Types of tropes

Trope Definition Role in the text Example
Epithet An artistic definition that helps the reader visualize
see, hear, feel
meth that evokes a particular feeling towards an object. They depict the most significant, significant features of an object or phenomenon, convey the author’s attitude to what is written. ...In the smoky, oily air the factory whistle trembled and roared.
In the cold darkness they walked down the street.
(Bitter)
Metaphor This is the designation of an object, quality or action through other objects, qualities or actions that are similar to them in some way. A means of lexical expressiveness, a way of constructing language
times They are used to make the reader's thoughts and imagination work. There is a fire of red rowan burning in the garden.
Yesenin.
The verb is to burn the hearts of people.
Pushkin.

Heperbole Exaggeration. Writers use hyperbole to emphasize the scale of an event, enhance the expressiveness of an image, and convey the strength of feelings. At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset glowed.
Litotes Artistic understatement. Hyperbole and litotes complement each other, being, as it were, two sides of the same coin. A boy as big as a finger, a man as big as a fingernail.
The land of Lilliputians.
Antithesis Comparison of contrasting or opposing images. They are used in speech as a strong means of emotional influence. Peace to the huts, war to the palaces.
Labor feeds, but laziness spoils.

Oxymoron A combination of contrasting values ​​that create a new concept. Gives the text special expressiveness, brightness, and peculiarity. Happy loser.
Living Dead.
I love the lush decay of nature.
(A. Pushkin.)
Allegory Allegory. Conveys through a concrete image an abstract concept, often of a moral or philosophical nature. Let's beat swords into plowshares. (Call for Peace)
Goddess Themis - justice.
Personified
tion This is the transfer of the properties and actions of living beings to natural phenomena and inanimate objects. Gives the text special expressiveness and poetry. With a clear smile, nature greets the morning of the year from sleep.
(A. Pushkin.)
Here even the stones cry.
(S. Yesenin.)
Metonymy This is the designation of one object through another, closely related to it. This is one of the ways to form new meanings for words in a language. I'm reading Gorky.
While hearts are alive for honor,
My friend is dedicated to his fatherland
Tim,
Souls have wonderful impulses.
(A. Pushkin.)
Synecdoche Designating a part through a whole or through a part, using the singular instead of the plural and vice versa. Gives the text vivid expressiveness and imagery. Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts.
(A. Pushkin.)
All flags will be visiting us.
(A. Pushkin.)
IN colloquial speech: Don’t show your nose, I won’t touch him.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Blagoveshchensk State Pedagogical University

Faculty of Correspondence Studies

Department of Russian Language and Literature

Examination on the discipline:

"Russian language and culture of speech"

Topic: Figures of speech and tropes in the works of Russian writers and poets

Completed by: Olga Valentinovna Godenchuk,

2nd year student of PPF OZO

specialty educational psychologist

Blagoveshchensk 2010

Introduction

1.1 Metaphor

1.2 Metonymy

1.3 Synecdoche

1.4 Comparison

1.5 Epithet

1.6 Personification

1.7 Paraphrase

1.8 Allegory

1.9 Hyperbole

1.10 Litota

1.11 Irony

2.1 Antithesis

2.2 Gradation

2.3 Inversion

2.4 Ellipsis

2.5 Anaphora

2.6 Epiphora

2.7 Parallelism

2.8 Period

2.9 Rhetorical appeal, exclamation and rhetorical question

Conclusion

Introduction

Words are capable of conveying the subtlest shades of feelings, movement human soul and thoughts, thereby causing a response from listeners and readers. This is facilitated by such quality of speech as expressiveness. Expressive speech is speech that can maintain the attention of the listener or reader and enhance the effectiveness of the speech’s impact on the addressee.

An essential property of artistic speech is figurativeness, that is, the use of words and phrases that evoke in the reader’s or listener’s imagination a visual representation or living image of objects, phenomena, events and actions. The means of artistic representation are numerous and varied.

Linguists divide them into two groups: tropes and figures of speech. Paths are most often used by authors of works of art when describing nature and the appearance of heroes. These visual and expressive means are of the author's nature, determine the originality of the writer or poet, and help him gain an individual style. Figures enliven the writer’s speech, give it emotionality and imagery, fill the text with life and convey the corresponding mood to the reader, evoking emotions and feelings in him.

But the means of expressiveness can also ultimately ruin a work by oversaturating the text with them. A.S. Pushkin spoke about it this way: “But what can we say about our writers who, considering it base to simply explain the most ordinary things, think to enliven children’s prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, whose noble flame, etc. They should say: early in the morning - but they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is , is it better only because it is longer? Precision and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions serve no purpose. Poems are a different matter...” (“On Russian prose”) Consequently, the “brilliant expressions” that the poet wrote about must be chosen in prose with caution, but it should be clarified that lexical “beauties” and syntactic “lengths” are necessary in poetry only when they are compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may also turn out to be unjustified, and in prose lexico-syntactic minimalism is equally unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree.

My task is to systematize knowledge about the basic means of artistic representation and learn to find and recognize them in the works of Russian writers and poets in order to see the individuality and style of each creator, because everyone is characterized by selectivity in the use of expressive speech.

1. Trails

Lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - inversion).

The trope is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness in some respect and which are realized at the level of a word or phrase.

Tropes are present in various works and are used by most writers and poets. But it is worth noting that there are also general linguistic tropes that arose as the author’s own, but over time have become familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals,” “battle for the harvest,” “conscience has spoken,” “curl up,” etc.

Both among grammarians and among philosophers there is an insoluble dispute about the genera, species, number of tropes and their systematization. Leaving aside all disagreements, we can name the most common types of tropes: allegory, hyperbole, irony, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrasis, synecdoche, comparison, epithet.

Paths perform many functions: they add emotionality to words, help express feelings, and contribute to a visual reflection of the picture. outside world, the inner world of a person, and also show objects and phenomena from a new, unexpected side, giving poetry or prose attractiveness and individuality.

1.1 Metaphor

The metaphor is based on the transfer of a name from one object to another based on the similarity of these objects. The source of new metaphorical meaning is comparison. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water is running,” “the storm is crying”), reification (“nerves of steel”), and abstraction (“field of activity”).

Various parts of speech can act as metaphors: verb, noun, adjective.

Metaphors must be unusual, original, in this case they decorate the speech, for example: “All day long the silhouettes of crimson hearts are falling from the maple trees” (N. Zabolotsky) or “There is a fire of red rowan burning in the garden... (S. Yesenin)

Or this example:

“In every carnation of fragrant lilac,

Singing, a bee crawls in..." and

“You ascended under the blue vault

Above the wandering crowd of clouds..." (A. Fet)

The metaphor is a dissected comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

"With a sheaf of his oat hair

You stuck with me forever..."

"The dog's eyes rolled

Golden stars in the snow" (S. Yesenin)

In addition to verbal metaphor, widespread in artistic creativity have metaphorical images or expanded metaphors:

“Ah, the bush of my head has withered,

I was sucked into song captivity,

I am condemned to hard labor of feelings

Turning the millstones of poems..." (S. Yesenin)

Or this example:

“Here the wind embraces flocks of waves with a strong embrace

Breaking emerald masses into dust and splashes...” (M. Gorky)

A metaphor is a hidden comparison in which the words seem to be omitted, but are implied:

“Enchanted Stream” (V.A. Zhukovsky),

“Living chariot of the universe” (F.I. Tyutchev),

“Life’s disastrous fire” (A.A. Blok),

“And Hamlet, who thought with timid steps” (O.E. Mandelstam)

Of all the tropes, metaphor is particularly expressive, because often it, as a kind of micro-model, is an expression of the individual author’s vision of the world:

“My poems! Living witnesses for the world of shed tears" (N.A. Nekrasov)

“The universe is only discharges of passion” (B.L. Pasternak)

Metaphors, however, do not always make speech artistically attractive. Sometimes they get too carried away with metaphors, and as Aristotle wrote: “An overly brilliant style makes both characters and thoughts invisible...”.

1.2 Metonymy

Metonymy is close to metaphor, but unlike metaphor it is based on contiguity. If with a metaphor two identically named objects or phenomena must be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy two objects or phenomena that have received the same name must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat more broadly - closely related to each other.

The connection can be:

1. Between the object and the material from which it is made: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (A.S. Pushkin); “It’s not like he ate on silver, he ate on gold” (A.S. Griboyedov); “All dressed in tulle and panne velvet, Lenochka entered the hall” (A.A. Galich)

3. Between the action and the instrument of this action: “His pen breathes revenge” (A. Tolstoy)

4. Between the place and the people in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A.S. Pushkin)

So, it became clear that the idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

“You led swords to a rich feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;

Europe was dying, a grave sleep

He hovered over its head...” (A.S. Pushkin) Here the “swords” are warriors.

Metonymy is also very common, in which the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity:

"When will the shore of hell

Will take me forever

When he falls asleep forever

Feather, my joy..." (A.S. Pushkin).

Here the metonymy is “the pen will fall asleep.”

1.3 Synecdoche

A type of metonymy is synecdoche - the transfer of meaning from one to another based on the quantitative relationship between them:

1. The singular is used instead of the plural: “Everything is sleeping: man, beast, and bird” (N.V. Gogol); “And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn” (M.Yu. Lermontov); “There a man groans from slavery and chains” (M.Yu. Lermontov); “And the proud grandson of the Slavs and the Finn...” (A.S. Pushkin); “Tell me, uncle, it’s not for nothing that Moscow, burned by fire, was given to the Frenchman...” (M.Yu. Lermontov)

2. The plural is used instead of the singular:

“We all look at Napoleons” (A.S. Pushkin); “Millions of you. We are darkness, darkness, darkness” (A.A. Blok).

3. Using a part instead of the whole: “Do you need anything? Yes, in the roof for my family” (Herzen); “All flags will come to visit us” (A.S. Pushkin); “And in the door there are pea coats, overcoats, sheepskin coats...” (V. Mayakovsky).

4. Whole in the meaning of part:

“Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet? Well, aren't the people vile! (Tvardovsky).

5.Use of a generic concept instead of a specific one (generalizing synecdoche):

“Well, sit down, luminary” (V. Mayakovsky);

6.Use of a specific concept instead of a generic concept (narrowing synecdoche):

“Take care of the penny most of all” (N.V. Gogol); “You beat a penny. Very good!" (V. Mayakovsky)

Here's another great example of using synecdoche:

"To the east, through the smoke and soot,

From one prison deaf

Europe is going home.

The fluff of the feather beds is like a blizzard over her.

And on the Russian soldier

French brother, British brother,

Brother Pole and everything

With friendship as if guilty,

But they look from the heart"

(A.T. Tvardovsky)

Here the generalized name Europe is used instead of the names of European peoples; the singular number of the nouns soldier, brother Frenchman and others appears in the meaning plural. Synecdoche enhances the expression of speech and gives it a deep generalizing meaning.

1.4 Comparison

One of the most common methods of expressiveness is comparison - a trope, a category of stylistics and poetics, a figurative verbal expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another by some common characteristic in order to identify new important properties in the object of comparison. In other words, this is a comparison (parallelism) or opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects according to one or more characteristics: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains” (V. Bryusov) or “It is not the wind that rages over the forest, it is not the streams that run from the mountains - Moroz the governor patrols his domain” (N. Nekrasov); “And like a black iron leg, the poker ran and jumped (K. Chukovsky) Here are some more very beautiful comparisons: “Eyes, like the sky, blue; The leaves are yellow, like gold..." (A. Tvardovsky); “White drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake...” (S. Marshak)

Comparison gives the description special clarity and figurativeness. This trope, unlike the others, is always two-part - it names both compared or contrasted objects. In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the subject of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity. For example, in the line by M.Yu. Lermontov “Whiteer than the snowy mountains, the clouds go to the west...” the subject of comparison is the clouds, the image of comparison is the snowy mountains, the sign of similarity is the whiteness of the clouds.

A comparison can perform a pictorial (“And their curls are white, like the morning snow over the glorious head of the mound” - A.S. Pushkin), expressive (“Beautiful, like a heavenly angel” - M.Yu. Lermontov) functions, or combine both of them. The comparison can be expressed:

1. Comparative phrase with the conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, “by...what”: “Crazy years of faded fun, it’s heavy for me like a vague hangover” or “But, how wine is the sadness of past days in my soul, the older I get, the stronger it is” (A. Pushkin).

And here are more examples: “Underneath Kazbek, like the face of a diamond, shone with eternal snow” (M.Yu. Lermontov); “However, these were more caricatures than portraits” (N.V. Gogol)

2. Comparative phrases without a conjunction: “Do I have fine curls - combed flax” (N. Nekrasov); “The morning is execution, the usual feast for the people” (A.S. Pushkin).

3. A noun in the instrumental case: “White drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake...” (S. Marshak); “Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive into the gold of my hair” (S. Yesenin); “I looked at her with all my might, the way children look” (V. Vysotsky); “These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds” (V. Vysotsky); “I don’t soar - I sit like an eagle” (A.S. Pushkin).

Comparisons that point to several common features in comparable objects are called expanded. The detailed comparison includes two parallel images in which the author finds much in common. The artistic image used for a detailed comparison gives the description special expressiveness: “The emergence of a plan is perhaps best explained by comparison... A plan is lightning. Electricity accumulates above the ground for many days. When the atmosphere is saturated with it to the limit, white cumulus clouds turn into menacing thunderclouds and the first spark is born from a thick electric infusion - lightning. Almost immediately after the lightning, a downpour falls on the ground... For the appearance of a plan, as for the appearance of lightning, most often an insignificant push is needed... If lightning is a plan, then the downpour is the embodiment of the plan. These are harmonious flows of images and words. This is a book" (K.G. Paustovsky)

The comparison is also framed as a separate sentence, beginning in a word and in meaning connected with the previous ones. Such comparisons often close detailed artistic descriptions, as, for example, in “The Bakhchisarai Fountain” by A.S. Pushkin: “The water gurgles in the marble and drips cold tears, never ceasing. This is how a mother cries in days of sorrow for her son who died in the war.” Many people believe that comparison is an accessible, easy, but not the deepest way of description. When it is difficult to describe something, it is easier to compare and thereby show the advantages and disadvantages of the object being described or to emphasize certain features. I don’t presume to argue, due to my incompetence, but there is no doubt that vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetry.

1.5 Epithet

Epithets artistically define an object or action and can be expressed by a full and short adjective, noun, adverb: “Whether I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple...” (A.S. Pushkin); “She is as restless as leaves, she is as multi-stringed as a harp... (A.K. Tolstoy); “Uncontrollably, uniquely, everything flew far and past” (S. Yesenin). Here are some more great examples:

“Stately aspens babble high above you; Long, hanging branches of birches barely move, a mighty oak tree stands... (I.S. Turgenev);

“The air is clean and fresh, like a child’s kiss...” (M.Yu. Lermontov); or “The moon is creeping through the wavy mists. She sheds a sad light on the sad meadows” (A.S. Pushkin). When a feature expressed by an epithet is, as it were, attached to an object, it enriches it semantically and emotionally. This property of the epithet is used when creating an artistic image:

“I don’t like golden spring,

Your continuous, wonderfully mixed noise;

You rejoice, without stopping for a moment,

Epithets are possible that not only define an object or emphasize certain aspects, but also transfer a new, additional quality to it from another object or phenomenon; such epithets are called metaphorical:

“And we, the poet, haven’t figured it out,

Didn't understand infantile sadness

In your seemingly forged poems” (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Epithets are classified as follows:

1. Fine (visually draw objects and actions, make it possible to see them as the author sees them): “A crowd of motley-haired fast cats” (V. Mayakovsky); “The grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok)

2. Emotional (conveys the author’s feelings, mood): “The evening raised black eyebrows”; “There was a blue fire”; “Uncomfortable liquid lunarness” (S. Yesenin); “And the young city ascended magnificently and proudly” (A.S. Pushkin)

3. Constant (characteristic of oral folk art): “Good fellow”; "Dense Forest"; “The mother of cheese is the earth,” etc.

1.6 Personification

Personification, or prosopopoeia, is a depiction of inanimate or abstract objects in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings - the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel. Personification is a special type of metaphor. Let's look at examples: “What are you howling about, night wind, why are you complaining so madly?” (F. Tyutchev); “Her nurse lay down next to her in the bedchamber - silence” (A. Blok); “And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top” (V. Vysotsky); “Some lightning fires, igniting in succession,...conduct a conversation among themselves” (F. Tyutchev); “The waltz calls to hope, it sounds... and speaks loudly to the heart” (Polonsky).

Personifications are divided into generally accepted, “linguistic”: “melancholy takes over”, “time flies”, “the clock is running” and creative, individual author’s: “The Nevka was swinging at the railing, suddenly the drum began to speak” (Zabolotsky). It is impossible to imagine poetic speech without using this technique:

"The storm covers the sky with darkness

Whirling snow whirlwinds

Then, like a beast, she will howl,

Then he will cry like a child" (A.S. Pushkin)

Personification is perhaps the most expressive of all existing tropes; it is an ideal technique of expressiveness. “I will whistle, and bloody villainy will obediently, timidly crawl towards me. And he will lick my hand and look into my eyes, reading them as a sign of my will...” (A.S. Pushkin) Can the thought be expressed more strongly?

1.7 Periphrase (periphrase)

When denoting a particular person or phenomenon, the writer sometimes resorts to a descriptive expression instead of an exact name. A.S. Pushkin in “Poltava” instead of “Peter I” writes: “hero of Poltava”; in “Eugene Onegin” instead of “Byron” he says: “singer Gyaur and Juan”. Lermontov in the poem “The Death of a Poet” uses the expression “slave of honor” instead of Pushkin’s name. Replacement own name or names a descriptive expression is called paraphrase. Periphrasis pursues the same goals as other means of poetic language. As an example, let us dwell on the meaning of the above paraphrases. In Poltava, Pushkin showed the valor of the Russian people and noted the enormous role of Peter I in the victory over the Swedes. In this case, the paraphrase “hero of Poltava” indicates that attribute of Peter, which in this context is especially important to the poet: In “Eugene Onegin,” revealing the mentality and literary sympathies of the hero of the novel, Pushkin shows that Onegin was disillusioned with literature, having, however, exception for Byron. Highlighting those heroes of the English poet who were closest to Onegin, Pushkin resorts to a periphrasis - “the singer of Gyaur and Juan.” It is important for Lermontov in the poem “The Death of a Poet” to emphasize the motives that forced Pushkin to fight with Dantes. Hence the pattern of the periphrase “slave of honor.”

And also a periphrasis is a way of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex phrases. For example, again, A.S. Pushkin has an example of a parody periphrase: “The young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (instead of a young talented actress).

1.8 Allegory

An allegory consists of an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image. Allegories appear in literature in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions, and folklore. In the ordinary sense allegory is a material image of an immaterial concept. The main source of allegories are tales about animals, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is an allegory of anger and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. Allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. d.b. For example, let us remember the well-known fable by I.A. Krylov’s “Dragonfly and the Ant”: here the dragonfly is a frivolous person who does not think about the future; An ant is a hardworking, homely person who cares about his well-being. An allegory allows you to better understand this or that idea of ​​the writer, delve into the essence of the statement, and present the situation more clearly. Allegories have different lifespans. Some of them live for thousands of years, while others live much shorter:

“The carriages walked in the usual line,

They shook and creaked;

The yellow and blue ones were silent;

They cried and sang in the green ones"

These lines of Blok require commentary for the current reader. In the pre-October era, first and second class carriages were painted yellow and blue, and third class carriages were painted green. In Russian classical literature allegories were used by: M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky and others.

1.9 Hyperbole

Hyperbole is an excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object, person or phenomenon. With the help of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies or ridicules. For example: “In a dream, the janitor became as heavy as a chest of drawers” ​​(I. Ilf, E. Petrov). Of the Russian authors, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin, and especially V. Mayakovsky (“I,” “Napoleon,” “150,000,000”) are prone to hyperbole. Let's take an example from V. Mayakovsky:

“And even if I were a black man of advanced years, and even without despondency and laziness, I would have learned Russian just because Lenin spoke to him” or “The sunset burned in a hundred and forty suns...”

And here are some more examples: “they swept a stack above the clouds...”, “the wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov); “The whole world is in the palm of your hand...” (V. Vysotsky); At N.V. Gogol: “A mouth the size of the arch of the General Staff building”; “Hare pants, the width of the Black Sea.” And his other hero, Ivan Nikiforovich, wore “harem pants with such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them” (“The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich”)

How do you like this beauty of words:

“And half-asleep shooters are lazy

Tossing and turning on the dial

And the day lasts longer than a century

And the hug never ends” (B.L. Pasternak)

In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwined with other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.) For example, in Pushkin:

"Yes! if all the tears, blood and sweat,

Spilled for everything that is stored here,

Suddenly everyone emerged from the bowels of the earth,

It would be a flood again - I would choke

In my cellars are the faithful” (“The Stingy Knight”).

As has already been said, Gogol’s style is rich in such hyperbolic figures in our literature: “Do you hear how the whole world gathered at your feet and, shaking their spears, merged into one exclamation!” ("Life"); “The rubies of her lips seemed to stick with blood to the very heart” (“Viy”); Gogol constructs entire descriptions and characteristics hyperbolically, for example, the Dnieper, Ukrainian Night, Albanian Annunziata, Sobakevich, etc. Everywhere here the image retains its “tropical” nature, it does not dissolve in hyperbole, and hyperbole, so to speak, only colors it.

1.10 Litota

The opposite stylistic device to hyperbole is litotes - a deliberate understatement of the small size of the subject of speech: “You should bow your head below a thin blade of grass...” (N. Nekrasov), and in the poem “Peasant Children” he used the folklore expression “a little man with a fingernail”:

“And walking importantly, in decorous calm,

A man leads a horse by the bridle

In big boots, in a short sheepskin coat,

In big mittens... and from the nails myself!

or “So small a mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces”; “The waist is no thicker than a bottle neck” (N.V. Gogol)

In A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit,” Molchalin says: “Your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble. I stroked him all over; like silk wool"

A whole poem by A. N. Pleshcheev “My Lizochek”, set to music by P. I. Tchaikovsky, is based on litotes:

“My Lizochek is so small,

So small

What from a lilac leaf

He made an umbrella for shade

My Lizochek is so small,

So small

What from the wings of a mosquito

I made two shirtfronts for myself

And - into starch..."

1.11 Irony

Irony is a trope that consists in the use of a name or an entire statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one; it is a transfer by contrast, by polarity. Expresses ridicule or slyness, allegory; both the essence of the subject and its individual aspects can be ridiculed: “Servant of influential masters, with what noble courage you thunder with your free speech all those who have been silenced” (F.I. Tyutchev)

Irony is reproach and contradiction under the guise of approval and agreement; the phenomenon is deliberately attributed a property that obviously cannot be in it: “Where is your smart head coming from?” (the hero of one of I.A. Krylov’s fables asks a donkey).

N.A.’s poem, full of bitter smiles, is built entirely on irony. Nekrasov “Kalistrat”, written in 1863:

“Mother sang above me,

My cradle is rocking:

“You will be happy, Kalistratushka!

You will live happily ever after!”

And it came true, according to the will of God,

My mother's prediction:

There is no richer, no more beautiful,

There is no more elegant Kalistratushka!

I swim in the spring water,

I scratch my hair with my fingers,

I'm waiting for the harvest

From an unsown strip!

And the hostess is busy

Laundry on naked children,

He wears bast shoes with a hook!..”

There is a variety of irony in Russian literature: the “mocking criticism” of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Nekrasov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.G. Chernyshevsky (the image of the “insightful reader” in the novel “What is to be done?”), merging with the elements of humor in N.V. Gogol, parody in Kozma Prutkov, romantic in A.A.blok. Different kinds and shades of irony are inherent in the works of V.V. Mayakovsky, M.M. Zoshchenko, M.A. Bulgakov, Y.K. Olesha, V.P. Kataev.

2. Shapes

Figures are techniques of expressiveness, techniques of stylistic syntax that are implemented in a text equal to or larger than a sentence. Sometimes figures are understood more broadly: as any figures of speech that deviate from some norm of conversational “naturalness”, a change in the “natural” order of words (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary ones or the use of “extra” ones). Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative feature; we will consider one of the most common. Experts distinguish three groups of figures:

1. Figures based on the relationship between the meanings of words: antithesis, gradation, inversion, ellipsis.

2.Figures based on the repetition of identical elements: anaphora, epiphora, parallelism, period.

3. Figures based on the expression of rhetorical address to the reader or listener: appeal, question, exclamation.

If we consider the relationship between tropes and figures, we can conclude that figures are stronger methods of expressiveness than tropes, because they often make it possible to embrace the entire text as a single structure built according to a certain principle.

2.1 Antithesis

Antithesis is a technique based on the comparison of opposite phenomena and characteristics. The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings: “Great in body, but small in deed”, “Thick in the head, but empty in the head”, “Learning is light, but ignorance is dark”, “If there were no happiness, but misfortune would help”, “How if it comes around, it will respond,” etc. To compare two phenomena, antonyms can be used - words with opposite meanings - many lines from artistic and poetic works are built on this principle. We can give many examples of the use of antithesis by writers and poets. Let's take this example:

“You are both wretched and you are abundant,

You are powerful, you are also powerless...” (N. Nekrasov) And here are the lines of Derzhavin, who managed to achieve his goal - to have a stronger effect on the reader’s soul with a quick change of opposite impressions:

“Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin;

Where the feasts were filled with cries,

The gravestone faces are howling there...

My body is crumbling into dust,

I command thunder with my mind,

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am God"

And here is another example, more complex, but no less interesting, the same antithesis is applied here:

“You can’t be left behind. I am a guard

You are a guard. There is only one destiny"

But, for example, the prologue to A. Blok’s poem “Retribution” is entirely built on the opposition of antonymous words: beginning-end, hell-paradise, light-darkness, holy-sinful, heat-cold, etc.:

“Life is without beginning and end...

Know where the light is, and you will understand where the darkness is.

Let everything go slowly

What is sacred in the world, what is sinful in it,

Through the heat of the soul, through the coolness of the mind..."

2.2 Gradation

Gradation is a figure of speech, the essence of which is the arrangement of several elements listed in speech (words, phrases, phrases) in increasing order of their meaning (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of meaning (“descending gradation”). By “increasing” and “decreasing” meanings we understand the degree of expressiveness (expressiveness), emotional strength, “tension” of an expression, word, phrase or phrase. An example of ascending gradation: “In autumn, the feather grass steppes completely change and acquire their own special, original, unlike anything else”; “Neither call, nor shout, nor help” (M. Voloshin). And here is an example of descending gradation: “All facets of feelings, all facets of truth are erased in worlds, in years, in hours” (A. Bely); or like this:

“I swear to the wounds of Leningrad,

The first devastated hearths:

I won’t break, I won’t waver, I won’t get tired,

I will not forgive even a grain of it to my enemies” (O. Berggolts).

I will give a few more examples of the use of gradation in their works by writers: “She was there, in a hostile world, which he did not recognize, despised, hated” (Yu. Bondarev);

How does gradation enhance the emotional meaning of both prose and verse! Who doesn’t know these beautiful lines of the poet?!:

"I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,

Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees...” (S. Yesenin)

Gradation, like antithesis, is often found in folklore, which indicates the universality of these rhetorical figures. They make speech easy to understand, expressive, and memorable.

2.3 Inversion

A valuable means of expression is inversion, i.e. changing the usual word order in a sentence for semantic and stylistic purposes. Rearranging parts of a phrase gives speech a peculiar expressive tone:

"He passed the doorman with an arrow

He took off up the marble steps...” (A.S. Pushkin)

In other words, inversion manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order different from their natural one. In Russian, for example, the order “subject + predicate”, “definition + defined word” or “preposition + noun in case form” is natural, and the reverse order is unnatural. To attract the reader’s attention to one or another member of a sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to placing the predicate in a narrative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end: “No matter how difficult it is, we must do this...” (I. Turgenev).

I will give a few more examples of the use of inversion by writers and poets: “A bear hunt is dangerous, a wounded animal is terrible, but the soul of a hunter, accustomed to dangers since childhood, is brave” (A. Koptyaeva) - here there is an inversion of the main terms.

“The moon came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at the deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages” (A. Neverov) - in this passage there is an inversion of agreed upon definitions. But in the following example there is an inversion of the additions: “We drove the pike from the eggs, we kneaded the Volga with oatmeal” (M. Saltykov - Shchedrin).

“At first I was very upset...” (A.S. Pushkin) - inversion of the circumstance of measure and degree.

And here’s another: “His sharpness and subtlety of instinct amazed me” (A.S. Pushkin); “It was a shame. They were waiting for the battle” (M.Yu. Lermontov); “A dazzlingly bright flame burst out of the furnace” (F. Gladkov); “Everyone agreed to behave kindly with her in front of Stepan Mikhailovich” (S. Aksakov); “Yes, we were very friendly” (L.N. Tolstoy);

“Here my friend burned out of shame” (I. Turgenev).

Thanks to all sorts of permutations, in a sentence, even consisting of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several options, and each of them will have different semantic shades, because the unusual position of a single word affects its intonation emphasis and the inversion construction will sound expressive and more weighty.

2.4 Ellipsis

Ellipsis is a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence that is easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech, conveying a tense change of actions. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker’s excitement or the intensity of the action:

“We villages are in ashes, cities are in dust,

Swords include sickles and plows...” (V. Zhukovsky)

This technique is often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors give lifelike scenes of communication between their characters. Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of authenticity, because in life situation ellipsis is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words.

Meanwhile, the use of ellipsis as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author’s orientation towards the psychologism of the narrative. A writer, wanting to portray various emotions and psychological states of his hero, can change his individual speech style from scene to scene. So in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "crime and punishment" Raskolnikov is often expressed in elliptical phrases. In his conversation with the cook Nastasya, ellipses serve as an additional means of expressing his alienated state:

- ...Before, you say, you went to teach children, but now why don’t you do anything?

I’m doing... - Raskolnikov said reluctantly and sternly

What are you doing?

Work...

What kind of job?

I think,” he answered seriously after a pause.

Here we see that the omission of some words emphasizes the special semantic load the remaining others.

We can give several more examples of the use of ellipsis in the works of writers: “Men for the axes” (A. Tolstoy); “There are curious people in all the windows, boys on the roofs” (A. Tolstoy); “Champagne!...” (A.P. Chekhov); “Instead of bread there is a stone, instead of teaching there are mallets” (M. Saltykov - Shchedrin)

2.5 Anaphora

Often, to strengthen the statement, give the speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a figure as repetitions. There are many different forms of repetition. Anaphora or “unity” is the repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several verses, stanzas or phrases:

“I swear by the first day of creation,

I swear on his last day,

I swear by the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph..." (M.Yu. Lermontov)

or this example:

This is the clicking of crushed ice floes,

This is the night that chills the leaf,

This is a duel between two nightingales...” (B. Pasternak)

Anaphora happens:

1) sound (repetition of the same combinations of sounds): “Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, coffins from a washed-out cemetery...” (A.S. Pushkin);

2) morphemic (repetition of the same morphemes or parts difficult words): “...A black-eyed girl, a black-maned horse!” (M. Lermontov);

3) lexical (repetition of the same words): “The winds did not blow in vain, the thunderstorm did not come in vain...” (S. Yesenin);

4) syntactic (repetition of the same syntactic structures):

“Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among crazy youths,

I indulge in my dreams..." (A.S. Pushkin)

5) strophic (repetition of the same elements at the beginning of stanzas). An example of strophic anaphora is the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “When the yellowing field is agitated...”

Sometimes entire sentences in prose are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, and make the core idea contained in them more clear. And a whole poem can be built on the same anaphora and for the same purpose:

“Why, as you sit illuminated,

The parting will be tilted over the work,

It seems to me that the circle is fragrant

Does everything bring me closer to you?

Why is light speech important?

Am I having such difficulty searching?

Why simple sayings

Like I’m whispering a dark secret?

Why like a hot sting

Does it dig into your chest a little noticeably?

Why am I so short on air?

What would you like to take a deep breath? (A. Fet)

2.6 Epiphora

In contrast to anaphora, as if paired with it, there is another figure of repetition, which is called epiphora or “single ending”, repetition of a word or group of words at the end of several verses, stanzas or phrases: “Festoons, all festoons: a cape of festoons, on there are scallops on the sleeves, scalloped epaulettes, scallops below, scallops everywhere...” or “I would like to know why I am a titular councilor, why a titular councilor?” (N.V.Gogol).

Here is an example of the use of epiphora in poetry:

“Dear friend, and in this quiet house

The fever hits me.

I can't find a place in a quiet house

Near the peaceful fire! (A. Blok)

In its pure form, epiphora is used less often than anaphora and it is less noticeable in works, but one cannot say that Russian writers and poets ignored it. It is known that S. Yesenin really liked the epiphora, here is just one example from the abundance of his poems that I reread:

"I won't deceive myself,

Concern lay in a hazy heart.

Why am I known as a charlatan?

Why am I known as a brawler?

And now I won’t get sick.

The hazy pool in my heart cleared up.

That's why I became known as a hooligan

That’s why I became known as a brawler.”

2.7 Parallelism

The next figure is called parallelism - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, which, when correlated, create a single image; well, or to say it a little differently, then parallelism is the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences, similar parts of the sentence located in them, for example: “In what year - calculate, in what land - guess...” (N. Nekrasov) or “Your mind is deep, that the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains” (V. Bryusov); “The animal Dog is sleeping, the bird Sparrow is dozing” (Zabolotsky “The signs of the zodiac are fading...”); “Slow down, slow down, evening day. Lasted, lasted the charm…” (“Last Love” by Tyutchev); “A horse thief was sneaking through the fence, the grapes were covered in tan…” (B.L. Pasternak) And here, I think, is another excellent example of the use of parallelism by our favorite classic, A.S. Pushkin:

“The stars shine in the blue sky,

In the blue sea the waves are lashing

A barrel floats on the sea,

A cloud is moving across the sky..."

Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, ditties, proverbs) and those close to them in their artistic features literary works (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” (A.T. Tvardovsky).

There is also a distinction between negative parallelism, in which, however, the negation emphasizes not the difference, but the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena:

“Not a flock of ravens flew

On piles of smoldering bones,

Beyond the Volga, at night, around the lights

A gang of daredevils was gathering..." (A.S. Pushkin)

Most often, parallelism occurs in periods.

2.8 Period

A period is a special rhythmic construction, the thought and intonation in which gradually increase, reach the peak, after which the theme receives its resolution, and, accordingly, the intonation tension decreases: “No matter how hard the people, who gathered several hundred thousand in one small place, tried to disfigure that land, on which they huddled, no matter how they stoned the ground so that nothing would grow on it, no matter how they cleared away any grass that was breaking through, no matter how they smoked coal and oil, no matter how they trimmed the trees and drove out all the animals and birds - spring was spring in city" (L. Tolstoy)

Because the period is also a figure from the category of repetition; in the example we see that the first large part of the text is divided into several uniform, similar parts, and the second is short, final. It is clear that the period structure is very suitable for presenting a serious, profound thought expressed in a single sentence. How can a period-like syntactic structure be interpreted? The first part is the rationale, the second is the conclusion. The first part is the argument, the second is the thesis. Or the first part is as a condition, and the second is as a consequence, result, etc. Any deep thought has an internal justification, a system of cause-and-effect relationships, which is easily imagined in the period: “Not only am I condemned to such a terrible fate; not only that before my end I must see my father and mother die in unspeakable torments, for whose salvation I would be ready to give my life twenty times over, - not enough of all this: before my end I need to see and hear words and love , the likes of which I have never seen...” (N.V. Gogol)

2.9 Rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal and exclamation

A rhetorical question is an effective stylistic device that is a means of highlighting the semantic and emotional centers of speech. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves to affirm or deny something. A rhetorical question enhances the impact on the reader, listener, awakens corresponding feelings, carries a greater semantic and emotional load, for example: “Don’t I know him, this lie with which he is completely saturated?” (L. Tolstoy). A rhetorical question is always synonymous with a narrative sentence, for example: “Who would think that a prisoner would decide to escape during the day, in front of the entire prison?” (M. Gorky), i.e. “It wouldn’t occur to anyone...”; “Why should we creak our feathers in a boring way, when our ideas, thoughts, images should thunder like the golden trumpet of a new world?” (A.N. Tolstoy); “Where, when, which great one chose the path to be more trodden and easier?” (V. Mayakovsky)

A rhetorical exclamation is an emotionally charged sentence in which emotions are necessarily expressed intonationally and a particular concept is affirmed in it. The rhetorical exclamation sounds with poetic inspiration and elation:

“Yes, to love as our blood loves

None of you have been in love for a long time!” (A. Blok);

“Here it is, stupid happiness

With white windows to the garden! (S. Yesenin);

"Fading Power!

Die like that!

Until the end of my sweetheart's lips

I would like to kiss..." (S. Yesenin)

Rhetorical appeal is an emphatic appeal to someone or something, aimed at expressing the author’s attitude towards a particular object, to give a characterization: “I love you, my damask dagger, a bright and cold comrade...” (M.Yu. Lermontov) This stylistic figure contains expression, increasing the tension of speech: “Oh, you, whose letters are many, many in my briefcase on the bank...” (N. Nekrasov) or “Flowers, love, village, idleness, field! I am devoted to you with my soul" (A.S. Pushkin)

“The stars are clear, the stars are high!

What do you keep inside yourself, what do you hide?

Stars that conceal deep thoughts,

By what power do you captivate the soul? (S. Yesenin)

In some cases, the lengthy appeal of poetic speech becomes the content of a sentence:

"A soldier's son who grew up without a father

And he matured noticeably before his time,

You are the memory of a hero and father

Not separated from earthly joys...” (A. Tvardovsky)

In poetic speech, rhetorical appeals can be arranged in a homogeneous row: “Sing, people, cities and rivers, sing mountains, steppes and seas!” (A. Surkov); “Hear me, dear one, hear me beautiful one, my evening dawn, unquenchable love...” (M. Isakovsky); “Forgive me, peaceful valleys, and you, familiar peaks of mountains, and you, familiar forests” (A.S. Pushkin);

“Oh, city! Oh, the wind! Oh, snow storms!

Oh, the abyss of azure torn to shreds!

I'm here! I'm innocent. I'm with you! I’m with you!..” (A. Blok)

Conclusion

In conclusion of this work, I would like to note that resources expressive means In language, the means of language are inexhaustible, such as figures and tropes, which make our speech beautiful and expressive, and are unusually diverse. And knowing them is very useful, especially for writers and poets who live by creativity, because... the use of figures and tropes leaves an imprint of individuality on the author's style.

The successful use of tropes and figures raises the bar for the perception of the text, while the unsuccessful use of such techniques, on the contrary, lowers it. A text with an unsuccessful use of expressive techniques defines the writer as an unintelligent person, and this is the most severe by-product. It is interesting that when reading the works of young writers, who, as a rule, are stylistically imperfect, one can draw a conclusion about the level of the author’s mind: some, not realizing that they do not know how to use various techniques of expressiveness, nevertheless oversaturate the text with them, and it becomes difficult to read impossible; others, realizing that they cannot cope with the masterful use of tropes and figures, make the text neutral from this point of view, using the so-called “telegraphic style”. This is also not always appropriate, but it is perceived better than a heap of expressive techniques used ineptly. The neutral text, almost devoid of expressive techniques, looks meager, which is quite obvious, but at least it does not characterize the author as a fool. Only a true master can skillfully use tropes and figures in his creations, and brilliant authors can even be “recognized” by their individual writing style.

Expressive devices such as tropes and figures should surprise the reader. Effectiveness is achieved only in cases where the reader is shocked by what he read and impressed by the pictures and images of the work. The literary works of Russian poets and writers are rightfully famous for their genius, and in this an important role is played by the expressive means of the Russian language, which our Russian writers very skillfully use in their works.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning.
Trails – important element artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES– figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, chiasmus, etc.

ASTITEZA- this is a stylistic device based on a sharp contrast of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!

G.R. Derzhavin.

ELLIPSIS (senior figure)- omission for stylistic purposes of any implied member of the sentence. Ellipsis gives speech a rapid, dynamic character: We are cities - to ashes, villages - to dust (V. Zhukovsky). ELLIPSIS(Greek elleipsis- deletion, omission) - omission in speech of an implied word that can be restored from the context.

Day in dark night in love,
Spring is in love with winter,
Life into death...
And you?... You're into me!
(G. Heine)

DEFAULT- a stylistic device in which the expression of a thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, the speech that has begun is interrupted in anticipation of the reader’s guess; the speaker seems to announce that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Often the stylistic effect of silence is that unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture, which, for example, ends the fable of I.A. Krylov “Geese”:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to irritate the geese...

(Here it is clearly implied: “It’s better to keep quiet”). Silence as a stylistic device is widely used in Russian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries. One example of this is a fragment from the poem by A.S. Pushkin “Count Nulin”:

He enters, hesitates, retreats,

And suddenly fell at her feet,

She... Now, with their permission,

I ask the St. Petersburg ladies

Imagine the horror of waking up

Natalya Pavlovna my

And let her do what?

She opened her big eyes,

Looking at the Count - our hero

She is filled with discharge feelings...

TAUTOLOGY[Greek - tautologéō - “I say the same thing”] - a term of ancient stylistics denoting the repetition of unambiguous or the same words. Ancient stylistics summarizes the verbosity of speech under three concepts: perissology- accumulation of words with the same meaning, for example. synonyms; macrology- burdening speech with unnecessary explanations, for example. subordinate clauses; tautology- literal repetition of the same words. The latest stylistics applies a general designation to all these concepts - tautology. An example of a tautology from Celtic poetry, which generally widely uses tautology as an artistic device: “...For in battle, V fight and in battle, it seemed to him that they were equal...” “It is easier to fall from a spear of strength, courage and combat dexterity than from a spear shame,shame And vilification” (“Irish sagas”, trans. A. Smirnov).

PLEONASM(Greek “pleonasmos” - “excess”) - a term of ancient stylistics, meaning the accumulation in speech of words that have the same meaning and are therefore unnecessary: ​​“old old man”, “young youth”. P. should also include some stylistic figures that were distinguished by ancient stylistics under special names: epanalepsis, i.e. repetition of what was already named earlier (“The nobles they are fled, the commons they are cold” - Shakespeare), figura etymologica and annominatio, i.e. . repetition with a verb of an addition formed from the same stem with or without a definition (“to sleep like a dead sleep”, “to laugh with a bitter laugh”). Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautology (see) and partly periphrasis (see).
In ancient stylistics and grammar, P. gives different assessments: Quintilian, Donatus, Diomedo define P. as overloading speech with unnecessary words, therefore as a stylistic defect; on the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines P. as enriching speech with words that at first glance are superfluous, but in reality give it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, pathos, which are impossible in laconic speech (brachylogia).
GRADIATION (senior figure) – arrangement of words in ascending or descending order of importance: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry (S. Yesenin). GRADATION – consistent intensification or, conversely, weakening of the power of homogeneous expressive means of artistic speech.

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry.
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withered in gold,
I won't be young anymore.
(S. Yesenin)

EPITET (trope) – figurative definition of an object or phenomenon. Wed: lead bullet - lead sky. The epithet is most often expressed full adjective or participle ( dissolute wind, dancing handwriting), but can also be expressed by a noun in the role of application ( winter sorceress), qualitative adverb in -O(you stroke greedily), a noun in the genitive case as an inconsistent definition ( a haven of peace, work and inspiration). In folk poetry, constant epithets are widely used ( good fellow).

EUPHONY– (from Greek– euphony) – sound organization of artistic speech, acquiring special meaning in poetry; phonic (sound) composition of the poem. The features of euphony are determined not only by formal euphony (dissonant is an excessive accumulation of vowels or consonants), but also by the tasks of the content of the verse, although in Russian poetry of the early 20th century attempts were made many times to establish a direct relationship between sound and meaning:

Radiations of paint,

The air is clean;

Dancing

Red leaf,–

It's autumn

Go ahead and ask,

The hum of the pine trees,

Branch whistle...

(M.A. Voloshin)

The phenomena of euphony usually include all types of sound repetitions that appear in a work either as end-to-end sound parts or as random occurrences in a poetic text.

Issues related to euphony cannot be separated from the most significant problems of the sound (phonic) organization of verse.

Comparison is a figurative definition of an object, phenomenon, action based on its comparison with another object, phenomenon, action.

Comparison is always binary: it has a subject (what is being compared) and a predicate (what is being compared).

compared):

Under blue skies

Magnificent carpets,

Shining in the sun

snow lies (Pushkin).

Seven hills are like seven bells (Tsvetaeva).

ANDVERSION (senior figure) – arrangement of words that violates the usual word order:

The lonely sail is white

In the blue sea fog (M. Lermontov)

RHISTORICAL QUESTION (senior figure)- a question that does not require an answer, it is asked in order to attract the attention of the addressee: Do you love theater as much as I do? (V. Belinsky).

METAPHORA (trope)– transfer of a name from one item to another based on similarity: All day long, silhouettes of crimson hearts fall from the maple trees (N. Zabolotsky). Metaphor, unlike simile, is usually one-dimensional. There are individual metaphors and general linguistic ones ( back chair, storm of feelings), simple and expanded. A simple metaphor is built on the bringing together of objects or phenomena according to one particular characteristic. The expanded one is built on various associations of similarity. An expanded metaphor is a kind of stringing of new metaphors related in meaning to the first: The golden grove dissuaded me with a cheerful birch tongue (S. Yesenin).

METONYMY (renaming)(trope)– transfer of a name from one subject to another based on their contiguity. Renaming may involve replacing the title of a work with the name of the author: I read Apuleius willingly, but did not read Cicero (A. Pushkin); the whole phenomenon as part of it: All flags will come to visit us (A. Pushkin); things - the material from which it is made: If not on silver, I ate on gold (A. Griboyedov).

A type of metonymy is synecdoche– replacing the generic concept with a specific one, the plural with the singular and vice versa: We are all looking at Napoleons (A. Pushkin).

WITHEQUALITY (trope)– comparison of two objects, phenomena, qualities based on similarity: The sea is thick as blue (K. Paustovsky). Comparison is always binomial: it names both compared objects. In any comparison, you can highlight the subject of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity, for example: The swans glided through the water like two huge black bouquets (S. Dovlatov). Has a formal indicator: unions ( as if, as if, exactly), prepositions ( like, like, like), lexical means ( similar, similar, resemble, resemble, resemble). In comparison, the instrumental case of the noun is used, the so-called instrumental comparison: A wounded bear feels the cold (N. Aseev). There are general linguistic comparisons ( white as snow) and individual author's: Tea in glasses is liquid, like the December dawn (A. Mariengof).

Along with simple comparisons, in which two phenomena have one common feature, detailed comparisons are used, in which several features serve as the basis for comparison.

ABOUTPERSONIFICATION (trope)– transfer of properties, human actions to inanimate objects, animals: The birches are whispering. When personified, the object being described is likened to a person. Writers especially often turn to personification when describing pictures of nature. Personifications are divided into general linguistic ones: time flies and individual authorial ones: Suddenly the drum began to speak (N. Zabolotsky).

GIPERBOLA (trope)- a figurative expression consisting of exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty, meaning of what is being described: The sunset glowed with one hundred and forty suns (V. Mayakovsky). They can be individually authored and general language ( at the edge of the earth).

LHILOT (trope)– artistic understatement of size, strength and attribute: You have to bow your head below the thin piece of grass (N. Nekrasov). Common linguistic litotes are also known: a drop in the sea.

ALLEGORY (trope)– depiction of an abstract concept through a concrete image. An allegory can be called any allegorical expression, for example, the train left may mean: there is no return to the past. This allegory is of a general linguistic nature. However, there are also individual allegories, for example, the allegorical meaning is contained in the poem “Sail” by M. Lermontov.

PHERPHRASE (trope)– a descriptive expression used instead of a particular word, for example: King of beasts (lion), city on the Neva (St. Petersburg). General linguistic periphrases usually acquire a stable character. Many of them are constantly used in the language of newspapers: people in white coats (doctors). Stylistically, a distinction is made between figurative and non-figurative periphrases, cf.: The sun of Russian poetry and the author of “Eugene Onegin” (V.G. Belinsky). Euphemism – variety paraphrases. Euphemisms replace words whose use by the speaker or writer for some reason seems undesirable.

ANDRONIA (trope)- the use of a word in the opposite sense to the literal one: Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head? (I. Krylov). Clever mind- addressing a donkey. Irony is subtle ridicule expressed in the form of praise or positive characteristics of an object.

ANTITEZA(trope)– a figure of contrast, a sharp opposition of objects, phenomena, properties: The rich and the poor, the wise and the foolish, the good and the evil sleep (A. Chekhov).

ABOUTXYMORON (trope) – a combination in which incompatible concepts are combined: living corpse, large trifles

ANTONOMASIA – trope consisting in the use of a proper name in the meaning of a common noun.

PPARALLELISM (art. figure)– the same syntactic structure of neighboring sentences, the location of similar parts of the sentence in them.

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as the mountains (V. Bryusov).

ANAFORA(unity of command) ( Art. figure) – repetition of the same words or phrases at the beginning of sentences:

I'm standing at the high doors.

I am following your work (M. Svetlov).

EPYTHORA (senior figure) – repetition of individual words or phrases at the end of sentences: I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why titular adviser? (N. Gogol).

ASINDETON (non-union) (senior figure)– absence of alliances between homogeneous members or parts complex sentence: Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts (A. Pushkin).

POLISYNDETHON (multi-union) (senior figure) – repetition of the same conjunction with homogeneous members or parts of a complex sentence: And it’s boring, and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand in a moment of spiritual adversity (M. Lermontov).

RHISTORICAL EXCLAMATION (senior figure)– a figure containing a statement in the form of an exclamation; serves to increase the emotional level of speech: The poet is dead! Slave of honor... (M. Lermontov).

RHISTORICAL ADDRESS (art. figure)- a statement addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person: You are my fallen maple, icy maple(S. Yesenin).

HYPERBOLA(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of ​​laughter”). The opposite is litotes.

LITOTES(Greek litotes - simplicity) – a trope opposite to hyperbole; deliberate understatement (“little man”). The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbole.

METAPHOR (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In a metaphor, unlike a comparison, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
By you into the darkness of the night, starless
Careless abandoned man!
(A. Blok)

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; use of expressions in figuratively(“foaming glass” ” – meaning wine in a glass ; “the forest is noisy” - means trees; and so on. ).

The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;
The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...

(A.S. Pushkin)

PERIPHRASE(Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - trope; replacing one word with a descriptive expression that conveys the meaning (“king of beasts” - instead of “lion”, etc.).

PERSONALIZATION(prosopopoeia, personification) – a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).

My bells
Steppe flowers!
Why are you looking at me?
Dark blue?
And what are you calling about?
On a merry day in May,
Among the uncut grass
Shaking your head?
(A.K. Tolstoy)

SYNECDOCHE(Greek synekdoche - correlation) - a trope and a type of metonymy, the name of a part instead of the whole or vice versa.

– Tell me, uncle, it’s not for nothing
Moscow, burned by fire,
To the Frenchman given away?
(M. V. Lermontov)

COMPARISON- a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). Unlike a metaphor, comparison necessarily contains the words “as”, “as if”, “as if”.

The storm covers the sky with darkness,
Whirling snow whirlwinds;
The way the beast will howl,
Then he will cry like a child...
(A.S. Pushkin)

IMAGE– a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,
Streams did not run from the mountains,
Moroz - commander of the patrol
Walks around his possessions.
(N.A. Nekrasov)

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a figurative representation of an abstract thought, idea or concept through a similar image (lion - strength, power; justice - a woman with scales). Unlike metaphor, in allegory figurative meaning expressed in a phrase, a whole thought or even a small work (fable, parable). In literature, many allegorical images are taken from folklore and mythology.

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form and based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,
Spewing wild curses on the way.
And I see: half the people are sitting.
Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?
(V. Mayakovsky)

IRONY(Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.

Servant of powerful masters,
With what noble courage
Thunder with your free speech
All those who have their mouths covered.
(F.I. Tyutchev)

SARCASM(Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE(French assonance - consonance or I respond) – repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.

Oh spring A no end A and without cr A Yu -
No end A and without cr A yu dream A!
(A. Blok)

ALLITERATION(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment...
(K. Balmont)

ALLUSION(from Lat. allusio - joke, hint) - stylistic figure, hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).

ANAPHOR (Greek anaphora - removal) - repetition initial words, lines, stanzas or phrases.

You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You're downtrodden
You are omnipotent
Mother Rus'!…
(N.A. Nekrasov)

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposition) - stylistic figure; comparison or contrast of contrasting concepts or images. “ So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made..." (S. Yesenin).

You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blushing like poppies,
I am like death, skinny and pale.
(A.S. Pushkin)

ANTIPHRASIS- using a word in the opposite sense (“hero”, “eagle”, “sage”...).

APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificial shortening of a word without losing its meaning.

Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clap,
Human rumor and horse top!
(A.S. Pushkin)
ASYNDETON(asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Pointless and dim light.
Live for at least another quarter of a century -
Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.
(A. Blok)

MULTI-UNION(polysyndeton) – excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring (“ And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to..." M.Yu. Lermontov) . The opposite figure is non-union.

INVECTIVE(late Latin invectiva oratio - abusive speech) - sharp denunciation, ridicule of a real person or group of persons; a type of satire(" And you, arrogant descendants..." M.Yu. Lermontov)

RING– sound or lexical repetition at the beginning and end of any speech structure (“ A horse, half a kingdom for a horse!” W. Shakespeare).

In vain!
Everywhere I look, I meet failure,
And it’s painful to my heart that I have to lie all the time;
I smile at you, but inside I cry bitterly,
In vain!
(A.A. Fet)

METATHESIS(Greek metathesis - rearrangement) - rearrangement of sounds or syllables in a word or phrase. Used as a comic device (a quail is a quail, a little bird is forged in the grass...)

CATACHRESIS(Greek katachresis - abuse) - a combination of words that are incompatible in meaning, nevertheless forming a semantic whole ( when the crayfish hangs down, eat with your eyes...). Catachresis is akin to an oxymoron.

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings ( a living corpse, a giant dwarf...).

PARALLELISM- identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

The waves splash in the blue sea. The clouds are rushing, the clouds are swirling...
The stars shine in the blue sky. (M.Yu. Lermontov)
(A.S. Pushkin)

Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.

CHIASM(Greek chiasmos) – a type of parallelism: the arrangement of two parts in reverse order (“We eat to live, not live to eat”).

PARCELLATION– an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences (“ And again. Gulliver. Costs. Slouching"P. G. Antokolsky).

TRANSFER(French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.

Peter comes out. His eyes
They shine. His face is terrible.
The movements are fast. He is beautiful,
He's like God's thunderstorm.
(A.S. Pushkin)

RHYME(Greek “rhythmos” – harmony, proportionality) – a type of epiphora; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

SYLLEPS(Greek syllepsis - capture) - unification is not homogeneous members in general semantic or syntactic subordination (“ The gossip's eyes and teeth flared up", A.N. Krylov). Often used for comic purposes (" It's raining outside, and we're having a concert»).

SYMPLOKA (Greek symploke - plexus) - repetition of initial and final words in adjacent verses or phrases with a different middle or middle with a different beginning and end (" And I sit, full of sadness, sitting alone on the shore»).

JOINT – sound repetition on the edge of two adjacent words, poems, stanzas or sentences.

Oh spring without end and without edge -
An endless and endless dream!
I recognize you life! I accept!
And I greet you with the ringing of the shield!
(A. Blok)

EUPHEMISM(Greek euphemismos, from eu - good, phemi - I say) - replacing indecent, rude, delicate words or expressions with more vague and soft ones (instead of “pregnant” - “preparing to become a mother”, instead of “fat” - “full”, etc. .P.).

EMPHASE(Greek emphasis - indication, expressiveness) - emotional and expressive highlighting of part of a statement through intonation, repetition, word order, etc. (“ I'm telling you this").

EPITHET(Greek epitheton - application) - a figurative definition that gives additional artistic characteristics to someone or something (“lonely sail”, “golden grove”...).

I remember a wonderful moment!
You appeared before me,
Like a fleeting vision
Like a genius of pure beauty.
(A.S. Pushkin)

B 8. SPEECH. LANGUAGE MEANS OF EXPRESSION.

Tropes are the use of a word in a figurative sense.

List of tropes

Meaning of the term

Allegory

Allegory. A trope consisting in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image.

In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the form of a wolf.

Hyperbola

A means of artistic representation based on exaggeration.

The eyes are huge, like

spotlights.

Extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character.

The mayor with a stuffed head at Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Where are you, smart one, coming from, head? (I. Krylov.)

A means of artistic representation based on understatement (as opposed to hyperbole).

The waist is no thicker than a bottle neck. (N. Gogol.)

Metaphor,

expanded

metaphor

Hidden comparison. A type of trope in which individual words or expressions are brought together by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast. Sometimes the entire poem is an expanded poetic image.

With a sheaf of your oat hair

You belong to me forever. (S. Yesenin.)

Personification

This is an image of inanimate objects in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings, the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.

What are you howling about, wind?

night, Why are you complaining so madly?

(F. Tyutchev.)

Metonymy

A type of trope in which words are brought together by the contiguity of the concepts they denote. A phenomenon or object is depicted using other words or concepts. For example, the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity. There are many examples: transfer from a vessel to its contents, from a person to his clothes, from a locality to residents, from an organization to participants, from an author to works.

It will take me forever, When Pero, my joy, falls asleep forever... (A. Pushkin.)

I ate on silver and gold.

Well, eat another plate, son.

Periphrase (or paraphrase)

One of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its most characteristic features, enhancing the figurativeness of speech.

King of beasts (instead of lion)

Synecdoche

A type of metonymy consisting in transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them: part instead of the whole; whole in the meaning of part; singular in the meaning of general; replacing a number with a set; replacement of a specific concept with a generic one.

All flags will be visiting us. (A. Pushkin.); Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. We all look at Napoleons.

Comparison

A technique based on comparing a phenomenon or concept with another phenomenon.

The ice, hardened on the chilly river, lies like melting sugar.

Figurative definition; a word that defines an object and emphasizes its properties.

The grove dissuaded

golden with Birch's cheerful tongue.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

Generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, in

Unlike tropes, it does not necessarily have a figurative meaning.

Meaning of the term

Anaphora (or one-beginning)

Repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines, stanzas.

I love you, Petra’s creation, I love your strict, slender appearance...

Antithesis

Stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. Often based on the use of antonyms.

And the new so denies the old!.. It ages before our eyes! Already shorter than the skirt. It's already longer!

Gradation

Graduality is a stylistic means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development, in increasing or decreasing significance.

I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry, Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

Inversion

Rearrangement; a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the general grammatical sequence of speech.

He passed the doorman like an arrow and flew up the marble steps.

Lexical repetition

Intentional repetition of the same word in the text.

Forgive me, forgive me, forgive me! And I forgive you, and I forgive you. I don’t hold any grudges, I promise you that, But only you will forgive me too!

Pleonasm

Repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates a particular stylistic effect.

My friend, my friend, I am very, very sick.

Oxymoron

A combination of words with opposite meanings that do not go together.

Dead souls, bitter joy, sweet sorrow, ringing silence.

Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal

Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is asked not with the goal of getting an answer, but for the emotional impact on the reader.

Where will you gallop, proud horse, and where will you land your hooves? (A. Pushkin.) What a summer! What a summer! Yes, it's just witchcraft. (F. Tyutchev.)

Syntactic

parallelism

A technique consisting in similar construction of sentences, lines or stanzas.

I look to the future

with fear, I look at the past with longing...

Default

A figure that leaves the listener to guess and think about what will be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.

You'll be going home soon: Look... So what? To tell the truth, no one is very concerned about my fate.

Ellipsis

A figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning.

We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky.)

A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora; repetition of a word or phrase at the end of poetic lines.

Dear friend, even in this quiet House Fever strikes me. I can’t find a place in a quiet House Near a peaceful fire. (A. Blok.)

Expressive - emotional vocabulary

Conversational.

Words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary, characteristic of spoken language, emotionally charged.

Dirty, loud, bearded.

Emotionally charged words

Evaluative in nature, having both positive and negative connotations.

Adorable, disgusting, villain

Words with suffixes of emotional evaluation.

Cute, little bunny, little brain, brainchild.

PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF MORPHOLOGY

1. Expressive use of case, gender, animation, etc.

Somehow I don't have enough air,

I drink the wind, I swallow the fog...

We are vacationing in Sochi.

How many Plyushkins have divorced!

2. Direct and figurative use of verb tense forms

I came to school yesterday and saw a notice: “Quarantine.” Oh, I was so happy!

3. Expressive use of words from different parts of speech.

The most amazing story happened to me!

I received an unpleasant message.

I was visiting her. This cup will not pass you by.

4. Use of interjections and onomatopoeic words.

Here's closer! They gallop... and into the yard Evgeniy! "Oh!" - and lighter than a shadow, Tatyana jumped into another hallway.

SOUND EXPRESSIVENESS

Means

Meaning of the term

Alliteration

A technique to enhance imagery by repeating consonant sounds.

The hiss of foamy glasses and the blue flame of punch...

Alternation

Alternation of sounds. Change of sounds that occupy the same place in a morpheme in different cases of its use.

Tangent - touch, shine - shine.

Assonance

A technique to enhance imagery by repeating vowel sounds.

The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I am sick. (A. Pushkin.)

Sound recording

A technique for enhancing the visual power of a text by constructing phrases and lines in a way that would correspond to the picture being reproduced.

For three days I could hear how on the long, boring road the joints were clicking: east, east, east... (P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.)

Acoustic

Using the sounds of language to imitate the sounds of living and inanimate nature.

When the mazurka thunder roared... (A. Pushkin.)

PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF SYNTAX

1. Rows of homogeneous members of a sentence.

When empty and weak person hears flattering feedback about his dubious merits, he revels in his vanity, becomes arrogant and completely loses his tiny ability to be critical of his actions and his person.

2. Sentences with introductory words, appeals, isolated members.

Probably, there, in my native places, just as in my childhood and youth, the baths bloom in the swampy backwaters and the reeds rustle, making me with their rustle, with their prophetic whispers, the poet that I became, that I was, that I will be, when I die.

3. Expressive use of sentences different types(complex, complex, non-union, single-component, incomplete, etc.).

They speak Russian everywhere; this is the language of my father and my mother, this is the language of my nanny, my childhood, my first love, almost all the moments of my life that entered my past as an integral property, as the basis of my personality.

4. Dialogic presentation.

Well? Is it true that he is so good-looking?

Surprisingly good, handsome, one might say.

5. Parcellation is a stylistic technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even individual words in a work in order to give speech intonation expression through its abrupt pronunciation.

Liberty and Fraternity. There will be no equality. Nobody. No one. Not

equal. Never. (A. Volodin.) He saw me and froze. Numb. He fell silent.

6. Non-union or asyndeton - deliberate omission of conjunctions, which gives the text dynamism and swiftness.

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.

People knew: somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on.

If you are afraid of wolves, do not go into the forest.

7. Polyconjunction or polysyndeton - repeating conjunctions serve to logically and intonationally emphasize the parts of the sentence connected by the conjunctions.

The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity.

I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint.

Translated from the Greek “τρόπος”, trope means “revolution”. What do tropes mean in literature? Definition taken from the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova says: a trope is a word or figure of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Thus, we are dealing with the transfer of the meanings of concepts from one word to another.

Formation of tropes in historical context

The transfer of meanings becomes possible due to the polysemy of certain concepts, which, in turn, is determined by the specific development of the vocabulary of the language. So, for example, we can easily trace the etymology of the word “village” - from “wooden”, that is, indicating a building material made of wood.

However, finding the original meaning in other words - for example, such as “thank you” (original meaning: “God save”) or the word “bear” (“Knowing, knowing where the honey is”) - is more difficult.

Also, some words could retain their spelling and spelling, but change their meaning. For example, the concept of “everyman”, understood in modern perception as a tradesman (that is, limited by material, consumer interests). In the original, this concept had no relation to human values ​​- it indicated the territory of residence: “urban inhabitant”, “rural inhabitant”, that is, it designated a resident of a certain area.

Paths in literature. Primary and secondary meanings of the word

A word can change its original meaning not only over a long period of time, in the context of a socio-historical context. There are also cases when a change in the meaning of a word is due to a specific situation. For example, in the phrase “a fire is burning” there is no trope, since fire is a phenomenon of reality, and burning is an inherent property, a trait. Such properties are usually called primary (basic).

Let's take another example for comparison:

“The East is burning with a new dawn”

(A.S. Pushkin, “Poltava”).

In this case, we are not talking about the direct phenomenon of combustion - the concept is used in the sense of brightness, colorfulness. That is, the colors of dawn resemble fire in color and saturation (from which the property of “burning” was borrowed). Accordingly, we are seeing a replacement direct meaning the concept of “burning” into an indirect one, obtained as a result of an associative connection between them. In literary criticism this is called a secondary (transferable) property.

Thus, thanks to the trails, the phenomena of the surrounding reality can acquire new properties, appear from an unusual side, and look more vivid and expressive. The main types of tropes in literature are the following: epithet, comparison, metonymy, metaphor, litotes, hyperbole, allegory, personification, synecdoche, periphrase(s), etc. Different types of tropes can be used in the same work. Also, in some cases, mixed paths take place - a kind of “fusion” of several types.

Let's look at some of the most common tropes in the literature with examples.

Epithet

An epithet (translated from Greek “epitheton” - attached) is a poetic definition. In contrast to the logical definition (aimed at highlighting the basic properties of an object that distinguish it from other objects), an epithet indicates more conditional, subjective properties of the concept.

For example, the phrase " cold wind"is not an epithet, since we're talking about about an objectively existing property of a phenomenon. In this case, this is the actual wind temperature. At the same time, we should not take the phrase “the wind blows” literally. Just like the wind is an inanimate being, it therefore cannot “blow” in the human sense. It's just about moving air.

In turn, the phrase “cold gaze” creates a poetic definition, since we are not talking about the real, measured temperature of the gaze, but about its subjective perception from the outside. In this case we can talk about an epithet.

Thus, a poetic definition always adds expressiveness to the text. It makes the text more emotional, but at the same time more subjective.

Metaphor

Tropes in literature are not only a bright and colorful image, they can also be completely unexpected and not always clear. A similar example is a type of trope such as metaphor (Greek “μεταφορά” - “transfer”). Metaphor occurs when an expression is used in a figurative sense, to make it resemble another object.

What are the tropes in literature that correspond to this definition? For example:

"Plants rainbow outfit

Kept traces of heavenly tears"

(M.Yu. Lermontov, “Mtsyri”).

The similarities outlined by Lermontov are clear to any ordinary reader and do not come as a surprise. When the author takes as a basis more subjective experiences, which are not characteristic of every consciousness, the metaphor can look quite unexpected:

"The sky is whiter than paper"

turns pink in the west,

as if they were folding crumpled flags there,

sorting slogans into warehouses"

(I.A. Brodsky “Twilight. Snow..”).

Comparison

L.N. Tolstoy singled out comparison as one of the most natural means of description in literature. Comparison as artistic trope implies the presence of a comparison of two or more objects/phenomena in order to clarify one of them through the properties of the other. Similar tropes are found very often in literature:

“Station, fireproof box.

My separations, meetings and separations"

(B. L. Pasternak, “Station”);

“It hits like a bomb,

takes it like a hedgehog,

like a double-edged razor...”

(V.V. Mayakovsky “Poems about the Soviet passport”).

Figures and tropes in literature tend to have a composite structure. Comparison, in turn, also has certain subtypes:

• formed using adjectives/adverbs in comparative form;
• using phrases with conjunctions “exactly”, “as if”, “as”, “as if”, etc.;
• using phrases with adjectives “similar”, “reminiscent”, “similar”, etc.

In addition, comparisons can be simple (when the comparison is carried out based on one characteristic) and expanded (comparison based on a number of characteristics).

Hyperbola

Represents an excessive exaggeration of the values ​​and properties of objects. “..Over there is the most dangerous, big-eyed, tailed Sea Girl, slippery, malicious and tempting” (T. N. Tolstaya, “Night”). This is not a description of any sea ​​monster- So main character, Alexey Petrovich, sees his neighbor in a communal apartment.

The technique of hyperbolization can be used to ridicule something, or to enhance the effect of a certain feature - in any case, the use of hyperbole makes the text more emotionally rich. So, Tolstaya could give a standard description of the girl who is her hero’s neighbor (height, hair color, facial expression, etc.), which, in turn, would form a more specific image in the reader. However, the narration in the story “Night” is primarily from the hero himself, Alexei Petrovich, mental development which does not correspond to the age of an adult. He looks at everything through the eyes of a child.

Alexey Petrovich has his own special vision of the world around him with all its images, sounds, smells. This is not the world we are used to - it is a kind of alloy of dangers and miracles, bright colors day and the frightening blackness of night. House for Alexey Petrovich - big ship who went on a dangerous journey. The ship is ruled by mommy - the great, wise one - the only stronghold of Alexei Petrovich in this world.

Thanks to the technique of hyperbolization used by Tolstoy in the story “Night,” the reader also gets the opportunity to look at the world through the eyes of a child, to discover an unfamiliar side of reality.

Litotes

The opposite of hyperbole is the technique of litotes (or reverse hyperbole), which consists in excessively understating the properties of objects and phenomena. For example, “little boy”, “the cat cried”, etc. Accordingly, such tropes in literature as litotes and hyperbole are aimed at a significant deviation of the quality of an object in one direction or another from the norm.

Personification

“The beam darted along the wall,

And then he slid over me.

“Nothing,” he seemed to whisper, “

Let’s sit in silence!”

(E.A. Blaginina, “Mom is sleeping..”).

This technique becomes especially popular in fairy tales and fables. For example, in the play “The Kingdom of Crooked Mirrors” (V. G. Gubarev), the girl talks to the mirror as if it were a living being. In the fairy tales of G.-H. Andersen is often brought to life various items. They communicate, quarrel, complain - in general, they begin to live their own life. own life: toys (“Pig Piggy Bank”), peas (“Five from One Pod”), slate board, notebook (“Ole-Lukoye”), coin (“Silver Coin”), etc.

In turn, in fables, inanimate objects acquire the properties of a person along with his vices: “Leaves and Roots”, “Oak and Cane” (I.A. Krylov); “Watermelon”, “Pyatak and Ruble” (S.V. Mikhalkov), etc.

Literary tropes in literature: the problem of differentiation

It should also be noted that the specifics of artistic techniques are so diverse and sometimes subjective that it is not always possible to clearly differentiate certain paths in literature. Confusion often arises with examples from a particular work due to their correspondence to several types of tropes at the same time. For example, metaphor and comparison are not always amenable to strict differentiation. A similar situation is observed with metaphor and epithet.

Meanwhile, the domestic literary critic A. N. Veselovsky identified such a subtype as epithet-metaphor. In turn, many researchers, on the contrary, considered the epithet as a type of metaphor. This problem is due to the fact that some types of tropes in literature simply do not have clear boundaries of differentiation.