The Russian language as a whole is characterized by the opposition of hard and soft consonants (cf.: small And crumpled, Houses And Dema). In many European languages there is no such opposition. When borrowed, a word usually obeys the pronunciation norms of the Russian language. Thus, before “e” in Russian there is usually a soft consonant ( m ate, no). Many foreign words begin to be pronounced in the same way: meter, r y ebus. The pronunciation of hard consonants is usually preserved by all foreign surnames: Chopin[pe], Voltaire[te]. The pronunciation of a hard consonant before “e” is also typical for bookish, rarely used words ( apartheid [te]. demarche [de]). The type of consonant before “e” also has a certain meaning. For example, the combination “de” is more often pronounced with a soft consonant. and the combination “those” - with hard. The source of borrowing plays a significant role. For example, the final stressed syllable in words from French usually pronounced with a hard consonant ( pastel [te], cure [re], corrugated [re]). But there are exceptions here, for example, the word overcoat pronounced with a soft "n". Here is a small group of words in which pronunciation errors are often observed.
The correct pronunciation of a hard consonant before “e” in the following words is considered: artery, atelier, atheist, jewelry, business, businessman, beefsteak, brandy, Bruderschaft, Bundeswehr, sandwich, bra, water polo, riding breeches, gangster, corrugated, grotesque, disintegration, decadent, dequalification, cleavage, detective, dumping, denunciation, determinism, de facto, de jure, decryption, identical, impresario, inert, index, interval, integration, intensity, intervention, interview, cartel, caret, cabaret, condensate, container, motorcade, computer, curé, laser, lottery, Madeira, mademoiselle, manager, travel bag, nonsense, pastel, panel, panther, producer, rugby, relay, sweater, thesis, timbre, trend, tempo, tent, masterpiece, chimpanzee, plug, esthete.
In words diet, project, caries the sound [j] is not pronounced, that is, they sound like [d b ieta], [proekt], [kar b ies].
The consonant before “e” is pronounced softly: academy, certificate, benefit, takes, brunette, bookmaker, accounting, bill of exchange, gazelle, haberdashery, hegemon, debit, debate, debut, degenerate, devaluation, degradation, disinfection, demagogue, democrat, demi-season, dismantling, deposit, dispatch, despot, defect, hyphen, deficit, deformation, dividend, ikebana, investor, intellectual; congress, air conditioning, coffee, cream, patent, presentation, progress, review, raglan, register, reserve, raid, flight, rail, x-ray, referee, term, overcoat, effect.
In general, the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in borrowed words is a very flexible norm. As a rule, when borrowed, a word is pronounced with a hard consonant for some time. As it becomes mastered by the language, it loses the “patina” of a foreign, “alien”, the hard pronunciation is gradually replaced by the pronunciation of a soft consonant (in accordance with the spelling). Sometimes this process goes very quickly. For example, schoolchildren in urban schools, where a computer is no longer perceived as something exotic, usually pronounce the word computer with a soft “t”, but such a pronunciation has not yet become the general literary norm.
At the same time, in some cases, the pronunciation of both hard and soft consonants is equally acceptable. For example, the pronunciation of “e” and “e” is allowed in the words: aggression, disinformation, decade, dean, credo, claim and some others.
Attention should also be paid to the social significance of the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in borrowed words. If the norm is still the pronunciation of a hard consonant, then the pronunciation of a soft consonant can be perceived as a manifestation of low human culture (cf.: chimpanzee e, copper ema el) at the same time, the pronunciation of a hard consonant in a word where the pronunciation of a soft consonant has already become the norm , can be perceived as a manifestation of philistinism, pseudo-intellectualism. This is how, for example, pronunciations like shi[ne]l, k[re]m, ko[fe], bru[ne]t, aka[de]miya, [te]ma are perceived.
Pronunciation of [e] and [o] under stress after soft consonants and sibilants
In Russian, in the position between a soft and a hard consonant under stress, “o” is usually pronounced (graphically “ё”): sister - sisters, wife - wives. However, in entire groups of words such alternation is not observed. These are many borrowed words ( bluff, scam etc.), words that came to us from the Old Church Slavonic language. For example, nouns starting with -е are usually of Old Church Slavonic origin, and words with -е are of Russian origin, so the following parallels can be identified: being-being, life - life . There is no alternation in the position between two soft consonants, cf.: ice, But - black ice.
TEST YOURSELF:
1. Read the following words carefully, paying attention to their correct pronunciation and emphasis:
A) Whitish, faded, sparkle, voyager, millstone, gutter, gall, kiosk, maneuver, nonsense, wit, loan, receiver, polygamy, bucket, bucket, priest, kneeling, imprinted, fur, perch, hopeless, worthless, importer, retoucher , marker, taper, chronicler, stuntman, knowledgeable, starter, officer.
b) Obstetrician, guardianship, scam, existence, life, plump, snapdragon. grenadier, carabinieri, receiver, sharpness, sedentism, bent, bigamist, polygamist, bluff, expired term, pole, rod, hornet, spineless, fashion designer, dispensary, minuscule, croupier, porter, spearhead.
2. Mark the words in which [e] is pronounced after a soft consonant under stress.
Genesis, fable, eponymous, catechumen, stunned, grenadier, multi-temporal, connected, loaded, coarse-haired.
3. Divide the words below into two groups depending on whether the consonant is pronounced - hard or soft.
Ampere, anesthesia, antenna, beige, beefsteak, brunette, sandwich, dean, demon, depression, chapel, caravel, card index, cafe, cupcake, stranded, modern, museum, short story, Odessa, hotel, pastel, patent, pioneer, resonance, rail, sausage, superman, tavern, themed, plywood, music library, brown-haired, overcoat.
4. Highlight the words in which the consonant before E is pronounced firmly.
Antithesis, anapest, grotesque, aesthetics, effect, genetics, tennis, pool, phoneme, benefit.
Difficulties arise in the pronunciation of a number of words due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text e And e , since only one is used to designate them graphic symbol – e . This situation leads to a distortion of the phonetic appearance of the word and causes frequent pronunciation errors. There are two sets of words to remember:
1) with a letter e and the sound [" uh]: af e ra, be e , live e , Grenada e r, op e ka, os e long, idiot e native, foreigner e nny, w e non-hater;
2) with a letter e and the sound [" O]: hopeless e payment e capable, man e vry, white e syy, bl e cool, w e personal, w e lch (option - w e lie), alone e ny.
In some pairs of words different meaning accompanied by different sounds of the stressed vowel: ist e kshiy (term) – but: ist e kshiy (blood), screams like a loud voice e nal – but: decree, announced e in the morning, etc.
Some difficult cases of pronunciation of consonants
1. According to old Moscow standards, the spelling combination -chn- should always have been pronounced like [shn] in words: bakery, on purpose, cheap, fiddling, creamy, apple and under. Currently, the pronunciation has been preserved only in some words: of course, boring, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party. The vast majority of other words are pronounced [chn], as they are written: toy, creamy, apple, flour, snack bar, glass etc.
Pronunciation [ shn] preserved today also in female patronymics ending in -ichna: Nikitichna, Ilyinichna and so on..
According to old Moscow standards, the combination -wha- pronounced as [pcs] in the word What and in words derived from it: nothing, something etc.: currently this rule remains the same (except for the word something[Thu]). In all other words the spelling is - th- always pronounced as [thu]: mail, dream, mast.
2. In words man, defector on site zhch, in the shape of comparative degree adverbs tougher, harsher(And more scathingly) in place stch, as well as in place of combinations zch And sch customer, sandstone, cost accounting etc. pronounced [ sch]: mu[sh]ina, pere[sch]ik, zhe[sh]e etc.
3. When several consonants accumulate in some words, one of them is not pronounced: student[s"n"]ik, weighty[s"n"]ik po[zn]o, pra[zn]ik, conscientious[s"l"]ivy, maximal[ss]ky and so on. .
4. Hard consonants before soft consonants can be softened:
a) necessarily softens n before soft ones h And With: face[n"z"]iya, pretension[n"z"]iya;
b) n before soft T And d softens: a["n"t"]ichny, ka[n"d"]idat.
Pronunciation of borrowed words
Many borrowed words have spelling features that need to be remembered.
1. In some words of foreign language origin, the sound [o] is pronounced in place of the unstressed o: beau monde, trio, boa, cocoa, biostimulant, veto, gross, net, advice, oasis, reputation. Pronunciation of words poetry, credo etc. with unstressed [o] optional. Proper names of foreign origin also retain unstressed [o] as an option literary pronunciation: Chopin, Voltaire, Sacramento and etc.
2. In some borrowed words, after vowels and at the beginning of a word, the unstressed [e] sounds quite clearly: aegis, evolution, duelist and etc.
3. In oral speech, certain difficulties are caused by pronouncing a hard or soft consonant before the letter e in borrowed words: t[em]p or [t"e]mp? bass[se]yn or bass[s"e]yn? In some cases, a soft consonant is pronounced.
Soft Pronunciation:
In other cases, before e a hard consonant is pronounced.
Firm pronunciation:
4. Currently, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of words:
6. In borrowed words with two (or more) e often one of the consonants is pronounced softly, while the other remains hard before e: gene zis[g"ene], relay[rel"e]etc.
7. Solid [ w] is pronounced in words pair shu T[shu], bro shu ra[shu]. In a word jury pronounced soft hissing [ and"]. Names are pronounced just as softly Julien, Jules.
8. When pronouncing some words, erroneous extra consonants or vowels sometimes appear. Should be pronounced:
incident, Not incident;
precedent, Not precedent;
compromise, Not compromise;
competitive, Not competitive;
emergency, Not h[e]extraordinary;
institution, Not institution;
future, Not future;
thirsty Not thirsty
The Russian language has many words borrowed from other languages. Once in the Russian language, a new word is subject to its orthoepic norms. So, in accordance with the laws of Russian pronunciation, before e a soft consonant sound is pronounced: [d"]el, but [d]ol. However, this rule does not apply to all words of foreign language origin, which leads to fluctuations in the norm and the appearance of errors in speech: you can hear, for example, [te]rmin instead [term, shi[ne]l instead sh[n"]el.
The reason for the fluctuation of this orthoepic norm is the influence of the source language, in which the word was pronounced with a hard consonant. It often takes a lot of time to fully “master” a new word. For example, the word dean(going back to Latin decim - ten; originally dean - eldest over ten monks) came into the Russian language a long time ago, but the variant hard and soft pronunciation before e: [de]kan And [d "]ekan.
Remember some words in which the consonant before e is pronounced firmly: anes T ezia, d ekol T e, gro T esk, d e-gradation, d ecadence, d spruce T eu, d e T active, computer T er, m e n ed-zher, mick With er, With service, st R ess, T yesis, anti T yes, no With ens, about T ek-tion, svi T er, T Hermos, boo T erbrod, T emp, T Ennis, T ent, sha T en, extra With ens, beef T ex, biz n EU, and n ertny, and T spruce, and d entic, la h er, in T interview, pass T spruce, R egbi, T embr, T en d ence, fo n ethics, in d ex, in T erier, be h e, R barely, With sexy.
Words with soft consonant before e: aka d emic, b bully, bully T eria, d fuck and n emia, bru n yes, clair n yes, computer T tion, concept T ext, to R eat, mu h she, pa T ent, pash T e, p R essa, prog R ess, T er-min, fla n spruce, shea n spruce, es With tion, jurisprudence d ence, yachts m en.
In many cases, variant pronunciation is allowed;
[d"]ekan and [de]kan, [d "]ekanat and [de] kanat, [s"]session and [se]ssia, but [ve]lla and no[v"]ella, ag[r" ]session and additional ag[re]ssia, [d"]ep[r"]session and additional [de]p[re]ssiya, ba[ss"]ein and ba[sse]ein, stra[t" ]egia and additional strategy[te]giya, lo[te]reya and additional lo[t"]reya.
Pronunciation [chn], [shn] in place of the spelling chn
Competition of pronunciation variants in place of spelling-graphic combination chn has a long history, the echoes of which we feel when we have to choose one use or another: sk[chn]o or skuk[sh]o, skvor[chn]ik or skvor[sh]ik?
There is a gradual displacement of the Old Moscow pronunciation [shn] and a convergence of pronunciation with spelling, therefore the variants koria[sh]evy, bulo[sh]aya, gorn[sh]aya are outdated. At the same time, it should be remembered that some words retain as a mandatory pronunciation [shn] in place of the spelling chn: boring, boring, on purpose, of course, scrambled eggs, birdhouse, trifling, eyeglass case(case for glasses), laundry, mustard plaster, double plaster, candlestick. The pronunciation [shn] is also standard in female patronymics: Kuzminichna, Fominichna, Ilyinichna.
Pronunciation of [e] and [o] under stress after soft consonants and sibilants
In modern speech we often hear af e ra, op yo- ka instead of those provided for by the norm af e ra, op e ka. Why do such fluctuations occur? Long transition process [e] V [O], denoted by the letter e , in the position under stress after soft consonants before hard consonants, is reflected in the state of the modern norm. In most cases, under stress in the position between a soft and hard consonant and after sibilants, the sound [o] is pronounced (graphically e). Wed, for example, decide e then - decide e tka, sound e zda-zv e zny, tear - tearful.
Remember words with this pronunciation:
difference e passionate, w e forehead, nikch e many, cm e weka, from e kshiy, w e redochka, mark e r, start e r, forget e, grave e r, driver e r, ks e ndz, start e r, double e ness, history e k-shiy (blood).
However, in many words, most often borrowed, there is no transition [e] to [o] in the indicated position: op e ka(not op e ka!), af e ra(not af e ra!), deb e Lyy, Grenada e r, double e nets, ist e kshiy (day), w e blah blah blah e evil, spineless e thin, carabiner e r, os e length, val e zhnik, at the same time e exchangeable
The fluctuation of this orthoepic norm is evidenced by the possibility of variant pronunciation of some words. It should be borne in mind that the main, most preferable options are e: white e syy, bl e cool, w e lie, w e personal, man e vr, man e temporary, pobl e whip Options with e words are recorded as acceptable, that is, less desirable in use: whitish, faded, bile, bilious, maneuver, maneuverable, fade.
In the position before the sound [e], denoted in writing by the letter e, in borrowed words both soft and hard consonants are pronounced. Lack of softness is often characteristic of dental [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] and the sound [r]. However, the consonant before is pronounced softly e in words academy,cream,press, museum,tenor and many others. See lists of such words below.
Words with firmly pronounced consonants before e
adept [de]
detective [dete]
adequate [de]
anesthesia [ne, te]
annexation [ne] [ add. Not]
antiseptic [se]
atheism [te]
atheist [te]
take-take [be, be]
business [ne]
businessman [ne] [ add. Not, meh]
hetaera [te]
grotesque [te]
landing stage [de, der]
devaluation [de] [ add. de]
degradation [de]
depression [de]
dehumanization [de]
disabillier [de]
disavow [de]
disintegration [dezynte]
disinformation [disinformation] [ add. misinformation]
disorganization [de] [ add. de]
disorientation [de] [ add. de]
decahedron [de]
dequalification [de]
neckline [de, te]
low-cut [ add. de]
decompensation [de]
decor [de]
delicacy [te]
demarche [de]
demos [de]
dumping [de]
dendrologist [de]
denomination [de]
denunciation [de]
dermis [de]
desegregation [de]
detective [dete]
detector [dete]
determinism [dete]
de facto [de]
deflector [de]
deflation [de]
decibel [de]
decimeter [de]
de-escalation [de]
de jure [de, re]
indexing [de]
computer [te]
condensate [de]
capacitor [de]
consensus [se]
confidential [de] [ add. de]
corps de ballet [de]
cosecant [se]
crater [te] [ add. those]
credo [re] [ add. re]
crepe de Chine [de] [ add. re]
laser [ze]
manager [ne] [ add. meh, nah]
management [ne] [ add. meh, nah]
minstrel [re] [ add. ne]
simulate [de]
nonsense [se]
orchid [de]
pantheon [te]
panther [te] [ add. those]
ground [te]
reverence [ie] [ add. no]
pretentious [te]
providential [de]
producer [se]
protégé [te]
prosthesis [te]
protection [te]
rendezvous [de]
requiem [re, uh]
reputation [me] [ add. re, meh]
secant [se]
Saint Bernard [se]
maxim [te] [ add. se]
sepsis [se]
setter [se, te]
synthesis [te]
sonnet [ne] [ add. Not]
stress [re]
thesis (anti-) [te]
thesaurus [te]
thesis (anti-) [te]
timbre [te]
tempera [te]
tendency [te, de]
tender [te, de]
tennis [te]
T-shirt [te]
thermos [te]
terms [te]
terracotta [te]
terzetto [te]
third [te]
tête-à-tête [tetatet]
tetrahedron [te]
track [re] [ add. re]
phoneme [ne]
phonetics [ne]
maid of honor [re]
meatball [de]
cicerone [ne]
showman [meh]
psychic [se]
Words with softly pronounced consonants before e
academy [not de]
takes [not bere]
degenerate
tasting [ de and de]
deduction [ add. de]
disinfection, disinfect
deodorant [ de and de]
decade [ add. de]
decadent [ add. decade]
recitation
declaration
decoration
demilitarization [ add. de]
demi-season
dismantling [ add. de]
depression [ add. de, re]
leatherette
definition [ add. de]
hyphen [ add. de]
deformation [ add. de]
dividend
kinescope
competent
competence
congress [ add. re]
congressman [ add. re, meh]
context
correct
cream [ add. re]
compartment, But: coupe [ pe]
legionary
mixer [ add. se]
policeman
mystery
cologne
policeman
press conference
pressing
progression [ add. re]
registry [ add. es]
referent
safe [ add. se]
sexology [ add. se],But: sex [se]
cervelat [ add. se]
service [ add. se]
session [ add. se]
athlete [rts]
therapist [ add. te]
Terminator
thermonuclear [ add. te]
terror [ add. te]
fashionable [ add. ne]
shrapnel
express [ add. re]
expression [ add. re]
epidemic
essence
jurisprudence
The Russian language as a whole is characterized by the opposition of hard and soft consonants.
Wed: small And crumpled, WHO And carried, sir And gray, mouse And bear.
In many European languages there is no such opposition. When borrowed, a word usually obeys the pronunciation norms of the Russian language. Yes, before e in Russian the soft consonant usually sounds: chalk, no. Many borrowed words begin to be pronounced in the same way: meter, rebus. However, in other cases, the pronunciation of the hard consonant is preserved in the borrowed word: adept[adept], amber[ambre], although this is not reflected graphically. Usually after a hard consonant in Russian it is written uh, after soft - e. In borrowed words, as a rule, it is written e. Consonants can be pronounced both softly and firmly.
When pronouncing a borrowed word, several parameters must be taken into account.
1. The pronunciation of hard consonants is usually preserved by foreign surnames:
Shope[e]n, Volte[e]r.
2. The pronunciation of hard consonants is usually preserved in bookish, little-used words that have recently entered the Russian language:
de[e]-facto, apart[e]id, re[e]iting.
As the word becomes established in the language, the pronunciation of a hard consonant can be replaced by the pronunciation of a soft consonant (in accordance with the spelling). So, now it is possible to pronounce a consonant in two ways:
de[e/e]gradate, de[e/e]valuation, de[e/e]duction, de[e/e]odorant, de[e/e]kan.
3. The type of consonant located before plays a certain role e.
Thus, in borrowed words with the combination de, the process of softening the consonant regularly occurs (in accordance with the spelling): decoration, de[e]clamation, de[e]mobilization.
The process of softening the consonant is quite active in words with combinations Not, re: abre[e]k, aggression[e]ssion, aquar[e]el, bere[e]t, re[e]gent, re[e]ter, referee, brun[e]t, shine[ spruce.
On the contrary, the combination of those rather stably preserves firm pronunciation consonant: ate[e]lye, bijute[e]ria, bute[er]rbrod, de[e]te[e]active, te[e]rier.
4. A certain role is played by the source of borrowing and the place in the word of combination with e.
Thus, those words that are borrowed from French with a final stressed syllable consistently retain the pronunciation of a hard consonant sound: entre[e], meringue[e], corrugation[e], curé[e], paste[e]el.
5. In book words in which before the letter e the letter is not a consonant, but a vowel, the sound [j] is not pronounced. Wed: in Russian words: ate, [j]ate; in borrowed words: brown[e]s, project[e]ct, projector[e]ctor, projection[e]ction, ree[e]str.
note
The pronunciation of hard and soft consonants in borrowed words has social significance. If the norm is still the pronunciation of a hard consonant (for example, chimpanzee[e], gofre[e], computer[e]r, madem[dm]uaze[e]l), then the pronunciation of the soft consonant in such words ( chimpanzee[e], corrugation[e], computer[e]r, made[e]moise[e]el) can be perceived by listeners as a manifestation of the speaker’s low culture. At the same time, pronouncing a hard consonant where the pronunciation of a soft consonant has already become the norm can be perceived by listeners as a manifestation of philistinism, pretentiousness, and pseudo-intellectuality. So, for example, the pronunciation of hard consonants in words is perceived: academic[e]mik, bere[e]t, brunette[e]t, accounting[e]r, de[e]claration, de[e]magog, de[e]mokrat, coffee[e], te[e ]ma, te[er]rmome[e]tr, fane[e]ra, shine[e]l.
In borrowed words, only hard consonants in the words are pronounced before the spelling e ([e]): antenna, business, beefsteak, delta, cabaret, cafe, muffler, codex, cocktail, model, hotel, parterre, pastel, poetess, puree, requiem, tarantella, dash, tunnel, brown-haired, masterpiece, highway, eczema, aesthetics, etc.
In a number of words, the pronunciation of both hard and soft consonants is acceptable: deduction, dean, congress, creed, terrorist, etc..
Finally, in some words only the soft consonant is pronounced: beige, brunette, museum, pioneer, rail, term, plywood, overcoat.
5. Difficult cases in the system of orthoepic norms: pronunciation [o] and [e] after soft consonants and sibilants.
In Russian the sound [e] (graphically – e) in a position between a soft consonant or hissing and a hard consonant under stress usually alternates with the sound [o] (graphically e or O– in some forms after sibilants).
Sister - sisters, wife - wives, to cope with the task - go with a candle.
This process is very sequential.
Whitish, millstone, bucket, gutter, wool.
However, in the whole group of words such alternation is not observed.
1. Usually there is no alternation in words of Old Church Slavonic origin: One-tribe, expired, successor, rival, bent.
Wed. parallel Old Church Slavonic and native Russian forms: being - being, snapdragon - yawn.
However, pronunciation [O] is now actively spreading to a number of Old Church Slavonicisms, primarily to verbal adjectives and participles. So, in “Eugene Onegin” A.S. Pushkin's forms intoxicated, kneeling pronounced (in accordance with the spelling norms of that time) with sound [e] under emphasis: “Napoleon waited in vain, intoxicated with his last happiness, for Moscow on its knees with the keys of the old Kremlin.” Now these Old Church Slavonic forms, like many others, are pronounced with the sound [O](graphically - e): Captured, Gaunt, Exhausted, Kneeling, Aware and etc.
Sometimes the pronunciation of a word depends on its meaning. Wed: bleeding - expired, announced results - screams like a catechumen, death of cattle - nominative case; a perfect crime is a perfect creation.
2. As a rule, there is no alternation in place of the etymological "". The presence of this sound in the past can be revealed by comparing Russian and Ukrainian forms (in Russian - e, in Ukrainian – i: bread - bread). White, cut, thug, trace, body.
But in this group of words there are exceptions. Compare: stars, starry, but: star-shaped.
3. There is no alternation in most borrowed words.
Pharmacy, scam (!), bluff, canary, mannered.
note
It should be taken into account that, firstly, currently the transition [e] V [O] begins to actively capture foreign words (cf.: maneuver– the main option, maneuver– acceptable; maneuverable And maneuverable- equal options), secondly, the pronunciation of a vowel under stress largely depends on the source of borrowing. So, in Russian the pronunciation is preserved [O] in the name of a Polish priest - priest.
There is especially a lot of hesitation in the pronunciation of words in -er. Wed: grenadier, dromedary, engineer, interior – make-up artist, kiosk artist, retoucher.
Options starter And starter, combine operator And combine operator are equal.
4. No alternation in vowel position e between two soft consonants.
Wed: ice - ice, polygamy - polygamist, bigamy - bigamist.
note
There may be fluctuations in the pronunciation of some words: oared(permissible - oared), slaver And slaver(But: carry a roundabout).
Especially a lot of fluctuations are observed when pronouncing a stressed vowel in combination with hissing consonants (in the Old Russian language they were soft, then partially hardened, so the pronunciation of the vowel here is either a soft or a hard consonant): pot - potter, firebrand - firebrand.
This group of words is most susceptible to pronunciation fluctuations: bile(permissible - bile) – biliary(permissible - gall); wool – coarse-haired, short-haired; pole - perch; lattice And lattice.