions in specific workplaces of specific professions, they are called occupational diseases. Sometimes it is also quite difficult to separate them from ordinary morbidity in practice, but it can still be done. A professional medical report – a medical diagnosis and its compliance with the officially accepted “agreement” on what and in what cases is considered an “occupational disease” – is mandatory for occupational diseases!

Acute occupational disease is a disease that occurs suddenly, after a single (for no more than one working day or one work shift) exposure to harmful production factors, resulting in temporary or permanent loss of professional ability to work. As a rule, these are inhalation poisonings.

Chronic occupational disease is a disease that occurs as a result of prolonged exposure to harmful production factors, resulting in temporary or permanent loss of professional ability to work. The vast majority of occupational diseases (about 95%) are chronic.

Practice shows that painful changes in the body can accumulate unnoticed for years and suddenly manifest themselves as a serious occupational disease. Therefore, occupational diseases often lead to professional disability workers. In addition, the mortality rate of people with occupational diseases from ordinary diseases that develop and develop under the influence of harmful production factors is tens of times higher than among the population as a whole.

Most occupational diseases require diagnosis in specialized medical treatment institutions, where workers with suspicious symptoms, possibly caused by an occupational disease, are sent.

Another quite common adverse consequence of exposure to unfavorable working conditions is injury.

By the type of impact on the body (mechanical, electrical and electromagnetic, temperature, radiation or chemical) injuries can be classified as

Mechanical,

Electrical,

Light,

Thermal (cold),

Radiation.

These are falls, blows, bruises, bites, cuts, punctures, wounds, fractures, crushing injuries, burns, frostbite, electric shocks, electric shocks, blinding, heat strokes, etc.

Choking (asphyxia), which occurs due to the lack of oxygen or the entry of foreign objects into the lungs (including due to drowning), are also forms of injury, since they lead to a rapid disruption of the normal functional state of the body. The severity of damage during injury varies and may result in the need for first aid on site, treatment in a medical facility, loss of ability to work, disability or death.

Among all injuries, those injuries in which a person is unable to work for some time are especially distinguished.

The most serious injuries result in professional disability(inability to work in the profession) or general disability(inability to work at all) of the worker and even death. To refer to injuries leading to death, a special term is used - “ fatal injury".

Minor cuts, sprains and other relatively minor injuries are often called microtraumas.

In itself, trauma to the human body is a purely medical phenomenon. However, an injury received in the process of work is already a medical and social phenomenon: if the victim cannot work, then on what means will he (if he is alive) and his dependents live? This means that the victim, in principle, must receive from someone somewhere some means of living that will compensate him for the harm caused by the injury.

From this point of view, of all the injuries received in the process of work, they distinguish work injuries that have socially significant consequences: the death of an employee or the need to transfer him to another job (in Russia - for a period of at least one day); temporary or permanent loss of ability by an employee to work for a certain period of time (in Russia - at least one day).

Work is an activity aimed at human development and the transformation of natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. Such activity can be carried out either under coercion, or out of internal motivation, or both.

Sociological functions of labor:

Socio-economic function consists in the impact of labor subjects (workers) on objects and elements of the natural environment (resources) with the aim of transforming them into objects to satisfy the needs of members of society, that is, into material goods and services.

Productive function is to satisfy people's need for creativity and self-expression. Thanks to this function of labor, new objects and technologies are created.

Social structuring function labor lies in the differentiation and integration of the efforts of people participating in the labor process. On the one hand, assigning different functions to different categories of participants in the labor process leads to differentiation and the creation of specialized types of labor. On the other hand, the exchange of results of labor activity leads to the establishment of certain connections between different categories of participants in the labor process. Thus, this function of labor contributes to the creation of socio-economic ties between different groups of people.

Social control function labor is due to the fact that labor organizes complex system social relations regulated through values, norms of behavior, standards, sanctions, etc., representing a system of social control of labor relations. This includes labor legislation, economic and technical standards, charters of organizations, job descriptions, informal norms, a certain organizational culture.

Socializing function labor is associated with the fact that labor activity expands and enriches the composition social roles, patterns of behavior, norms and values ​​of employees, which allows people to feel like full participants in public life. This function gives people the opportunity to acquire a certain status, a sense of social belonging and identity.

Social development function labor is manifested in the impact of the content of work on workers, teams and society as a whole. This is due to the fact that as the means of labor develop and improve, the content of labor becomes more complex and updated. This process is due to the creative nature of man. Thus, there is an increase in requirements for the level of knowledge and qualifications of employees in almost all sectors of the modern economy. The function of employee training is one of the priority functions of personnel management in a modern organization.

Social stratification function labor is a derivative of social-structuring and is associated with the fact that the results of various types of labor differently are rewarded and valued by society. Accordingly, some types of work activities are recognized as more, and others - less important and prestigious. Thus, labor activity contributes to the formation and maintenance of the dominant value system in society and performs the function of ranking participants in labor activity according to ranks - steps of the stratification pyramid and the ladder of prestige.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that labor activity determines a number of interrelated social and economic phenomena and processes in modern society. The study allows us to identify the most effective ways management of the organization.

Main categories of labor science

• complexity of work;
• professional suitability of the employee;
• degree of worker independence.

The first sign of labor content is complexity. It is clear that the work of a scientist is more difficult than the work of a turner, and the work of a store director is more difficult than the work of a cashier. But to justify the measure of remuneration for various types of labor, their comparison is required. To compare complex and simple labor, the concept of “labor reduction” is used. Labor reduction is the process of reducing complex labor to simple ones to determine the rate of remuneration for labor of varying complexity. With the development of society, the share of complex labor increases, which is explained by an increase in the level of technical equipment of enterprises and requirements for the education of workers.

Differences between complex work and simple work:

• the employee performs such functions of mental work as planning, analysis, control and coordination of actions;
• concentration of active thinking and purposeful concentration of the employee;
• consistency in making decisions and actions;
• accuracy and adequate reaction of the employee’s body to external stimuli;
• fast, agile and varied labor movements;
• responsibility for work results.

The second sign of labor content is professional suitability. Its influence on labor results is determined by a person’s abilities, the formation and development of his genetic inclinations, successful choice of profession, conditions for the development and selection of personnel. Special methods for determining professional suitability play a significant role in professional selection.

The third sign of labor content is degree of employee independence- depends both on external restrictions associated with the form of ownership, and internal ones, dictated by the scale and level of complexity of the work. Reducing restrictions in decision making while increasing the level of responsibility means greater freedom of action, creativity and the possibility of an informal approach to solving problems. The independence of an employee acts as a criterion for the level of self-awareness of a developed personality, his measure of responsibility for the results of his work.

Nature of work as a category of labor science represents the relationships between participants in the labor process, which affect both the employee’s attitude towards work and labor productivity. From the point of view of the nature of labor, a distinction is made between, on the one hand, the work of an entrepreneur and, on the other hand, hired, collective or individual labor. The work of an entrepreneur characterized by a high degree of independence in decision-making and its implementation, as well as a high degree of responsibility for the results. Wage labor- this is the work of an employee called upon, under the terms of the agreement, to perform official duties in relation to the employer.

Modern labor science

Modern science on labor includes a number of basic disciplines:

1. traditionally includes problems of labor productivity and efficiency, labor resources, labor market and employment, income and wages, workforce planning, problems of labor regulation.
2. Personnel economics examines the behavior of employees when they perform job responsibilities. The discipline studies the influence of various factors on labor productivity.
3. Occupational medicine— studies work-related factors that can cause injury, illness or other harm to a worker’s health.
4. Physiology of labor explores the functions of the human body in the labor process: the physiology of the motor system, the development and training of labor skills, performance and its regulation, sanitary and hygienic working conditions, the severity of labor.
5. Labor psychology explores the demands on the human psyche associated with his attitude to work.
6. Personnel Management studies the problems of workforce planning, selection, training and certification of personnel, labor motivation, management styles, relationships in labor collectives, management procedures.
7. Sociology of labor studies the impact of workers on society and vice versa - society on the worker.
8. Pedagogy of labor How science views issues of employee training.
9. Ergonomics studies the organization of the process of adapting means of labor to the characteristics, capabilities and limits of the human body.
10. Labor management studies the basics of designing workplace labor processes. Issues such as identifying personnel needs, recruiting and selecting personnel, engaging employees, releasing them, developing, controlling personnel, i.e. are considered. management, coordination and communication of work structuring, remuneration policies, participation in success, personnel cost management and employee management.
11. Safety explores a complex of problems related to ensuring safe work activities.
12. Labor law analyzes the complex legal aspects labor and management. This is especially important when hiring and firing, developing reward and punishment systems, solving property problems, and managing social conflicts.

Fundamentals of modern labor economics

Labor Economics— studies economic patterns in the field of labor relations, including specific forms of manifestation of the essence of labor, such as organization, payment, efficiency and employment.

Object studying labor economics is labor - purposeful human activity aimed at creating material wealth and providing services.

Subject of labor economics- socio-economic relations that develop in the labor process under the influence of various factors - technical, organizational, personnel and other nature.

Purpose labor economics are studies in the field of human resource management.

home task labor economics - the study of the essence and mechanisms of economic processes in the sphere of labor in the context of human life and society.

Ways to improve work efficiency

One of the most important elements increasing the efficiency of human labor activity - improving skills and abilities as a result of labor training. From a psychophysical point of view, industrial training is a process of adaptation and corresponding changes in the physiological functions of the human body for the most effective performance of a specific job. As a result of training, muscle strength and endurance increase, the accuracy and speed of working movements increase, and physiological functions are restored faster after finishing work.

Rational organization of the workplace

Rational organization (ensuring a comfortable posture and freedom of labor movements, using equipment that meets the requirements of ergonomics and engineering psychology) ensures the most effective, reduces fatigue and prevents the risk of occupational diseases. Besides, workplace must meet the following requirements: availability of sufficient work space; sufficient physical, auditory and visual connections between man and machine; optimal placement of the workplace in space; permissible level of harmful production factors; availability of means of protection against hazardous production factors.

Comfortable working position

A comfortable working posture of a person during work ensures high efficiency and productivity. A comfortable working position should be considered one in which the employee does not need to lean forward more than 10-15 degrees; bending back and to the sides is undesirable; The main requirement for a working posture is an upright posture.

The formation of a working posture in the “sitting” position is influenced by the height of the working surface, determined by the distance from the floor to the horizontal surface on which the labor process is performed. The height of the working surface is set depending on the nature, severity and accuracy of the work. A comfortable working posture when working “sitting” is also ensured by the design of the chair (size, shape, area and inclination of the seat, height adjustment).

High performance and vital activity of the body are supported by a rational alternation of periods of work and rest.

Rational work and rest regime

Rational work and rest regime- this is the ratio and content of periods of work and rest in which high labor productivity is combined with high and stable human performance without signs of excessive fatigue for a long time. This alternation of periods of work and rest is observed at various periods of time: during a work shift, day, week, year in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise.

The duration of rest during a shift (regulated breaks) depends mainly on the severity of the work and the conditions of its implementation. When determining the duration of rest during working hours, it is necessary to take into account the following production factors that cause fatigue: physical effort, nervous tension, pace of work, working position, monotony of work, microclimate, air pollution, air ion composition, industrial noise, vibration, lighting. Depending on the strength of the influence of each of these factors on the human body, the time for rest is set.

The intra-shift work and rest regime should include a lunch break and short rest breaks, which should be regulated, as it is more effective than breaks that occur irregularly, at the discretion of the employee.

Short rest breaks are designed to reduce fatigue developing during work.. The number and duration of short-term breaks are determined based on the nature of the labor process, the degree of intensity and severity of work. The reference points for establishing the beginning of rest breaks are the moments of decreased performance. To prevent its decline, a rest break is scheduled before the body becomes fatigued. In the second half of the working day, due to deeper fatigue, the number of rest breaks should be greater than in the first half of the shift. Physiologists have found that for most types of work the optimal break duration is 5-10 minutes.. It is this break that allows you to restore physiological functions, reduce fatigue and maintain a working attitude. With deep fatigue, it is necessary to follow both the line of increasing the number of breaks and increasing their duration. But short breaks lasting more than 20 minutes disrupt the already established state of work.

Rest can be active or passive. Active rest is recommended for jobs that take place in unfavorable working conditions. The most effective form of active recreation is industrial gymnastics. Active rest speeds up the recovery of strength, since when changing activities, the energy expended by a working organ is restored faster. As a result of industrial gymnastics, the vital capacity of the lungs increases, the activity of the cardiovascular system improves, and muscle strength and endurance increase.

Labor is a fundamental form of human activity, in the process of which the entire set of objects necessary for him to satisfy his needs is created.

Labor activity is one of the forms of human activity aimed at transforming natural world and creation of material wealth.

The structure of work activity includes:

1. production of certain products;
2. materials the activity is aimed at transforming;
3. devices with the help of which objects of labor are transformed;
4. techniques and methods used in the production process.

The following parameters are used for characterization:

1. Labor productivity;
2. Labor efficiency;
3. Level of division of labor.

General requirements for a participant in labor activity:

1. professionalism (the employee must master all techniques and methods of production);
2. qualifications (High requirements for the preparation of a participant in the labor process);
3. discipline (the employee is required to comply with labor laws and internal labor regulations).

Labor relations and their legal regulation

Labor is a purposeful process of creating material and spiritual values ​​in society. By engaging in labor activity, receiving for it part of the social product in the form of profit, salary, a person creates conditions for satisfying his material and spiritual needs.

The right to work is one of the fundamental human rights and freedoms and is enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

The main work activity of most people is work in enterprises, which can be based on private, state, municipal and other forms of ownership. Labor relations between an employee and an enterprise are regulated by labor legislation.

If a person is suitable for the company, then an employment agreement (contract) is concluded between them. It defines mutual rights and obligations.

An employment contract is a voluntary agreement, meaning that both parties have made their choice, that the qualifications of the employee are suitable for the company, and the conditions offered by the company are suitable for the employee.

An employee, together with other employees, can participate in concluding a collective agreement with the administration of the enterprise, which regulates socio-economic, professional relations, issues of labor protection, health, and social development of the team.

Labor law

Labor law is an independent branch Russian law, regulating the relations of workers with enterprises, as well as derivative, but other relations closely related to them.

Labor law occupies a special place in the Russian legal system. It determines the procedure for hiring, transferring, dismissing workers, systems and standards of remuneration, establishes incentive measures for success in work, penalties for violation of labor discipline, labor protection rules, and the procedure for considering labor disputes (both individual and collective).

The sources of labor law are understood as regulatory legal acts, i.e. acts that establish the norms of labor law of the Russian Federation. The most important source of labor law is the Constitution (Basic Law) Russian Federation. It contains fundamental principles legal regulation labor (Articles 2, 7, 8, 19, 30, 32, 37, 41, 43, 46, 53, etc.).

In the system of sources of labor law, after the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Labor Code (LC) occupies an important place. The Labor Code regulates the legal relations of all workers, promoting the growth of labor productivity, improving the quality of work, increasing the efficiency of social production and raising on this basis the material and cultural standard of living of workers, strengthening labor discipline and the gradual transformation of work for the benefit of society into the first vital need of everyone able-bodied person. The Labor Code establishes a high level of working conditions and full protection of the labor rights of workers.

Employment contract

Of the various forms of realizing the right of citizens to work, the main one is the employment agreement (contract).

In accordance with Article 15 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, an employment agreement (contract) is an agreement between workers and an enterprise, institution, organization, according to which the worker undertakes to perform work in a certain specialty, qualification or position with subordination to the internal labor regulations, and the enterprise, institution, organization undertakes to pay the worker wages and ensure working conditions provided for by labor legislation, the collective agreement and the agreement of the parties.

The definition of the concept of an employment contract allows us to highlight the following distinctive features:

1. an employment agreement (contract) provides for the performance of a certain type of work (in a certain specialty, qualification or position);
2. presupposes the employee’s subordination to the internal labor regulations established at the enterprise, institution, or organization;
3. It is the employer’s responsibility to organize the employee’s work and create normal working conditions that meet safety and hygiene requirements.

As can be seen from the definition of an employment agreement (contract), one of the parties is a citizen who has entered into an agreement to work as a specific employee. As a general rule, a citizen can enter into an employment agreement (contract) from the age of 15.

To prepare young people for productive work, it is allowed to employ students secondary schools, vocational and secondary special educational institutions to perform light work that does not cause harm to health and does not interfere with the learning process, in their free time from school, after they reach the age of 14, with the consent of one of the parents or a person replacing him.

The second party to the employment agreement (contract) is the employer - an enterprise, institution, organization, regardless of the form of ownership on which it is based. In some cases, the second party to the employment agreement (contract) may be a citizen, when, for example, a personal driver, a domestic worker, a personal secretary, etc. are hired.

The content of any contract refers to its terms, which determine the rights and obligations of the parties. The content of an employment agreement (contract) is the mutual rights, obligations and responsibilities of its parties. Both parties to the employment agreement (contract) have subjective rights and obligations determined by the employment agreement (contract) and labor legislation. Depending on the procedure for establishing, there are two types of terms of the employment agreement (contract):

1. derivatives established by current legislation;
2. direct, established by agreement of the parties when concluding an employment contract.

Derivative terms are established by applicable labor laws. These include conditions: on labor protection, on establishing a minimum wage, on disciplinary and financial liability, etc. These conditions cannot be changed by agreement of the parties (unless otherwise provided by law). The parties do not agree on derivative terms, knowing that with the conclusion of the contract these terms are obligatory by law.

The immediate conditions, which are determined by agreement of the parties, are in turn divided into:

1. necessary;
2. additional.

Necessary conditions are those in the absence of which an employment contract does not arise. These include the following conditions:

1. about the place of work (enterprise, its structural unit, their location);
2. about the employee’s labor function that he will perform. The labor function (type of work) is determined by the parties to the contract establishing the profession, specialty, qualification in which a specific employee will work;
3. terms of remuneration;
4. duration and type of employment agreement (contract).

In addition to the necessary conditions, the parties may establish additional conditions when concluding an employment agreement (contract). From the name itself it is clear that they may or may not exist. Without them, an employment agreement (contract) can be concluded. Additional conditions include: on establishing a probationary period when hiring, on providing out-of-turn placements in preschool institution, on the provision of living space, etc. This group of conditions may concern any other labor issues, as well as social and welfare services for the employee. If the parties have agreed on specific additional conditions, they automatically become binding for their implementation.

The procedure for concluding an employment agreement (contract)

Labor legislation establishes a certain procedure for admission and legal guarantees of the right to work upon admission. Recruitment in our country is carried out on the principle of selecting personnel based on business qualities. Unreasonable refusal to hire is prohibited.

An employment agreement (contract) is concluded in writing. It is drawn up in two copies and kept by each party. Hiring is formalized by order (instruction) of the administration of the organization. The order is announced to the employee against signature. Current legislation prohibits requiring documents other than those required by law when hiring.

Employment agreements (contracts), according to the time for which they are concluded, are:

1. perpetual - for an indefinite period,
2. urgent - for a certain period of time,
3. for the duration of a specific job.

A fixed-term employment agreement (contract) is concluded in cases where the employment relationship cannot be established for an indefinite period, taking into account the nature of the work to be done, subject to its completion, or the interests of the employee, as well as in cases directly provided for by law.

When hiring, by agreement of the parties, a probationary period may be established in order to verify the employee’s suitability for the work assigned to him.

During the probationary period, the employee is fully covered by labor laws. The trial is established for a period of up to three months, and in some cases, in agreement with the relevant elected trade union bodies, for a period of up to six months. If the employee fails to pass the test, he is dismissed before the end of the specified period.

The work book is the main document about the employee’s work activity. Work books are kept for all employees who have worked for more than five days, including seasonal and temporary workers, as well as non-staff workers, provided that they are subject to state social insurance. Filling work book for the first time produced by the administration of the enterprise.

Salary

Issues of remuneration are currently resolved directly at the enterprise. Their regulation is usually carried out in collective agreement or other local regulatory act. The tariff rates (salaries), forms and systems of remuneration established at the enterprise may be periodically revised depending on the achieved production and economic results and the financial position of the enterprise, but cannot be lower than the established state minimum.

Regulation of wages for public sector employees and employees employed in representative and executive authorities is carried out centrally on the basis of a Unified Tariff Schedule.

In the employment agreement (contract), it is advisable to indicate the size of the tariff rate (official salary) of the employee by profession (position), qualified category and qualification category provided for in a collective agreement or other local regulatory act.

The salary of each employee should depend on the complexity of the work performed and personal labor contribution.

By agreement of the parties, a higher wage may be established than in the corresponding act (agreement), if this does not contradict local regulations in force at the enterprise.

The establishment of higher wages on an individual basis should be associated with the high qualifications of the employee, the implementation of more complex tasks, programs and ensure equal pay for equal quantity and quality of work.

In addition to the size of the tariff rate (official salary), in employment contract various additional payments and bonuses of an incentive and compensatory nature may be provided: for professional skill and high qualifications, for class, for academic degree, for deviation from normal conditions labor, etc.

By agreement of the parties in the employment agreement (contract), these allowances are specified and, in some cases, can be increased compared to the general norm provided for at the enterprise, if this does not contradict local regulations in force at the enterprise.

The employment agreement (contract) specifies the amount of additional payments for combining professions or positions. The specific amount of additional payments is determined by agreement of the parties based on the complexity of the work performed, its volume, the employee’s employment in the main and combined work, etc. Along with additional payments, the parties can agree on other compensation for combining professions (positions), for example, additional leave, increased remuneration at the end of the year, etc.

Various types of employee incentives operating in the organization can also be reflected in an individual employment agreement (contract), for example, bonuses, year-end remuneration, long service payment, payment in kind.

Types of working time

Working time is a period of time established by law or on its basis during which an employee must perform work duties, while submitting to internal labor regulations.

The legislator establishes three types of working hours.

1. The normal working hours at enterprises, organizations and institutions do not exceed 40 hours per week.
2. Reduced working hours. The legislator establishes such a duration, taking into account the conditions and nature of work, and in some cases, the physiological characteristics of the body of certain categories of workers. A reduction in working hours does not entail a reduction in wages.
3. Part-time work.

Shortened working hours apply to:

1. for workers under 18 years of age:

• age from 16 to 18 years means working no more than 36 hours per week;
• age from 15 to 16 years, as well as from 14 to 15 years, students (working during the holidays) - no more than 24 hours a week;

1. for workers in production with hazardous working conditions - no more than 36 hours per week;
2. a shortened week is established for individual categories workers (teachers, doctors, women, as well as those employed in the agricultural sector, etc.).

Part-time work

By agreement between the employee and the administration, it may be established (both upon hiring and subsequently) part-time or part-time work. work week. At the request of a woman, women with children under 14 years of age, a disabled child under 16 years of age; at the request of a person caring for a sick family member (in accordance with the available medical document), the administration is obliged to establish for them a part-time working day or a part-time working week.

Payment in these cases is made in proportion to the time worked or depending on output.

Working part-time does not entail for employees any restrictions on the duration of annual leave, calculation of length of service and other labor rights.

Overtime work

By establishing a specific measure of labor in the form of working time norms, labor legislation at the same time allows for some exceptions when it is possible to attract an employee to work outside of this norm.

Overtime work is work beyond the established working hours. As a rule, overtime work is not allowed.

The administration of an enterprise can apply overtime work only in exceptional cases provided for by law. Overtime require permission from the relevant trade union body of the enterprise, institution, or organization.

Certain categories of workers cannot be involved in overtime work. Each employee's overtime hours must not exceed four hours on two consecutive days and 120 hours per year.