One of the world's most ancient civilizations, the Holy Roman Empire, gave humanity the greatest culture, which included not only a rich literary heritage, but also a stone chronicle. The people who inhabited this state have long ceased to exist, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. On April 21, the day of the founding of the city on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.
Roman forum
The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, the Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland during the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the 8th century BC. e. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikia the Ancient, who turned it into the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and Sabines took place, elections to the Senate took place, judges sat and services were held.
From west to east, the sacred road of the empire runs through the entire Roman Forum - Via Appia, or Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum contains the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.
The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings from the Tarquin family. He died several times during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that “The Senate and people of Rome restored what was destroyed by fire.” It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.
Construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. e. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to the Flavians: Vespasian and his son Titus. Its length was 33 m, and its width extended to 22 m. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.
The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and was connected in ancient times to the House of the Vestals. The Holy Fire was constantly maintained in the inner room. Initially, he was guarded by the king’s daughters, then they were replaced by vestal priestesses, who also held services in honor of Vesta. This temple contained a cache of symbols of the empire. The building was round in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that there was an outlet for smoke in the roof, fires often broke out in the temple. It was saved and reconstructed several times, but in 394 Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed. Gradually the building deteriorated and fell into disrepair.
Trajan's Column
A monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. The marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the “body” of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to an observation deck on the capital.
The column's trunk is spiraled 23 times by a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later - with a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells the story of Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, the period being 101–102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the figure of a winged Victoria inscribing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, and the details of the weapons and armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to Victory, the relief also contains other allegorical figures: the Danube in the image of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with her face covered with a veil, etc.
Pantheon
The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. e. under Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Marcus Vipsanias Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT" - "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this." Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, and the majesty of the artistic image. Devoid of external decorations, the cylindrical building is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly corresponds to the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting amazing proportionality to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that make up a monolithic wall, between which there are niches that give the massive building a feeling of airiness. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick and the dome is much lighter than in reality. A round hole in the vault of the temple lets in light, illuminating the rich decoration of the interior space. Everything has reached our days almost unchanged.
Coliseum
One of the most significant buildings of Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building, along the perimeter of the arena there were 80 large arches, with smaller ones on them. The arena is surrounded by a wall of 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is of the Doric order, the second is of the Ionic order, and the third is of the Corinthian order. In addition, sculptures made by the best Roman craftsmen were installed on the first two tiers.
The amphitheater building included galleries intended for spectators to relax, where noisy merchants sold various goods. The outside of the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and there were beautiful statues along its perimeter. There were 64 entrances to the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.
Below were privileged seats for the nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiator fights took place, but also real naval battles, was wooden.
Nowadays, the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a majestic structure, being a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying goes: “As long as the Colosseum stands, Rome will stand; if the Colosseum disappears, Rome will disappear and with it the whole world.”
Triumphal Arch of Titus
The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. The arch is decorated with half-columns of the composite order, four figures of Victoria, bas-reliefs depicting Titus controlling the quadriga, victorious a procession with trophies, including the main shrine of the Jewish temple - the menorah.
Baths of Caracalla
The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the “bath building”; through the two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides there were rooms for meetings, recitations, etc. Among the many different rooms located on the right and left intended for washing rooms, it should be noted two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with figures of athletes. The emperors not only covered the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the Baths of Caracalla there once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, and the torso of Apollo Belvedere.
The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose what they liked: some, after washing themselves, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch wrestling and gymnastic exercises, and could exercise themselves; others wandered around the park, admired the statues, and sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the baths were destined to collapse.
Temples of Portunus and Hercules
These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - the Bull. In early Republican times, ships moored here and there was a brisk livestock trade, hence the name.
The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with Ionic columns. The temple has been well preserved since around 872 AD. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, and in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitiana.
The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The structure dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m, decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to this day. In 1132 A.D. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.
Champ de Mars
“Campus Martius” was the name of the part of Rome located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field there was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant subsequently, while the remaining parts were built up.
Mausoleum of Hadrian
The architectural monument was designed as a tomb for the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with an earth mound, the top of which was decorated with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the Sun god, controlling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure began to be used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have modified its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the apartments of the Pope, a prison, a library, the Hall of Treasures and the Secret Archive. From the terrace of the castle, above which the figure of an Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.
Catacombs
The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient buildings that were used as burial places, mostly during the period of early Christianity. In total, Rome has more than 60 different catacombs (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. According to one version, the labyrinths of underground passages arose on the site of ancient quarries; according to another, they formed on private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.
FEDERAL AGENCY OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education
"MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY OF COMMUNICATIONS"
COURSE WORK
TOPIC: “Famous architectural monuments of Ancient Rome”
Completed by: Valeria Aleksandrovna Nepomnyashchaya
Checked by: Bavina L.G.
Moscow 2012
INTRODUCTION
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period VIII-VI centuries. BC
2 Temple of Saturn
3 Roman Forum
CHAPTER 2. THE AGE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V-I centuries BC)
2 Construction features
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
The cultural history of Ancient Rome is the history of the formation, development and decline of a huge state that stretched along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and included Europe, North Africa and the Near East in its sphere of influence.
One of the most important types of art in Ancient Rome was architecture. Vitruvius is probably the most significant ancient Roman architect. It was he who formulated the three basic principles of ancient Roman architecture: utility, strength, beauty.
In Roman art during its heyday, the leading role was played by architecture, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, captivate with their power. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, embodying the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people. Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction.
The history of architecture in Ancient Rome is divided into three stages. The first is the early or royal era, which began in the 8th–6th centuries. BC. The second stage is the era of the republic, which began at the end of the 6th century. BC, when the Etruscan kings were expelled from Rome, and lasted until the middle of the 1st century. BC. The third stage - imperial - began with the reign of Octavian Augustus, who passed to autocracy, and lasted until the 5th century. AD
The purpose of this work is to study the uniqueness of the architecture of Ancient Rome
Research objective: to consider the features of the architecture of Ancient Rome and its characteristic features.
CHAPTER 1. EARLY OR ROYAL ROME (VIII-VI centuries BC)
1 Characteristics of the Architecture of the period VIII-VI centuries. BC
The center of a future great power? city of Rome? originated in Latium, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. The early history of Rome is shrouded in legend and legend. There are several versions of its origin, but the most common is the legend of Romulus and Remus, they were the sons of the god of war Mars and the Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia, the daughter of the king of the city of Alba Longa. The tsar's treacherous brother, wanting to seize the throne, imprisoned him, put the twins in a basket and threw them into the Tiber. However, the basket with the twins was nailed to the Capitol - the sacred hill, where the babies were fed by a she-wolf with her milk. When the boys grew up, they returned the throne to their grandfather, and they themselves decided to found a new city. They built his main temple on Capitol Hill. While delineating the boundaries of the city, the brothers quarreled, and Romulus killed Remus, becoming the sole ruler of the city and giving him his name. It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. e.
The development of Rome took place under Etruscan influence. Many Etruscan achievements were borrowed, for example, in the field of construction and various crafts. Rome borrowed writing, Roman numerals, methods of interpretation and fortune-telling, and much more.
According to legend, in Rome in the 8th–6th centuries. 7 kings ruled: Romulus, Numa Pompus Tullus Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Tarkvin the Ancient, Servius Tullius, Tarkvim the Proud. Of particular importance in the history of early Rome and its culture is the reign of the last three Roman kings, who, as scientists believe, came from the Etruscans, but unlike the other kings, were real historical figures.
The art of the Etruscans who lived in the first millennium BC. e. end of VIII - I centuries. BC e. on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, left a significant mark on the history of world culture and greatly influenced ancient Roman artistic activity. Having conquered the Etruscans, the Romans accepted their achievements and continued what the Etruscans had started in their architecture, sculpture and painting.
Under the Etruscan dynasty, Rome began to transform. Work was carried out to drain the once swampy Forum, and shopping arcades and porticos were built there. On the Capitoline Hill, craftsmen from Etruria erected a temple of Jupiter with a pediment decorated with a quadriga. Rome turned into a large, populous city with powerful fortress walls, beautiful temples and houses on stone foundations. Under the last king? Tarquinia Proudly, was the main underground sewer pipe built in Rome? A great cesspool that serves the “eternal city” to this day.
Works of Etruscan art were created mainly in the area bounded to the north by the Arno River and to the south by the Tiber, but there were also significant artistic workshops in the Etruscan cities to the north of these borders, Marzabotto, Spina, and to the south, Praeneste, Velletri, Satric.
The Etruscans are known to modern people, perhaps, more for their art than for any other forms of activity, since much in their history, religion, culture, including their still not entirely clear writing, remains mysterious.
The Etruscan culture testifies to their significant artistic talent. Their art is original, although traces of Asia Minor and later Greek influences can be identified in it. He is characterized by a desire for realism, so noticeable in the paintings of the tombs of the Etruscan nobility. Etruscan artists do not worry about conveying details, but pay full attention to the most significant features of what is depicted. If the Roman portrait achieved unprecedented artistic perfection, then it was due to the assimilation of the Etruscan heritage by Roman masters. The so-called false dome, gradually converging rows of stone beams or bricks inside, was used in architecture already in the Minoan and Mycenaean periods, but only the Etruscans began to build vaults from wedge-shaped beams, thus creating a dome in the proper sense of the word. The largest number of surviving monuments of Etruscan art dates back to the 6th - early 5th centuries. BC e. At this time, Etruria was strongly influenced by Greek culture, and during the same period, Etruscan art experienced its heyday.
Sculpture occupied an important place in Etruscan art, the heyday of which dates back to the 6th century. BC e. The most famous Etruscan sculptor was the master Vulca who worked in Veii; he owns the monumental terracotta statue of Apollo from Veii.
One of these works of the 6th century. BC e. is the famous statue of the Capitoline Wolf. The she-wolf is depicted nursing Romulus and Remus. In this sculpture, the viewer is struck not only by his powers of observation in the reproduction of nature. It is not for nothing that the statue of the Capitoline She-Wolf was perceived in subsequent eras as a vivid symbol of the harsh and cruel Rome.
The artisans of Etruria were famous for their work in gold, bronze and clay. Etruscan potters used a special technique called buccheronero - black earth: the clay was smoked, acquiring a black color.
After molding and firing, the product was subjected to polishing by friction. This technique was driven by the desire to make clay vessels resemble more expensive metal vessels. Their walls were usually decorated with relief images, and sometimes a rooster or other figures were placed on the lids.
The main symbol of the power of Rome is the Forum. Even before the Etruscan invasion, the area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills became a kind of center of culture and civilization, which both geographically and spiritually united the Latin tribes who lived at the foot of the seven hills.
Having restored the Etruscan temple of Castor and Pollux in accordance with the canons of Hellenistic architecture, the Republicans built the Basilica Aemilia and Tabularium, where the tribunal and the state archive developed their activities, respectively, paved the entire space of the Forum with travertine slabs. The reconstruction of the Roman Forum, begun by Julius Caesar and continued by Augustus, contributed to the ordering of a rather chaotic ensemble.
In accordance with the geometric layout of city squares surrounded by columns, adopted in Hellenistic cities, the new building plan was based on the axial principle and rationalized the hitherto free design of the ensemble of the republican forum. Temples and basilicas built in accordance with the new design glorified the power of Rome throughout the world.
2 Temple of Saturn
The most ancient part of the Roman Forum is the Temple of Saturn. The Temple of Saturn was preceded by a very ancient altar, which legend attributes to the mythical city founded by Saturn himself on the Capitol. The possibility of the existence of a village on a hill since prehistoric times and the antiquity of the religious cult itself confirm to some extent this legend. The construction of the Temple of Saturn was a tribute to the god Saturn, whom the Romans identified with the Greek god Kronos and revered his ability to rid the city of disasters.
Construction of the temple may have begun already during the royal period. Its discovery was carried out only in the first years of the Republic, possibly in 498 BC. e.
The building was completely rebuilt starting in 42 BC. BC, Munatius Plancus, and restored after a fire that occurred during the reign of Carinus 283 AD. e. It is likely that the surviving part dates back to this restoration - eight columns, six columns of gray granite on the façade and two of red on the sides, and the main pediment largely built from restored material. The inscription, which is still visible on the frieze, recalls that this restoration was carried out due to the fire Senatus populusque romanus incendio consumptum restituit - The Senate and people of Rome restored what was destroyed by the fire.
It was the only temple in Rome where believers could enter with their heads open, and the first temple in which wax candles began to be burned. A statue of the god Saturn was kept here, which was carried during processions on the occasion of triumphal celebrations.
3 Roman Forum
One of the main attractions of Rome. Since ancient times, the Roman Forum was the place where people came to learn political news, exchange impressions, and conclude a successful trade deal.
The Roman Forum arose during the time of the first Roman kings, around the 7th century BC, when local residents began to gather in the space between the hills of the Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal.
The Forum, located in a valley between three hills - the Palatine, the Capitoline and the Esquiline, was in ancient times a deserted marshy area, which was drained during the reign of King Tarquin the Ancient thanks to large-scale work on the construction of sewers and the laying of a stone Great Sewer, connected to a drainage system. After the area had been drained, construction began on the Forum, one part of which was intended for shops, the other for public ceremonies, religious holidays, elections to the chancellery and magistrates, for oratory stands and the passing of sentences on convicts.
In the center of the Forum stands a tall memorial column, the Column of Phocas, which is a Corinthian column erected in front of the Rostra in the Roman Forum and dedicated in 608 to the Byzantine Emperor Phocas.
The column, 13.6 m high, was mounted on a quadrangular pedestal of white marble, originally used in the monument in honor of Diocletian. At the top of the column there used to be a statue of the emperor made of gilded bronze - until Phocas was overthrown in 610, after which the slow desolation of this place began.
CHAPTER 2. THE AGE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V-I centuries BC)
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period V-I centuries. BC
Only a few architectural monuments have survived from the Republican period in the history of Ancient Rome. In construction, the Romans mainly used four architectural orders: Tuscan, borrowed from the Etruscans, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Roman temples resemble Greek architecture in their rectangular shape and use of porticoes, but, unlike Greek ones, they were grander and were usually built on high podiums. In the V-IV centuries. BC. In Roman construction, mainly soft volcanic tuff was used. Later in the Republican period, fired brick and marble were widely used. In the II century. BC. Roman builders invented concrete, which caused the widespread spread of arched-vaulted structures that transformed all ancient architecture.
In addition to the peripter, the type of rotunda, that is, a round temple, was also used in Roman temple architecture. This was one of the oldest Roman temples? Temple of Vesta or Hercules, located in the Forum.
Various arches and arched structures were a characteristic element of Roman architecture. But the Romans didn’t give up columns either? they decorated public buildings, for example, the huge Theater of Pompey, the first stone theater in Rome in the 1st century. BC. Free-standing columns were very popular in Roman architecture, erected, for example, in honor of military victories.
Were arcades a very characteristic type of Roman structure? a series of arches supported by pillars or columns.
Arcades were used to construct open galleries running along the wall of a building, such as a theater, and also in aqueducts? multi-tiered stone bridges, inside which were hidden lead and clay pipes supplying water to the city. A specifically Roman type of structure was the triumphal arch, which became most widespread during the Empire as a monument to military and imperial glory.
In the middle of the 1st century. BC. The first majestic marble buildings appeared in Rome. Julius Caesar ordered the construction of a new Forum in Rome, worthy of the capital of a great power. Was Caesar's Basilica built there? a rectangular building intended for court hearings, trade transactions and public meetings; Christian churches were built like a Roman basilica in the Middle Ages. A temple was also erected at the Forum in honor of Venus, the patroness of the Julius family.
The main streets and squares of the city of Rome were later decorated in the Republican period with magnificent marble statues, mostly copies of Greek masters. Thanks to this, the works of famous Greek sculptors have reached us: Myron, Polykleitos, Praxiteles, Lysippos.
The central shopping and public square of the city is being improved - the Roman Forum, where public meetings, fairs were held, and trials were held. It is expanding, new public buildings and temples are being built around it, and its porticoes are being paved with tiles. Here was the center of political life in the capital of the world, adorned over the centuries with meeting basilicas, temples and memorial structures.
By the 2nd century. BC e. development developed on a plain bordered by three hills (Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal). Subsequently, five more forums joined the Roman Forum: Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan. Now it is a field of ruins of a huge complex of Roman forums from the times of the Republic and the early Empire.
New types of public buildings are appearing. The very dense development of the urban area, crowding and cramped conditions could not but cause the need for special green areas - parks located on the outskirts of the city. This is how the luxurious gardens of Sallust and Lucullus appeared. The city was divided into blocks, the blocks were grouped into districts. Not only Rome, but also small cities, for example, Pompeii, turn into the 1st century. BC. to well-appointed, cultural centers with a variety of buildings, beautiful squares, cobbled streets, a stone theater and amphitheater, a circus, numerous shops and taverns.
As a result of the Roman conquests, wealth of all kinds flowed into Rome and the Italian cities. This caused the rise of Roman architecture. The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of strength, power and greatness that overwhelm man. This is where the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their buildings, which amaze the imagination with their size, was born. Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for lavish decoration of buildings, rich decorative furnishings, a lot of decorations, a greater interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation primarily not of temple complexes, but of buildings and structures for practical needs - bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths .
2 Construction features
Of the public buildings, the most important in Ancient Rome was the basilica, where the court sat and trade deals were concluded. The rectangular volumes of the basilicas of the Republican period in the Forum in Pompeii and the Imperial in the Graian Forum in Rome consisted of five aisles separated by columns: a very wide central one and four narrower ones carrying galleries of the second tier. The tribunal, where the trial was held, had the shape of a huge semicircle, the diameter of which occupied one of the narrow sides and was separated from the rest of the basilica by a portico. The entrance was located in a passageway, probably without any overlap, remaining in the open air. The basilicas were always crowded and lively: courts were in session, speakers were speaking, and trade deals were being concluded. The atmosphere that reigned there is evidenced, for example, by an inscription preserved on the wall of the Pompeian basilica.
The circuses were built on the model of the grandiose Roman Circus Massimo, built during the era of the Republic. The stone stands, arranged in tiers, had the shape of an ellipse. The entrance was located at its curve and was marked by massive triumphal arches. The center of the field along its length was occupied by a high podium, decorated with statues, obelisks and columns. Stone pillars - metas - standing at the ends served as a guide for the drivers.
Amphitheaters were circular structures. Massive semicircular arches made of cut stone, the so-called Roman cells, arranged in two or three tiers, surrounded the open arena.
Stone seats rose in tiers from the arena. An exceptional place among structures of this kind was occupied by the four-story Flavian amphitheater in Rome (Colosseum), the construction of which began in 75 AD. e. under Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty. The performance at the Colosseum could be watched simultaneously by 50 thousand spectators. Through the open arcade of the first floor they evenly penetrated inside and along 60 staircases they got to their places. The seats in the first, lower tier were intended for the privileged class - senators, priests, vestals and judges; the emperor's tribune was also located here; in the second - for citizens; in the third - for the plebs; the fourth floor was reserved for standing places for slaves. In the dungeon under the arena there were cells for gladiators, cages for animals, rooms where the corpses of the dead were taken down. For gladiator battles, the arena was filled with sand; for sea battles, it was filled with water using an aqueduct sleeve that approached the building. The inside of the building was lined with marble, the outside with limestone tuff and decorated with columns - one on the plane of the wall between the arched openings. On the ground floor there are columns of the Tus order, squat and massive. The second floor is surrounded by graceful, slender columns of the Ionic order, the third - even taller Corinthian ones, the fourth - pilasters of the Corinthian order. This arrangement of columns provides a visual effect in which the building, massive below, appears less heavy and taller. The gaps in the arches were once filled with majestic marble statues of Roman gods and senators. The pompous look was completed by a silk awning stretched over the arena on hot or rainy days.
3 Famous monuments of the Republican period
ancient roman architecture monument road
Of most of the republican churches, and there were several dozen of them in Rome, not even ruins have survived. The most famous are the grandiose structures, the ancient defensive walls of Rome, which arose back in the 8th century. BC. on three hills: Capitoline, Palatine and Quiripala, made of stone from the early 6th century. BC. and the so-called Servian Wall - 378-352. BC.
Roman roads were of great strategic importance; they united different parts of the country. The Appian Way leading to Rome in the 6th-3rd centuries. BC. for the movement of cohorts and messengers, it was the first of a network of roads that later covered the whole of Italy. Near the Aricchi valley, the road, paved with a thick layer of concrete, crushed stone, lava and tuff slabs, ran along a massive wall 197 m long, 11 m high, dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.
Gradually, over the next centuries, Rome became the most water-rich city in the world. Powerful bridges and aqueducts: the aqueduct of Appius Claudius, 311 BC, the aqueduct of Marcius, 144 BC, running tens of kilometers, took a prominent place in the architecture of the city, in the appearance of its picturesque surroundings, being an integral part of landscape of the Roman Campania.
The oldest vaulted structures include the sewer canal of the Cloaca Maxima in Rome, which has survived to this day. Social life took place in the market square. For the Romans it was a forum. All the main city events took place here: meetings, councils, important decisions were announced here, children were educated, trade was carried out, it served as an arena for political activity, public meetings, and military triumphs.
The architectural ensemble included temples, basilicas, merchants' shops, and markets. The squares were decorated with statues of famous citizens and political figures and were surrounded by columns and porticos.
The oldest forum in Rome is the Republican Forum Romanum, 6th century BC. to which all roads converged. Now all that remains of the Forum Romanum are the foundations of the buildings; Its original appearance is represented by reconstruction.
In the last centuries of the republic, the forum acquired a complete architectural appearance. On one side it was adjacent to the impressive building of the state archive - the Tabularium, which stood on vaulted underground floors. This was a completely new type of public building, and the fact that it first appeared among the Romans speaks of their exceptional respect for history.
The outside of the Tabularium was decorated in the Greek order, but inside it consisted of a system of vaulted rooms. A long staircase of 67 steps led from the forum to the Capitol. Such corridors and staircases are often found in Republican buildings. They create the impression of the enormity of the space covered by the architecture. But at the same time, all forms are clearly visible in their perspective reduction: the smallest arch or step is clearly visible, the farthest goal is achievable.
Temples rose in the square, among them the temple of Vesta, the virgin goddess, in which an unquenchable fire burned, symbolizing the life of the Roman people. Here there were columns to which rostras were attached - the prows of defeated enemy ships, hence the name - rostral column, and there was a “sacred road” along which there were tabernas - shops of jewelers and goldsmiths. During the era of the republic, especially in the V-II centuries. BC, the temple is the main type of public building. It developed gradually as a result of crossing the prevailing local Italo-Etruscan traditions with Greek ones, adapted to local conditions. Round and quadrangular pseudoperipters were built with an entrance only from the main facade. The round temple - monoptera consisted of a cylindrical base surrounded by a colonnade. According to Etruscan custom, the entrance was on one side, the end.
Round temple of the Sibyl or Vesta in Tivoli, 1st century. BC, near Rome, surrounded by Corinthian columns. The frieze is decorated with reliefs depicting a traditional Roman motif - bull skulls, "bucrania", from which heavy garlands hang. It was a symbol of sacrifice and remembrance. The order in such temples was distinguished by its rigid design and dryness: the columns had lost their inherent plasticity in Greece.
The Greek round peripterus usually had a stepped base and was designed for all-round viewing. The Temple of Sibylla in Tivoli, like Etruscan temples, combines a frontal, strictly symmetrical longitudinal axial composition and a circular one. The axis of the temple is emphasized by the main entrance with steps, a door and windows located in front of it. The massive, vaulted base of the temple at Tivoli creates a transition from the stone cliff, which it picturesquely completes, to an elegant round rotunda of the Corinthian order with a light frieze of garlands. Raised on a high base, harmonious in proportions, with a slender and austere colonnade filled with light, the temple dominates the landscape. Its calm, harmonious forms contrast with the stormy cascade of the waterfall.
Rectangular Roman temples also differed from the Greek order, as shown by the well-preserved temple of Fortuna Virilis in the Forum Boarium in Rome (1st century BC) - a unique example of an early completed Roman temple of the pseudoperipterus type with a closed frontal axial composition. The Greek peripterum in it is divided into a deep front portico open on all sides and a cella surrounded by semi-columns merging with the wall. Accentuating the main façade with a portico with free-standing columns and a grand entrance staircase, the architect combined it with a closed cella of the Ionic order. It also has an entrance only on one side; Ionic columns end with capitals of a modest design. The pediment is completely “non-Greek”, without sculptures inside its tympanum and with rich, strictly drawn profiles.
The Roman bridges of the 1st century are magnificent. BC. Thus, the Mulvius Bridge, in addition to its practical advantages (it stood for more than two thousand years, is distinguished by its expressive image. The bridge visually rests on the water with semicircles of arches, the supports between which are cut with high and narrow openings to lighten the weight. On top of the arches lies a cornice, which gives the bridge a special completeness.The bridge seems to move from bank to bank in continuous arches: it is dynamic and at the same time stable.
The originality of Roman architecture affected the creation of a new type of private residential building for wealthy landowners, traders, and artisans. Roman mansions are mostly one-story houses in which the comfort of family life was combined with adaptability to business life.
Part of the appearance of a Roman city can be illustrated by the example of Pompeii, an Italian city that perished in 79 AD. as a result of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
The city, buried under ash, was accidentally discovered during the construction of a water pipeline in the 17th century. From 1748 to the present day, its excavations have continued. The city had a regular layout. Straight streets were framed by the facades of houses, at the bottom of which there were shops-taberns. The extensive forum was surrounded by a beautiful two-story colonnade. There was a sanctuary of Isis, a temple of Apollo, a temple of Jupiter, and a large amphitheater, built, like the Greeks, in a natural depression. Designed for twenty thousand spectators, it significantly exceeded the needs of city residents and was also intended for visitors. There were two theaters in the city.
The Pompeian houses - “domuses” - are remarkable. These were rectangular structures that stretched along the courtyard and faced the street with blank end walls. The main room was the atrium from the lat. atrium - “smoky”, “black”, i.e. a room blackened by soot that served a sacred function. At the founding of Rome, there was a cult pit in the very center - “mundus”, where all the inhabitants threw fruits and a handful of earth from their old homeland. It opened only once a year - on the day of the Underground Goddess, or did not open at all. Each house repeated this pattern: the atrium often had a hole in the center of the roof - the compluvium. Below it was a pool for collecting water, related to the mundus - the impluvium.
Overall, the atrium served as a “world pillar”, connecting every Roman house with heaven and the underworld. It is no coincidence that all the most important things stood in the atrium: a heavy chest with family valuables, an altar-type table and a cabinet for storing wax masks of ancestors and images of good patron spirits - Lares and Penates.
CHAPTER 3. THE AGE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (I century BC?V century AD)
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period of the 1st century. BC. ?V century AD
The imperial period began at the end of the 1st century. BC e., when the Roman state from an aristocratic republic turned into the Roman Empire. The development of architecture during the imperial period can be divided into three stages.
Architecture of the first stage of the imperial period (1st century BC - 1st century AD), which is characterized by the strengthening of imperial power, was distinguished by the simplicity of its compositional solutions. Works of Greek classical architecture served as models for it. Among the main monuments is the Forum of Augustus with the temple of Mars Ultor (the Avenger). The Corinthian columns of the temple are placed closely, with an intercolumnium (distance between columns) of 1.5 column diameters. A structural system based on the combination of baked bricks with so-called Roman lime concrete in walls and ceilings is becoming widespread. Brick was introduced in the form of arches or layers, alternating with concrete layers, which made it possible to erect long-span vaults and domes. The outside of the building was faced with travertine or marble, the inside of the walls was plastered and painted.
The second stage of the imperial period (2nd century AD) is called the golden age of the Roman Empire. During this period, the architect Apollodorus of Damascus built the largest architectural ensemble of Ancient Rome - the Forum of the Roman Emperor Trajan, which was distinguished not only by its size and variety of compositional solutions, but also by the richness of its decoration. The five-nave basilica of Ulpia is extended parallel to the transverse axis of the Forum. The huge 38-meter column is entwined with a continuous ribbon of reliefs depicting the victorious campaigns of Trajan.
A new type of public building for court and trade transactions appeared - the Greek basilica. basilike - royal house. The building, rectangular in plan, was divided into three to five naves by rows of columns, with the middle nave being higher than the side ones. Another outstanding work of Apollodorus of Damascus is the Pantheon (125 AD) - “Temple of all gods”, rebuilt from a round pool: a giant cylindrical a volume covered by a spherical dome with a diameter of 43.2 m with a light hole in the center. The interior is decorated with polychrome marble
At the third stage of the imperial period (3rd century AD), architecture was characterized by an increased interest in decorative elements and a grandiose scale. Thus, the Baths of Caracalla were built - a complex complex of public baths for 1800 people, including swimming pools, baths, libraries, shops, etc., the grandiose Baths of Diocletian - a huge rectangular building with rooms covered with domes.
In the Alpine and Danube provinces from the 1st century. n. e. Many cities grew up in the Roman style - with arches, temples, amphitheaters. In the II century. n. e. The Syrian city of Palmyra acquires great importance. Its architectural structures were distinguished by the ancient oriental splendor of decorative elements. Not far from Palmyra was the cultural center of Baalbek - a sanctuary of Roman local gods (I-III centuries AD) - colossal in size. Thus, the height of the Corinthian columns of the Temple of Jupiter is about 20 m.
It should be noted that in the principles of constructing the Parthenon plan, which have been identified by architectural historians, there are not only features of ancient traditions, but also some innovations that can be considered the emergence of new traditions. The Greeks used ancient proportioning techniques, but gave them their own proportionality. The square that formed the basis of the Parthenon plan had absolute dimensions, already calculated in Greek measures of length. This is one hundred Greek feet, which in modern terms is 30.86 m. This fact has a special, truly epoch-making significance. From this time until the end of the period of Antiquity, all the main buildings of their time and their state system were built on the basis of a square with a side of one hundred Attic feet. This proportionality can be revealed in the composition of the plans of the Pantheon in Rome and the Church of Hagia Sophia of Constantinople.
The Roman Pantheon (118-128) is a construction of the period when the Roman Empire was moving towards the apogee of its development. It was conceived and built as a unique, one-of-a-kind building. Emperor Hadrian himself was directly involved in the idea of building the Pantheon (this information is legendary and, of course, not conclusive, but even in this form it is very eloquent). The Pantheon became the architectural embodiment of the core religious idea of imperial Rome about uniting together the beliefs and deities of different peoples. The volumetric-spatial composition of the Pantheon building is very simple. The volume is extremely close to a simple geometric shape, or, one might say, consists of simple geometric elements.
The main volume of the temple can be imagined as a thick-walled cylinder with an internal diameter of 43.2 m and a wall thickness of about six meters.
The cylindrical volume is covered with a hemispherical dome; the dome has a hemispherical outline only in the interior; from the outside it looks completely different. The height of the cylindrical part is designed so that if the generatrix of the dome hemisphere is extended downwards, it will have to touch the ground. Figuratively, the hemisphere of the Pantheon dome symbolizes the sky, and the entire interior symbolizes the universe, because pagan deities exist not only in heaven, but also on earth. The impression this structure makes on the viewer is truly stunning. Of course, both the geometric structure and the effect on humans, all this did not happen by chance, but was originally laid out in the ideological and artistic “program” of the temple by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The ideological background can also be seen in the use of some architectural techniques. As you know, the supreme god of the host of Latin gods is Jupiter, an analogue of the Greek Zeus. But there were serious differences in the ideas about the supreme deity between the Greeks and Romans. The views of the Romans were influenced by the heritage of the Etruscans, whose deities did not have an anthropomorphic image. Jupiter was identified with the light of the sky. Therefore, the main element of the dome became the opion - a round hole at the zenith of the dome. When, on a sunny day, a column of dazzling light burst into the twilight of the temple, the believers imagined that this was Jupiter entering inside the temple. The image of the interior space of the Pantheon created by Roman architects is one of the strongest in world architecture throughout its existence.
Strictly speaking, temples (tholos) that were round in plan were built earlier, already in classical Greece. Round temples dedicated to all gods were created in the Hellenistic era, and in Rome the first cylindrical Pantheon was built at the end of the 1st century. by order of Agripa.
All these structures were not so impressive in size, and, apparently, not so impressive in their architectural design. However, it should be remembered that the idea itself was already in the air. The fact that the basis of the Pantheon plan is a hundred-foot square, the inner circle of the Pantheon plan is described around this square, is also not accidental
This is a continuation of tradition, a declaration of inextricable ties with the culture of the previous era. It should not be forgotten that until the early period of the Empire, Rome was not a leader in the field of culture and art at all, following the paths paved by the Etruscans, the Hellenized peoples of the Italian peninsula (for example, the Samnites, whose cities the Romans eventually rebuilt and turned into their own). In fact, the proportions of the Pantheon are not limited to just one hundred feet square. The entire Pantheon is strictly proportioned; almost all of its elements can be calculated and constructed geometrically. However, these proportional patterns are less important for us, since they are of a secondary, auxiliary nature.
The Roman Pantheon was conceived and built as a unique temple. There were other unique buildings in Rome: the Colosseum, the Tabularium, the giant baths of Diocletian, Caracalla. But all these structures are unique in a completely different way. The functional layout of the Colosseum differs little from those used in other large circuses. The volume-spatial structure of all amphitheaters was based on a standard element - an arched order cell. Many Roman public buildings, circuses, theaters, and some administrative buildings, such as the Tabularium, were “assembled” from such cells, as from a construction set. In other words, the uniqueness of the Colosseum lies only in its extraordinary size.
The Colosseum is the largest among many large amphitheaters, the first among equals comparable to it.
The provinces experienced great prosperity. The Roman Empire became a slave-owning empire of the Mediterranean. Rome itself acquired the appearance of a world power. End I and beginning II century n. e. The period of the reign of the Flavians and Trajan was the time of the creation of grandiose architectural complexes, structures of large spatial scope.
The ruins of the giant palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine (1st century AD) still amaze with their stern grandeur.
The embodiment of the power and historical significance of imperial Rome were triumphal buildings glorifying the military victories of Rome. Triumphal arches and columns were erected not only in Italy, but also in the provinces for the glory of Rome. Roman buildings were active conductors of Roman culture and ideology there.
Arches were built for various reasons - both in honor of victories and as a sign of the consecration of new cities. However, their primary meaning is associated with triumph - a solemn procession in honor of victory over the enemy. Passing through the arch, the emperor returned to his hometown in a new capacity. The arch was the border of one's own and another's world. At the entrance to the Roman Forum, in memory of the Roman victory in the Jewish War, the marble Triumphal Arch of Titus (81 AD), who suppressed the uprising in Judea, was erected. Titus, considered a sane and noble emperor, reigned for a relatively short time (79-81). Perfect in form, a single-span arch 15.4 m high and 5.33 m wide sparkling with white served as the basis for a sculptural group of the emperor on a chariot.
2 The Colosseum is an architectural masterpiece.70-80. n. uh
The Colosseum is the largest of the ancient Roman amphitheatres, a famous monument of ancient Rome and one of the most remarkable structures in the world. For a long time, the Colosseum was for the residents of Rome and visitors the main place for entertainment spectacles, such as gladiator fights, animal persecution, naval battles (naumachia). It is located in a hollow between the Esquiline, Palatine and Caelian hills, in the place where there was a pond that belonged to the Golden House of Nero. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater because it was a collective structure of the Flavian emperors.
Like other Roman amphitheatres, the Flavian Amphitheater is an ellipse in plan, the middle of which is occupied by the arena and the surrounding concentric rings of seats for spectators. The Colosseum differs from all buildings of this kind in its size. This is the most grandiose ancient amphitheater: the length of its outer ellipse is 524 m, the length of the arena is 85.75 m, its width is 53.62 m, the height of its walls is from 48 to 50 meters. With such dimensions, it could accommodate about 50 thousand spectators.
The walls of the Colosseum were built from large pieces or blocks of travertine stone or travertine marble, which were quarried in the nearby city of Tivoli. The blocks were connected to each other by steel ties with a total weight of approximately 300 tons; local tuff and brick were also used for the internal parts. The Flavian Amphitheater was built on a concrete foundation 13 meters thick.
The architectural and logistics solution used in the Colosseum and called vomitoria from the Latin. vomere “to spew”, is still used in the construction of stadiums: many entrances are located evenly along the entire perimeter of the building.
Thanks to this, the public could fill the Colosseum in 15 minutes and leave in 5. The Colosseum in Rome had 80 entrances, of which 4 were intended for the highest nobility. These places were located around the entire arena in the form of rows of stone benches, rising one above the other. The lower row, or podium, was assigned exclusively to the emperor, his family, senators and vestals, and the emperor had a special, elevated seat.
The podium was separated from the arena by a parapet, high enough to protect spectators from attacks by animals released onto it. This was followed by seats for the public, forming three tiers, corresponding to the tiers of the building's façade. In the first tier, which contained 20 rows of benches, city officials and persons belonging to the equestrian class sat; the second tier, which consisted of 16 rows of benches, was intended for people with the rights of Roman citizenship. The wall separating the second tier from the third was quite high, but the benches of the third tier were located on a steeper inclined surface, this device was intended to give visitors to the third tier the opportunity to better see the arena and everything that happens in it. The spectators on the third tier belonged to the lower classes.
On the roof of the Colosseum, during performances, sailors of the imperial fleet were stationed, sent to stretch a huge awning over the amphitheater to protect spectators from the scorching rays of the sun or from bad weather. This awning was attached with ropes to masts placed along the upper edge of the wall. All arched spans of the second and third floors were decorated with statues that have not survived to this day. On the platform in front of the amphitheater stood a thirty-meter bronze statue of Nero, called the Colossus. It is believed that the name Colosseum - colossal - came from this colossus. The construction of the amphitheater was begun by Emperor Vespasian after his victories in Judea. Construction was completed in 80 by Emperor Titus.
Since ancient times, the Colosseum has been considered a symbol of the greatness of Rome. The Colosseum was a theater of magnificent spectacles, where many animals were killed. But already in 405, Emperor Honorius banned gladiator fights, and later animal persecution was also prohibited. The Colosseum ceased to be the main arena of Rome. At the end of the 13th century, the Colosseum in Rome was turned into a quarry. Houses and churches were built from it, in 1495 the office of the Pope was built from the material of the Colosseum, and in the 16th century bridges were built from the “giant’s” squares.
Subsequently, the arena of the legendary Roman amphitheater was associated for quite a long time with the torment of early Christians. Thus, in 1744, the Colosseum was consecrated in memory of the Christian martyrs who died here in battle with wild animals in front of the rampaging Roman crowds. The cross still stands in the center of the Colosseum. In the 21st century, the Colosseum in Rome was among the contenders for the title of one of the Seven New Wonders of the World, and according to the voting results, which were announced on July 7, 2007, it was recognized as one of the 7 New Wonders of the World.
3 Pantheon - temple of all gods 125 AD
An outstanding structure, which had a centric round plan, is the Roman, “temple of all gods” of the Roman Empire Pantheon (125 AD) - the most beautiful and best preserved monument of ancient Rome. This most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple under the Emperor Hadrian was rebuilt from a round pool by Apollodorus of Damascus, the author of the largest architectural ensemble of Ancient Rome - the Forum of Trajan. The Pantheon seats more than two thousand people.
Its space is covered by a dome of a bold design with a diameter of 43 m, which remained unsurpassed until the 2nd half of the 19th century. and served as a model for domed construction for all subsequent centuries.
The design of the Pantheon testifies to the flowering of architectural thought in Ancient Rome. Its beauty lies in the harmonious combination of clear volumes: the cylinder of the rotunda, the hemisphere of the dome and the parallelepiped of the portico.
The walls of the rotunda rest on a concrete foundation 4.5 m deep and 7.3 m thick. The thickness of the walls is 6.3 m. The rotunda wall consists of eight supports - pylons, connected by arches. The portico with two rows of columns of eight looks like the vestibule of the temple - pronaos. The impressive monolithic columns without flutes are carved from red Egyptian granite, and their capitals and bases are from Greek marble. The portico masks the heavy cylinder of the temple with its splendor. Protruding strongly into the small square in front of the Pantheon, it appears especially large and hides behind it the colossal, massive rotunda of the temple.
The artistic image of the Pantheon is based on strict calculation. The diameter of the rotunda is equal to the total height of the internal space of the temple, 43 m, so that if a ball is inscribed into its space, half of it will be formed by a dome.
In the perfect harmonic forms of a circle and a ball, the architect embodies the idea of complete peace and creates the impression of special, sublime grandeur. The interior decoration of the temple - marble facings and stucco decorations - is unusually solemn. Outside, the first tier of the rotunda is lined with marble, the upper two tiers are plastered.
The dome of the Pantheon reaches a diameter of 43 m, and its thickness is about 1 m; it was not surpassed by the domes of churches of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Modern times, until the end of the 19th century. The upper area of the dome is made of pumice concrete to reduce the weight of the dome. For lighting, a round hole with a diameter of 9 m was left in the center of the dome. The outside of the building is unusually massive. A continuous ring of blank walls, fifty-six meters in diameter, closes it. The dome appears to be pressed into these walls, joining them with rows of flat ledges. The structure forms a monolithic block, under the weight of which the earth seems to have caved in. The deep portico does not in any way soften this powerful effect of gravity. Its columns rise to almost fifteen meters in height. Their solid trunks are carved from dark red Egyptian granite. Their Corinthian marble capitals had become blackened with age, giving the structure a somewhat gloomy pomp.
The interior space of the ancient temple is huge, solemn, but filled with soft, peaceful light. The diameter of the round hall is slightly more than forty-three meters. The marble-clad walls are cut with deep niches, sometimes rectangular, sometimes semicircular. The colonnades separating them from the main part of the hall form openwork curtains, allowing this space to maintain perfectly round boundaries, but at the same time not to be geometrically closed.
The ring-shaped applied entablature and the attic tier above it, dissected by panels, smoothly describe the circumference of the hall, interrupted, however, by the entrance arch and the conch of the main exedra in the depths.
The verticals of columns, pilasters, panels attract the eye to the hemispherical dome crowning the hall, in which the entire space of the temple is brought to an unprecedented harmonious unity.
The dome of the Pantheon is a true miracle of engineering and subtle artistic taste. This is a regular hemisphere with a diameter of 43.2 meters; the dimensions of its span were surpassed only in the 20th century. Its height is equal to the height of the walls on which it rests. Heavy and massive on the outside, it rests on the supporting walls inside with extraordinary calm and lightness. Visually lightening it, the five rows of caissons running upward collect a soft twilight in their recesses, and one can imagine that the gilded rosettes that once adorned them sparkled like stars
For a long time, the Pantheon remained a model for many architects; it captivated us with its simplicity and integrity of design. Repeatedly famous architects tried to design and build a building that would surpass the Pantheon in size and perfection of execution. However, as a true masterpiece, it remains unique. The Pantheon still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument of ancient Roman architecture that was not destroyed or rebuilt in the Middle Ages. Many Christian churches were built in imitation of the Pantheon. The most famous of them is the Parisian Pantheon.
CONCLUSION
The architecture of Ancient Rome left humanity an enormous legacy, the significance of which is difficult to overestimate. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a huge part of the world. The art of Roman times left many remarkable monuments in a variety of fields. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and taken to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and the creative skills of the people to whom it belonged, and the place this people occupied in the grandiose empire. The Roman state is very complex. He alone had the mission of saying goodbye to the thousand-year-old world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of Christian art of the New Age.
The Romans learned to build arches, simple vaults and domes from stone to cover buildings; they also began to use lime mortar to hold the stones together. This was a huge step forward in construction technology. Now it was possible to build structures with a more varied layout and cover large interior spaces. For example, the round interior of the Roman pantheon - the temple of all gods - was 40 meters in diameter. It was covered with a gigantic dome, which later became a model for architects and builders for centuries.
The Romans adopted Greek columns. They preferred the Corinthian style as the most magnificent. In Roman buildings, columns began to lose their original purpose of being a support for any part of the building. They turned into decoration, since the arches and vaults held up without them. Half-columns and rectangular pilasters were often used.
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
1.Alferova M.A. History and legends of Ancient Rome M., 2006.
.Blavatsky V.D. Architecture of Ancient Rome M., 1938.
.Golovashin V.A. Culturology M., 2004
.Dozhdev D.V. Roman private law. Uch. for universities. -M., 1996
.Kirillin V.A. Ancient Rome M., 1986
.Kolpinsky Yu.D. Monuments of world art M., 1970
.Kuzishchin V.I., Gvozdeva I.A. History of Ancient Rome M., 2008
.Mironov V.B. Ancient Rome M., 2007
.Nikolaev D.V. Culture of the Ancient World. - St. Petersburg, 2010
.Yarkho V.N. Ancient culture - M., 1995.
Tutoring
Need help studying a topic?
Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.
is amazing. Almost 3000 years of eventful history of the Roman lands have more than adorned the city with masterpiece architecture of varying degrees of antiquity and importance, different styles and directions of architecture. From the ruins of ancient walls, arches and temples to twentieth-century buildings, for example the construction of Termini Station. In the capital of Italy, at almost any step you can admire the harmonious and sophisticated architecture of Rome in the implementation of artistic ideas.
It is not at all easy to find out in detail the dates of construction of many buildings in the architecture of Rome - and is it even necessary to find out encyclopedic reliability in this case; since feelings often prevail over reason. But even the most poorly prepared traveler in world history can distinguish between an ancient Roman temple and a Christian basilica: there are pagan chic porticoes, columns and passages, here there is ascetic modesty of lines and an emphasis on the spiritual at the expense of the physical.
The architecture of Rome is a reflection of the main historical and cultural periods in the formation of the capital of Rome. In general, the historical architecture of Rome can be divided into a number of large time groups: ancient buildings, Middle Ages, Renaissance and modern buildings.
Architecture of Rome: Antiquity
Monuments of ancient architecture of Rome are almost the main reason for the interest of international groups of travelers, who every year take in Roman sights with almost an onslaught.
The Palatine Hill is the site of the emergence of Rome as a city - their greatest concentration per unit area. The Roman Forum and Colosseum, the Baths of Caracalla, circuses and amphitheatres, pagan altars of Saturn and Vulcan, the arches of Septimius Severus and Constantine, many temples and ruins of residential areas with amazing mosaics - this is only a small part of ancient architecture.
Connoisseurs of Christian antiquity will be delighted with a visit to the churches of Santa Constanza and San Clemente. And also from the dungeons of the Church of St. Agnes, in which the pioneers of the new religion hid from imperial persecution.
The symbol of Rome and Italy in general, acquired its current name because of the gigantic statue of the madman Nero (“colossus”) placed in front of it, but it was originally famous as the Flavian Amphitheater. Built in the first century, the amphitheater became the largest building for mass entertainment on the territory of the entire Roman Empire. The diameters of the oval structure are 156 and 188 m, the height is almost 50! It is no wonder that such open spaces could accommodate more than 50,000 Romans who wanted to see the spectacle.
Architecture of Rome: Colosseum The Colosseum survived, in fact, not flawlessly. The violent history of the region predisposed the building to accelerated deterioration (by the way, the first Roman amphitheater in the world to be preserved is located in the Tunisian El-Jem; it often plays the role of the Colosseum in cinema), but the former greatness has not disappeared: here, with their mouths open, travelers stand in front of enfilades of arches, the last of which disappears somewhere high in the sky.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to the Colosseum, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
The legendary architecture of Rome includes the Roman Forum - at one time the central market, and now a square that fills the center of the ancient part of the city. It is the epicenter of the social and political life of Roman citizens. It is from there that the current meaning of the word “forum” originates.
It must be borne in mind that the Forum is not the easiest example of Roman architecture to understand. The many ruins here look so much like ruins that even the imagination is helplessly silent. Therefore, you should be prepared that only the most knowledgeable or persistent will be able to fully admire the ancient architecture of Rome. As a result, you need to keep in mind that in the summer the sun burns mercilessly here.
At first there were pagan sanctuaries near the forum. With the collapse of the empire, it lost its social significance and was practically overgrown with weeds, until Christians began to build their temples on it. In the 19th and 20th centuries, archaeological excavations began here, as a result of which the forum acquired modern cultural significance.
Currently, the forum concentrates near itself many ancient architectural artifacts, for example, the Sacred Road, the Capitol, the Temple of Saturn, etc. You can approach it from Foli Imperiali street or from the Capitol, bypassing the Capitoline descent from Foro Romano street. Another road to the forum passes through the Temple of Concord, the Portico of the Blessing Gods, and the Mamertine Prison, which also makes it possible to get acquainted with these monuments of ancient architecture of Rome.
Baths of Caracalla
The bathhouse, something not at all alien to Russian people, was quite popular in Ancient Rome. But the ancient Roman baths-saunas were called differently - thermal baths. They went there to warm up, swim, and at the same time talk, sort out business issues, and find suitable partners for their ancient Roman business.
The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD under an emperor who ruled under the name of Septimius Bassianus, but most famous, as is often the case with Roman emperors, by the nickname Caracalla, preserved by historians.
It is amazing that the large-scale, grandiose and luxurious construction of the Baths of Caracalla in its functionality was “only” public baths, which promised the visitor, however, many hours of varied relaxation, both bathing and swimming, and sports, and also intellectual. It was a huge public building, stunning in its dimensions and luxury of decoration. One can insist that the Baths of Caracalla are as majestic and monumental as the Colosseum or the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to the Baths of Caracalla, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
Middle Ages
The not very prosperous Middle Ages both significantly worsened the appearance of the Eternal City during the Vandal invasions, and presented a number of attractions to the architecture of Rome. One of the most famous is the Castel Sant'Angelo on the western bank of the Tiber. Feudal turrets, loopholes and halls with high dark ceilings, combined with powerful battlements of literally impenetrable fortress walls, give a clear idea of the troubled life in those times.
It makes sense to visit the temple of Santa Maria sopra Minerva: its façade may have been restored in the 19th century, but the original medieval style of architecture in Rome has been carefully preserved. It makes sense to visit the temple of Santa Maria del Anima, built at the end of the 14th century for the needs of pilgrims in Rome.
Architecture of Rome: Castel Sant'Angelo
The unique architecture of Rome is the Castel Sant'Angelo. Construction of the Castel Sant'Angelo began in Rome in 135. Over its almost 2,000-year history, it was remodeled more than once and was used as a castle itself, and was also a tomb, the residence of popes, a storage room and, of course, a dungeon. Now in the Castle of St. Angel there is a Military History Museum, where travelers can see the Secret Archive, the Hall of Treasures, the Papal Apartments, the Loggia of Paul III, the Hall of Clement VII, the courtyard of Alexander VI and many other things - more than 50 rooms that form a real labyrinth!
The building acquired its name in 590, when, during the plague, Pope Gregory the Great saw a vision in which the Archangel Michael was sheathing his sword on the roof. This meant that the raging disaster had come to an end. It was after this that the fortress began to be called the Castle of the Holy Angel.
Renaissance
Much of the architecture of Rome that can currently be seen is related to the Renaissance period - the restoration of classical canons of harmony after the gloomy Middle Ages. By the way, Rome should be grateful to the city planners of the Renaissance for the comfortable radial arrangement of the streets. Among the buildings of this period, most attention is drawn to the architectural dominant of Rome - St. Peter's Cathedral and the Sistine Chapel, as well as many secondary churches and temples.
It is worth paying attention to the graceful domes of Renaissance buildings going up: a number of them (for example, the highest point in Rome - the dome of St. Peter's Basilica) can be climbed and through this you can take in a bird's eye view both historical Rome and the luxurious decoration of the interior of the cathedral . Well, at the end of the Renaissance, Baroque blossoms in the architecture of Rome, with all its ornate bas-reliefs, rounded marble Cupids and tropical gypsum flora. For baroque sensations, you should go to it with its three luxurious fountains, and you should not miss the colonnade of St. Peter's Basilica.
The heart of the Vatican and the entire Catholic community, St. Peter's Basilica is one of the main architectural landmarks of Rome. Here you can take a bird's eye view of ancient Rome, admire the interior of the cathedral from the top of the dome, attend mass and even be blessed by the pontiff.
St. Peter's Cathedral is, without embellishment, history itself, realized in stone.
The list of famous people who in one way or another had a hand in its architecture and interior will fill more than one page, and within its walls the fate of the whole world, states and peoples was decided. The history of the cathedral dates back to the 4th century with the construction of a simple basilica over the supposed burial place of the Apostle Peter. Until the 15th century, the structure was nothing special. And so in 1506, by papal order, it was planned to transform the basilica into a monumental cathedral, the center of Catholicism and a symbol of the power of the pontiff.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to St. Peter's Basilica, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
Modern architecture of Rome
Modern Roman architecture also abounds in Rome, due in no small part to construction during the time of Italian fascism and the rule of Mussolini. As part of the revival of the idea of a great Rome and great Romans, the architecture of Rome at that time came out pompous, pretentious, bulky and harsh.
Most of it is concentrated on the western bank of the Tiber River and in the Prati region. One example of the architecture of Rome at the beginning of the 20th century is the Palace of Justice.
But among the ponderous new imperial buildings there are also genuine masterpieces, for example, the modernist building of Termini Station, completed in 1950, with a travertine facade and metal panel inserts, a symbol of modern, energetic Rome.
The Palace of Justice is one of the most famous architectural landmarks of Rome and Italy in general. Currently, the building is the seat of the Supreme Court of Cassation, it is located in the Prati district, near the Castel Sant'Angelo. One of its main strong features is its exterior: many decorative elements in the form of sculptures and stucco moldings are concentrated on the castle. When visiting Rome, you should definitely look at this amazing structure.
The construction of the castle began on March 14, 1888. During its construction, Giuseppe Zanarrdelli, keeper of the state seal, was present. It was he who advocated that the Palace be built in the Prati region. At that time, there were already judicial institutions in that part of Rome, but the Palace of Justice became the largest of them. For construction, platforms were needed that were made of concrete. During construction, excavations were carried out and many sarcophagi were found.
Tours of Rome with locals Drimsim is a universal international SIM card and free travel app. Best prices, fast internet and calls all over the world.
The architecture of Ancient Rome is a logical continuation of the architecture of the Ancient Greeks. The first large buildings in Rome were made in the Etruscan style, therefore Roman architecture from the very beginning adopted the most important form of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch, that is, a semicircular stone covering thrown from one abutment to another, and folded so that the sides touch each other The individual stones that make it up are located in the direction of the radii of the circle, are held by their mutual thrust and transmit the total pressure to one and the other abutment.
The use of this architectural form gave the Romans the opportunity to give great variety to their structures, to erect huge buildings, to impart large size and spaciousness to interior spaces, and to boldly build one floor above another.
Columns were no longer suitable for supporting heavy arches, vaults and domes; the Romans replaced them with massive walls and pilasters, and the column acquired decorative significance. Although sometimes, as for example in porticos leading into a building, it continues to be used in the same way as in Greece.
As for the style of columns, the Romans did not invent anything of their own in this regard: they took ready-made Greek styles and only modified them to their taste. Thus, four orders were formed: 1) Roman Doric, 2) Roman Ionic, 3) Roman Corinthian and 4) Composite.
In addition, the Romans came up with an even more magnificent style, combining details of Corinthian and Ionic capitals in the capitals of its columns, namely, placing a horizontal volute of the second above the acanthus leaves of the first. Thus, a style emerged that was given the name “Roman” or “composite”.
During the period lasting from the middle of the 2nd century. before the fall of republican rule (i.e., until 31 BC), was marked by the appearance of the first marble temples in Rome. The temples began to look more like Greek ones, although they always retained some differences from them. The Roman temple of this and subsequent eras usually consisted of one cella of an oblong, quadrangular shape, standing on a high foundation, and to which a staircase led only from one, short, front side.
Along with similar sanctuaries of the Greek type, the Romans built, in honor of certain deities, round temples, which were their own invention, introducing into them, however, many Greek elements.
Roman forum The most brilliant period in the history of Roman architecture begins with the seizure of sovereignty over the republic by Augustus and continues until the death of Emperor Hadrian, that is, until 138 AD. ( , Mausoleum of Augustus, K )
Under Domitian, Rome was decorated with triumphal gates, perpetuating the memory of Titus’ victories over the Jews and his devastation of Jerusalem - a structure that is curious especially because in it we see for the first time a completely defined, characteristic type of Roman triumphal arches, which were built before, but not with such proportionality of parts and with less decoration, and also because the half-columns adorning these gates represent the first known example of capitals in the composite style.
Fragment of the Arch of Titus In the last period of the history of Roman architecture (from 138 to 300), each emperor tried to leave a memory of some significant building. Antoninus the Pious builds the temple of Antoninus and Faustina in Rome; Marcus Aurelius - a column of his name, modeled after Trayanova; Septimius Severus - a heavy triumphal gate, burdened with architectural and sculptural decorations in imitation of the Arch of Titus, as well as a small, but harmonious in proportions and nobly beautiful in detail, the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli. Caracalla endows Rome with unusually extensive and luxurious public baths, Aurelian - a colossal temple of the Sun. Under Diocletian, baths were built that were even more spacious and magnificent than the baths of Caracalla, but which, in design and location, were only chipped from them.
Based on materials
It is generally accepted that the primitive buildings of Rome came from the Etruscan people, perhaps even erected by them. This was logically a continuation of the line of Greek architecture. The buildings of the Roman Empire retained the basis of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch. A circular arch is a rounded stone covering that connected the abutments to each other. This helped to arrange the stones in a radius circle for even pressure on them. By using new building techniques, the Romans were able to inject creativity into new buildings. New theoretical knowledge helped to build large temples and the ability to erect multi-story houses and buildings. In terms of the introduction of cross vaults and box vaults, the Romans succeeded over the Greeks and made more sophisticated buildings.
In order for the arches to stand securely, columns, which were previously popular, were no longer used. Roman architects began to build huge walls and pilasters, and columns became simply decorative decorations. This was used almost everywhere, but there were also buildings in which the use of columns was more appropriate. The styles of the columns remained virtually unchanged; the Romans settled on the standard Greek version.
In general, Roman architecture was directly dependent on the Greek trends in architecture. However, the Romans tried more to emphasize their strength and independence to intimidate and suppress foreign peoples. They spared no expense in decorating their buildings; each structure was magnificent and richly decorated. At the same time, from the architect’s point of view, they tried to make each structure exemplary. Mostly buildings were built for practical needs, but temples also occupied an important place among the buildings.
History of the architecture of Ancient Rome
As an independent branch of world art, the architecture of Ancient Rome took a very long time to form, around the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. Despite the fact that many buildings of those times have already crumbled, they continue to fascinate with their remains and individual elements. The Roman Empire was one of the great, if not the greatest, which laid the foundation for a new era. Public places of that time could accommodate tens of thousands of people (basilicas, amphitheaters, shopping markets), and there was always something to strive for. Religion also did not fade into the background; the list of building structures in Rome included temples, altars, and tombs.
Comparing with the whole world, even historians came to the conclusion that it was difficult or simply impossible to find equal rivals for the architecture of Rome and Roman engineering. Aqueducts, bridges, roads, fortresses, canals as architectural objects are only a small part of the list of what they used on all fronts. They changed the principles of ancient Greek architecture, primarily the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.
Great importance in the formation of Roman culture was given to the style of the Hellenes, who were supporters of architecture on a huge scale and the development of urban centers. But humanism and the ability to inherit the harmonious Greek style were omitted in Rome, giving preference to the exaltation of powerful emperors. They sharply emphasized the power of the army. Hence all the pathos, which was the basis of many decorations of buildings and structures.
The variety of structures and the general scale of buildings in Rome are much higher than in Greece. The construction of huge buildings became possible thanks to changes in the technical principles of construction. This is how new brick and concrete structures appear. They made it possible to cover large spans, speeding up the construction process. It was also important that with the use of such construction methods, professional craftsmen were increasingly abandoned, and slaves and unskilled workers were trusted. This significantly reduced construction costs.
Stages of development of Roman architecture
1st period
The stages of development of Roman architecture can be divided into 4 periods. The first and shortest begins from the founding of ancient Rome and ends in the 2nd century. BC e. This period is not rich in architectural monuments, and those that appeared were the heritage of the Etruscans. Almost everything that was built during this period was publicly accessible. It brought collective benefits to the settlements. This category included canals for cleansing the city of sewage, which through them fell into the Tiber. The Mamertine prison and the first basilicas can also be attributed to buildings that were useful.
II period
The second stage is usually called “Greek”. From the middle of the 2nd century, a serious influence of Greek architecture on Roman architecture began. Strong influence remained until the end of republican rule (31 BC). It is believed that at this time the first marble temples began to appear, replacing the usual types of stones and travertines. In their design they were very similar to the Greek ones, but the architects tried to make noticeable differences.
Roman temples throughout these years looked oblong with 4 corners. The foundation was usually high, with an attached staircase along the front side. Climbing the stairs, you find yourself next to the columns. Going a little deeper, there is a door that leads to the main hall. The main lighting comes through this door, so it is often open.
Along with such temples of the ancient Greek type, the Romans erected round-shaped temples in honor of the Gods. These were mainly their own ideas using Greek elements. One of these can be considered the Temple of Portunus; surrounded by 20 columns, this historical object has survived to this day. The cone-shaped marble roof is a good example of the Roman individual style.
The number of communities of buildings included not only buildings associated with religion, but also many others:
- Tabularium - a huge building designed to preserve archives;
- The wooden theater of Scaurus is one of the most interesting buildings of this period. Includes over three hundred marble columns and bronze statues, could accommodate 80,000 visitors;
- The first stone theater was built in honor of the goddess Venus.
All history about them disappeared with them. However, it is worth noting that using modern three-dimensional modeling technologies, it was proven that these structures were built very competently. For example, the “Stone Theater” was located in such a way that the stage faced the northeast. Since under Augustus traditionally performances and celebrations were held in the morning, all the sun's rays fell on the stage and not on the theater visitors.
III period
In terms of significance, the most effective period in the history of Roman architecture. The beginning is considered from the time of Augustus's accession to the republican throne and ends in 138 AD. e.
The technologies of the Romans began to actively use concrete. A new stage in the construction of basilicas, circuses, and libraries begins. Trials were held there to identify the best chariot riders. A new type of monumental art is gaining popularity - the triumphal arch. At the same time, the technology was constantly improved with the help of new constructions dedicated to new victories of the future empire.
Roman art was not as elegant as Greek structures, but the technical skill of construction remained at the highest level throughout the centuries. The Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of antiquity) and the Pantheon Temple (built in the name of the Gods) are famous throughout the world.
The introduction of Greek architectural features gained mass popularity and continued to spread to the western and northern regions of Europe. Most Greek architects became famous with the help of the Romans, who commissioned Greek copies that were better preserved than the originals. The Romans, unlike the Greeks, adhered to their concept of sculptural traditions. They made busts of their ancestors to show prototypes of their family. The Greeks used such sculptures as works of art in the home. This simplicity and bright individuality of Roman portrait art shows it from a new side for us.
Over the course of this period, all architectural structures go through stages of development, improvement and increase the level of majesty. Elements of luxury are widely used and for the first time the features of oriental art begin to creep in.
IV period
After Hadrian's departure from power, Roman architectural art quickly began its decline. All those decorations that were previously used begin to seem unnecessary and inappropriate, and their use is less and less correct. This period continues until the complete establishment of Christianity and the retreat of paganism into the background. The period of decline is characterized by the fact that every ruler wants to go down in history with the help of majestic buildings.
This period also continues to be distinguished by oriental elements, which are increasingly visible in architectural art. They begin to dominate the classics of the genre. Constructions under the last rulers of the empire in such remote areas of dominion as Syria and Arabia testify especially eloquently to this. This was noticeable in the change in the swelling of the roof surface and the abundance of unnecessary accessories. Often mysterious, fantastic forms were erected, which were considered symbols of the eastern direction of architecture.
The Greatness of Rome in the Temples
One of the first structures erected by Augustus, dedicated to the deified idol of Julius Caesar. Built in 29 BC. The temple was created in the modest style of the Ionic order. The site of Caesar's cremation was located separately. The decorated hall has designated places for speakers, which replaced the tribunal that existed here, concentrated for many years in the western part.
Altar of Peace
A monumental building of ancient Rome, which wrote into history the victory of Augustus over the Spaniards and Gauls. It was built in 13 BC. e. In appearance, it looked like a fence with right angles, 6 m high, in the center of which there was a step with an altar. Along the perimeter of the fence there were 2 through passages, through which one could approach the altar. On the opposite walls were depicted the processions of Augustus to offer sacrifice to the altar.
The monument embodied particles of all the cultures that preceded Roman architecture. By the type of construction one can judge the Italian style, and by the arrangement of the ornament on the bottoms and tops one can judge the Etruscan principles. The exquisite craftsmanship of the relief of the altar speaks of a strong Greek influence.
Temple of Mars Ultor
One of the largest temples in Rome. The width of the façade alone is about 35 m. The columns rise up to 18 m. The interior decoration was mainly made of marble with wooden ceilings. Having a solemn appearance inside, the temple evoked a feeling of delight among the people present in it. The date of creation of this historical monument is considered to be 2 BC. e. Greek elements can be traced in almost all stages of architecture.
Pantheon
The Pantheon Temple can be called a special place in Rome. The second name is “Temple of All Gods”. A lot of temples of ancient times were built by order of emperors, and the Pantheon was no exception. The Pantheon was dedicated primarily to the two gods Venus and Mars; they were considered the guardians of the Julian family. The building consisted of three parts, which were intertwined with each other. It was named after the architect who carried out the work, but it is believed that the Pantheon was his pseudonym. The Pantheon was built in 118-128, and over the years it was restored several times. Today, only a small part of it remains, which does not allow one to enjoy the full majesty of the temple of that period.
Ancient Rome sculpture
The monumental art of the ancient Romans was significantly inferior to the Greeks. The Romans never managed to create the greatest sculptural monuments and compete with the Greeks on these frontiers. But it was still possible to enrich plastic with its elements.
The best results were achieved in portrait art. The Roman people transferred their observation to every feature of man and his unique individuality. Ideal portraits were created, as well as portraits in which one could see the human negative and the realism of the artistic form. With the help of sculptures, they first launched propaganda for the culturalization of society. They built monuments to famous personalities and made structures of triumph.